Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Prof. M. Ramulu
M. Ramulu
M. Ramulu
Fracture Costs
Fracture Mechanics ensures the safety of engineering structures which may contain cracks or defects. Apart from ensuring the safety of human lives, this results in major financial savings. g In 1982 the United States estimated that the cost of fracture was of the order of 120 billion dollars per year , (4% of the gross national product).
Fracture Costs
M. Ramulu
M. Ramulu
Technology Transfer
The annual costs could be reduced by 30 billion dollars by implementing the best available practice, including fracture control, defect assessment inspection maintenance and assessment, inspection, repair strategies. Education and training of informed personnel are key aspects of the transfer of technology into industrial practice.
M. Ramulu 5
1/4/2012
M. Ramulu
M. Ramulu
Fracture Dominant Highly localized plasticity Significant defects are essentially macroscopic -Example Weld flaws Porosity Forging laps Fatigue and stress
9
Environment corrosive?
Temperature
10
M. Ramulu
12
1/4/2012
Ductile
Metal moves Plastic deformation before fracture Rough surface More energy absorbed before fracture
Brittle
Material cleaves Little/no plastic deformation before fracture Little energy absorbed before fracture
M. Ramulu
13
M. Ramulu
14
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Pre-industrial revolution Materials : timber, brick and mortar Arch shape dominated the engineering design. Compressively loaded structures are obviously stable. Example: Roman bridges, pyramids in Egypt Industrial Revolution Materials: iron and steel Build structures that carried tensile stresses Rupture of a molasses tank in Boston Jan 1919 2millions gallons of molasses were spilled 12 deaths, 40 injuries, massive property damage,several horses drowned. Similar failures in bridges and other structures
M. Ramulu 15
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Early Fracture Research
Leonardo da Vinci: measured the strength of iron wires and found that the strength varied inversely with wire length. C.E.Inglish(1913): Stresses in a plate due to the presence of cracks and sharp corners. corners Griffith (1920): Invoked the first law of thermodynamics to formulate a fracture theory based on a simple energy balance. Relation was established between the fracture stress and flaw size. Westergaard (1939): Analysis of bearing pressures and cracks
M. Ramulu 16
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Liberty ships(1943): 2700 liberty ships built during WW II 400 sustained fractures, of which 90 were serious. 20 total failure and half of them broke in two. two Investigations revealed that: the welds, which were produced by a semiskilled work force, contained crack-like flaw. Most of the fractures initiated on the deck at square hatch corners, where there was a local stress concentration.
M. Ramulu 17
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
The steel from which the Liberty ships were made had poor toughness, as measured by Charpy impact tests. The failures often occurred under conditions of low stresses which made them seemingly inexplicable. The investigations revealed that flaws and Stress Concentration factors were responsible.
M. Ramulu 18
1/4/2012
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Post-War Fracture Mechanics Research
G.R. Irwin ( 1948 ) and E.Orowan(1948) extended Griffith theory to metals N.F. Motto (1948) extended Griffith theory to rapid crack propagation A.A. Wells A A W ll (1955) f l fugelage failures in Comet jet aircraftsf il i C j i f fracture and fatigue G.R. Irwin ( 1956 ) developed the energy release rate concept (1957) crack tip stress and displacement fields solution M.L. Williams (1957) Crack tip stress distributions
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Post-War Fracture Mechanics Research P.C. Paris (1961) -Application of fracture mechanics to fatigue G.R. Irwin (1961)-crack tip plastic zones, correction to yielding D.s. Dugdale (1961)-G.I. Barenblatt (1961)-small scale yield J.R. Rice(1968)-J-integral J R Ri (1968) J i t l J.W. Hutchinson, J.R. Rice and G.F. Rosengren (1968)- related J-integral to crack tip stress fields in nonlinear materials. J.A. Bagley and J.D. Landes(1972)-experiments to measure J C.F. Shih and J.W. Hutchinson (1976)-Fully plastic solutions.
M. Ramulu
19
M. Ramulu
20
Brittle Failures
Examples Ships Great Molasses Flood 1918 WWII Liberty Ships Silver bridge-1960s Electric Towers-1990s Challenger Space Shuttle-1986 Commonalities Cold Weather Loud Noise Sudden Failure
Crack
M. Ramulu
21
M. Ramulu
22
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Occurrence of low stress fracture in high strength materials induced the development of fracture mechanics The object of fracture mechanics is to provide quantitative answers to specific problems concerning cracks in structures
M. Ramulu
23
M. Ramulu
24
1/4/2012
M. Ramulu
25
M. Ramulu
27
M. Ramulu
28
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Given this limitation, the engineer may have to assume that cracks will always exist and, as suggested by Fuchs and Stephens2, may choose to design a structure such that one of the following conditions applies: (i) The cracks never propagate -infinite life design , (ii) The cracks may grow, but so slowly that the finite life of the structure exceeds the desired life by a large margin -safe life design ,
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
(iii) The cracks may grow and if they do and an individual component fails it will not lead to a total collapse of the structure -fail safe design, (iv) The cracks will grow but regular inspection of critical components ensures removal well before the crack reaches a "critical" length -damage tolerant design
M. Ramulu
29
M. Ramulu
30
1/4/2012
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
A good understanding of fracture mechanics is required for all of these design methodologies.
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Infinite-life design: Unlimited safety is the oldest criterion the cracks never propagate, because g , g g , Design stress, Sd << fatigue strength, Se Examples: Engine valve springs Rail road axles
1. R.M. Caddell " Deformation and Fracture of Solids", Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jercy, (1980) 2. H.O. Fuchs, and R.I. Stephens, " Metal Fatigue in Engineering", Wiley, New York, (1980)
M. Ramulu
31
M. Ramulu
32
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Safe-life design: Finite life design the cracks may grow, but so slowly that the finite life of the structure exceeds the desired life by a large margin. This implies the Max. S, never occur during the life of a component or a structure Examples: Suspension spring, reverse gear, ball bearings, roller bearings, ---Auto Industry Jet engine design, landing gear----Aerospace Industry Pressure vessel design----------pressure vessel Industry
M. Ramulu 33
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Fail-safe design: Developed by Aircraft Engineers Weight of the aircraft and safety of the people + aircraft are the constraints Too high FS --Wt., too low FS--danger to the people Philosophy is that cracks may grow and if they do and an individual component fails it will not lead to a total collapse of the structure Multiple load paths, crack stoppers Examples: Air frame ( wings, fuselages, control surfaces) Engines are fail safe only in multiengine planes
M. Ramulu 34
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
Damage tolerant design: Refined fail-safe design philosophy Cracks will exist (processing or fatigue) and the cracks will grow but regular inspection of critical components ensures removal well before the crack reaches a "critical" length Uses Fracture Mechanics Approach to design pp g Looks for Materials with slow crack growth and high fracture toughness Examples: US Air force contracts ---damage tolerant design Pressure vessel Industry---Leak before break or burst
M. Ramulu 35
M. Ramulu
36
1/4/2012
L L
In presence of a crack of dimension a - mm, stress i intensity f i factor, K i the structural parameter is h l K = 1.12 max a , Failure or crack grow uncontrollably if K K IC W <
37
max
6WL , Failure occurs if max yield , BH 2 W must be small for fixed beam dimensions where max
BH 2 yield W < 6 SL
M. Ramulu
yield
S
BH 2 K IC 6 SL 1.12 a
where K
K IC S
38
M. Ramulu
M. Ramulu
39
M. Ramulu
40
Fