SONIC LOGGING

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.0 APPLICATION 2.0 THEORY OF MEASUREMENT 2.1 Long Spaced Sonic tools 2.2 Array or Full Waveform Sonic tools 2.3 Dipole/Monopole Operation 2.4 Depth of Investigation and Vertical Resolution 3.0 CALIBRATION 4.0 LIMITATIONS AND PRESENTATION 4.1 Limitations 4.2 Operation 4.3 Presentation 5.0 TOOL COMBINATION 6.0 LQC AND CORRECTIONS 6.1 Log Quality Control 6.2 Environmental Corrections 6.3 Associated Mnemonics 6.4 Typical Log Readings 6.5 Interpretation 7.0 BACKGROUND THEORY/DEFINITIONS/EQUATIONS 8.0 ADDITIONAL READING

TOP 1.0 APPLICATION:

o o o o o o o

Porosity PHIS Volume of clay VS Lithology Time-depth relationship Reflection coefficients Mechanical properties VDL/CBL

By combining sonic and Checkshot data we can calibrate down hole log data with surface seismic data. Mechanical properties can be determined from the shear and compressional waves, fracture identification from shear and Stoneley waves and permeability indication from Stoneley waves. TOP 2.0 THEORY OF MEASUREMENT:

Transmitter emits sound waves into the formation and measures the time taken to detect at a receiver of known distance from the transmitter. The Sonic tool operates at 20 cycles per second as sounds similar to a pedestrian crossing at a set of traffic lights. The first arrival is the compressional or 'p' waves, which travel adjacent to the borehole as shown in Figure 1. It is this arrival that is used to measure the individual travel times T1, T2, T3, and T4. Two receivers for each transmitter eliminates the borehole signal. The transit time DT is computed from these travel times as shown in the equation below. This particular arrangement of sonic tool transmitters and receivers is known as the standard BHC Sonic tool and compensates for borehole washouts and also for tool tilting in real time while logging. DTLOG = [(T1 - T2) + (T3 - T4)] / 2 T1 and T3 travel times have a Tx-Rx spacing of 5 feet and T2 and T4 travel times have a Tx-Rx spacing of 3 feet. This results in a DT of 2 feet and is also the vertical resolution of the tool. The shear signal arrives next which usually has a slightly larger amplitude than the compressional arrival, then mud arrivals and Stoneley waves. The various arrivals in the received sonic signal can be seen in Figure 1. Stoneley waves are used to interpret the existence of fractures.

Figure 1: Borehole Compensated Sonic tool

2.1 Long Spaced Sonic tools

Long spaced sonic tools have a larger spacing between the transmitter and receiver. Tool spacing are 8ft-10ft and 10ft12ft. This allows a deeper depth of investigation and improves the tool response in larger boreholes or where mud invasion is affecting the standard tool. The DT measurement requires the 8ft-10ft signals to be memorized until the 10ft12ft signals are recorded and then a DT can be computed. This is known as Depth Derived Borehole Compensation or DDBHC. The long and short spaced sonic tools can be used in combination to identify swelling shales. 2.2 The Array or Full Waveform Sonic tools

Recent advances have seen the emergence of digital or array sonic tools where the entire waveform is digitally recorded for analysis of the individual arrivals. The amplitude as well as the travel time of the sonic signal can give important information about the formation. Included in the array sonic tool is eight receivers each measuring approximately 1/8th of the borehole. This allows eight independent measurements in each direction rather than an average of the borehole.

1. Full wave mode providing a full waveform analysis. Full wave recording in cased hole can produce a compressional Delta-T with comparable results to the open hole Delta-T measurement. The open hole DT should always be used in preference.

2. DDBHC mode where log spaced 8-10 and 10-12 foot or short spaced 3-5 and 5-7 foot logs can be recorded.

3. 6in Delta-T mode where 4 receivers record a long spaced transit time.

4. CBL/VDL mode to measure standard 3 and 5 foot cement bond logs in casing. Figure 2: Array Sonic Tool

2.3 Dipole/Monopole Operation The Schlumberger DSI tool or Dipole Shear Imager, generates monopole and dipole signals. The dipole signal is directional allowing the inclusion of a shear wave to be recorded in slow formations. The DSI tool generates compressional and shear waves from a 12kHz monopole signal, two orthogonal shear waves from 2.2kHz dipole signal and a Stoneley wave from 1-2kHz monopole signal. 2.4 Depth of Investigation and Vertical Resolution Schlumberger BHC Long Spaced BHC SDT 12 inches 12 inches

Depth of investigation 5 inches

Vertical resolution Halliburton Vertical resolution TOP 3.0 CALIBRATION:

24 inches 24 inches

36 inches

BHC Tool Long Spaced BHC Long Spaced FWST 12 inches 12 inches 24 inches 24 inches

Depth of investigation <3 inches < 8 inches

No calibration of measurement is performed for the sonic tool except that the transmitter receiver spacing should remain constant. A sonic reading of approx. 57us/ft (187us/m) should be observed in free pipe/casing regardless of size. A washed out bore hole should read 189us/ft (620us/m). TOP 4.0 LIMITATIONS/OPERATION/PRESENTATION: 4.1 Limitations The borehole must be fluid filled, preferably slightly salty, for acoustic coupling to exist. The sonic tool is usually run centered with centralizers above and below the transmitter receiver section, but if the hole size is > 16" it is run eccentered to overcome weak signal amplitudes. 4.2 Operation The Sonic tool has slots in the sonde body to reduce interference from the fast signal traveling along the sonde itself. This makes the sonde very flexible and the tool should always be made up or connected vertically at the well site to avoid excessive tool bending and flexing of the fragile internal electronics. Some logging companies insert the Sonic tool into an aluminum sleeve when it is lifted up the rig Vdoor from the catwalk for this same reason. In vertical boreholes 3 spring centralizers should be used to avoid the tool bowing and to keep the tool centralized. For deviated holes and holes greater than 16", 1.5" standoffs should be used instead and the tool run eccentered against the borehole wall. Standard BHC tools can be affected when zones are altered by borehole fluids. Long spaced sonic tools provide a deeper depth of investigation and are therefore preferred in larger boreholes or where mud invasion is affecting the standard tool. Cycle Skipping: The problem of cycle skipping occurs if a weak signal is received. The low amplitude first arrival may be skipped over and not detected. The subsequent arrival is usually larger and often detected instead, thus a cycle has been skipped showing a longer than true transit time. Cycle skipping occurs in washed out boreholes and unconsolidated formations. Road Noise: The problem of road noise can occur from tools dragging against the borehole wall. Road noise increases the background amplitude and as a result increases the possibility of detection before the first compressional arrival. Road noise creates a faster than true sonic transit time. Only slowing the logging speed can possibly reduce road noise. Recent advances in Sonic tools lock onto the compressional arrival within a window interval using computer software techniques. Faster noise arrivals are ignored and so are slower shear, mud and Stoneley arrivals.

Figure 3: Sonic cycle skipping and noise triggering Long Spacing Sonic Tools: A long spacing Sonic (which has longer spacing between transmitters and receivers) reads only slightly deeper into the formation but enough to be less affected by swelling shales. As a result the standard 3 and 5 foot spacing transit times will read slightly slower in swelling shales than the longer 9 and 11 foot spacing Figures 4 - 8 show examples of cycle skipping, noise and casing signal along with the corrected sonic longs

Figure 5: Figure 4: Raw Edited data (raw shown in figure 4) Figure 6: Raw

Figure 7: Edited data (raw shown in figure 6) Figure 8: Raw

4.3 Presentation

Presentation is usually 140-40 us/ft (or 500-100 us/m) across tracks 5 & 6

Figure 9: Typical Sonic log presentation

TOP 5.0 TOOL COMBINATIONS: The Sonic tool can be run alone but is usually run at the top of the Resistivity tool with the open hole Gamma Ray tool above the Sonic. The resistivity/sonic service is usually the first logging run since the string is cheaper, usually centered and has no radioactive sources. TOP 6.0 LQC/CORRECTIONS: 6.1 Log Quality Control To adequately prepare for the possibility of cycle skipping and/or road noise, each travel time (usually T1, T2, T3 and T4) should be monitored on a screen while logging so the threshold can be lowered to detect low amplitude arrivals but also raised to avoid detection of any road noise. If several transit times (usually DT, DTL, DTLF, DTLN or some variation of these) complement each other then an accurate DT measurement can be made. Corrections for tool tilting and borehole wash-out can be performed in real time with the standard BHC Sonic tools.

A sonic reading of approx. 57us/ft (187us/m) should be observed in the surface casing with no cement both before and after the logging run. 6.2 Environmental Corrections Computer editing of cycle skipping and noise effects is often necessary to obtain an accurate Sonic log. Click here to Digitising Road Noise and Cycle Skips from DT Borehole Effects: The presence of gas in the well will severely attenuate the sonic signal and may result in extensive cycle skipping. In altered or invaded zones, employment of a long spaced sonic tool will read deeper into the formation bypassing any swelling shales. Washed-out holes or caves attenuate the sonic signal resulting in cycle skips. Fractures significantly attenuate the shear and Stoneley waves.

6.3 Associated Mnemonics

Figure 10: Associated Mnemonics 6.4 Typical Log Readings

Figure 11a: Logging tool response to common minerals

Figure 11b: Logging tool response to common minerals

. Non Porous Solids . . . . . .

Material Anhydrite Calcite Dolomite Granite Gypsum Limestone Quartz Salt

Delta-T(us/ft) 50 49.7 43.5 50.7 52.6 47.6 52.9 66.6

. . Porous Rocks . . . Liquids . . . . Gases .

Steel Casing Limestone (5-20%) Sandstones (5-20%) Shales Water (pure) Water (100,000mg/L of NaCl) Water (200,000mg/L of NaCl) Petroleum Mud Hydrogen Methane

50 57.0 50.0-66.6 54.0 - 76.9 62.5 - 86.9 58.8 - 143.0 208 192.3 181.8 238.1 189 235.3 666.6

Water Saturated Dolomites (5-20%)

Sands (unconsolidated - 20-35%) 86.9 - 111.1

6.5 Interpretation

Hydrocarbons: It is generally considered that hydrocarbons have no significant effect on the Sonic transit time. Fractures/Vugs and Stoneley Analysis: The Sonic tool tends to ignore the effect of fractures or vugs, which result in secondary porosity. The Sonic tool therefore measures primary porosity only which is less than true total porosity if fractures or vugs exist. An increase in the permeability or in the number of fractures present will attenuate the Stoneley wave. Low frequency Stoneley waves are more sensitive to permeability and fractures. If a low pass 4kHz filter is applied to the sonic signal, the Compressional and shear waves are removed and the remaining Stoneley wave can be analyzed. Porosity Effects: The Sonic porosity is used for interpretation to complement the porosity measurements obtained from the Density and Neutron tools.

Wyllie Time Average (WTA): Sonic porosity is computed using the following Wyllie Time Average formulae. DTLOG = DTMA (1 - Cpf ) + DTFL Cpf or f = (PHIS) = (1/Cp)(DTLOG - DTMA) / (DTFL - DTMA) Where: PHIS = Sonic porosity DTMA = Transit time in 100% matrix DTLOG = Transit time of point of interest DTFL = Transit time in 100% fluid Cp = Compaction factor = 1 for hard rocks and = DTSH/100 in Figure 12: Shaly Formation If shales are present in the formation then arrangement of the Wyllie Time Average equation becomes: unconsolidated formations. Raymer-Hunt-Gardner (RHG): The RHG equation does not require a compaction factor and tends to fit porosities from cores and density neutron logs better than the WTA equation. The RHG equation is:

DTLOG = DTMA (1 - f - VSH) + DTFL f + DTSH VSH Thus a volume of shale VSH can also be computed from the Sonic log. Typical values for DTSH are 80-110 us/ft

PHI = (PHIS) = [(1-DTMA ) / DTLOG) * 0.69/Cp Vclay: Vcl = ( DTLOG - DTMA ) / ( DTCL - DTMA )

Figure 13a:

Figure 13b:

Figure 13c:

Porosity from sonic log Lithology from sonic vs neutron Lithology from sonic vs density TOP 7.0 BACKGROUND THEORY/DEFINITIONS/EQUATIONS Wave types

Compressional wave: also known as pressure wave, primary wave, longitudinal wave and dilational wave. This is an elastic body wave where particle motion is in the direction of energy propagation, particle motion can be described as irrotational, longitudinal, dilational and compressional. This is the conventional wave used in seismic exploration. VP = [ ( l + 2 m ) / r ]1/2 = [ {E ( 1 - s ) } / { r ( 1 - 2 s ) ( 1 + s ) }]1/2 Where; VP = P-wave velocity, l & m are Lame's constants, E is Young's modulus and s is Poisson's ratio.

Shear wave: also known as secondary wave, transverse wave, rotational wave, tangenta wave and equivolumnar wave. This is a body wave where particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation. The velocity of the type of wave is slower than that of a P-wave in the same medium. VS = [ m / r ]1/2 = [ {E / { 2 r ( 1 + s ) }]1/2 Where; VS = S-wave velocity, m is the shear modulus (zero in fluids), E is Young's modulus and s is Poisson's ratio.

Figure 14 Typical Sonic wave transmissions VP / VS = [ ( 0.5 - s ) / ( 1 - s ) ]1/2

Stoneley or Tude wave: Stoneley wave are a form of Rayleigh wave and are generally located at solid-fluid interfaces. Stoneley wave frequencies are far below those used in sonic logging. Stoneley waves are within the frequency range of VSP surveys and can be considered as coherent noise. Tude waves are defined a wave type that travels in a fluid filled borehole on the walls of the borehole and therefore they travel the direction of the axis of the borehole (1 degree of freedom). Tude waves can be analysed to provide information about the elastic properties and permeability of the surrounding formation.

Elastic Constants

o o o

Young's modulas (E) : E = ( D F / A ) / ( D L / L ) = m ( 3 l + 2 m ) / ( l + m ) Poissons ratio (s) : = ( D W / W ) / ( - D L / L ) = l / 2 ( l + m ) Bulk modulus (k) : = D P / ( D V / V ) = 1/3 ( 3 l + 2 m ) Where : D P = pressure change, V = volume, D V = volume change, D F / A = stress ( force per unit area), L = original length, D L = change in length, W = width, D W = change in width.

l & m are Lame's constants, they are defined as follows;

o o

Lame's constant m, also known as Shear modulus or rigidity modulus : m = ( D F / A ) / ( D L / L ) Lame's lambda constant l : k - (2 m / 3 ) Where : D F = shear (tangential) force, A = cross sectional area, L = distance between shear planes, D L = shear displacement.

Full waveform processing Through processing the shear and Stoneley wave information can be extracted from a digitally recorded sonic wave train. The DT is a measure of the time taken for the first arrival. This is the compressional wave arrival. The bottom of Figure-1 shows that the shear and Stoneley waves arrive after the compressional wave and are therefore not 'seen' by the DT measurement. An 'semblance algorithm' can be used to look at the shear or Stoneley wave of each recorded wave train. Once each type of wave has been found, the transit time DT shear and DT Stoneley can be measured. Full waveform processing is also capable of measuring a compressional DT after casing has been run in the well. The curve DTCO is computed in this case but the standard open hole Dt measurement should always be measured if possible. Computed sonic logs use a windows that is set for the compressional arrival (which is after the casing arrival), these software picked window can cause problems when the window is incorrectly positioned. When this occurs the data still looks good but the readings will be incorrect.

Figure 15a: Array Sonic Wave Train Figure 15b: Processed results TOP 8.0 ADDITIONAL READING 1. The influence of the borehole environment upon compressional Sonic logs M.Alberty, The Log Analyst, v.37, no 4, p30-44 1996 2. Seismic anisotropy and natural fractures from VSP and borehole Sonic tools W.E.Beckham, Geophysics, v61, no 2, p456-466, 1996 3. Hostile environment full-wave Sonic Logging permits fracture evaluation in high-temperature slimhole wells P.Boonen, S.Flowers Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 10p, 1996

4. The Concept of Acoustic Formation factor for More Accurate Porosity Determination From Sonic Transit Time Data The Log Analyst, January-February, 1988 5. Exploration Seismology, R. E. Sheriff, L. P. Geldart, Cambridge University Press, 1995 (Second edition), Ch 1 & 2. 6. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration Geophysics, R. E. Sheriff, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 1994 (Third edition).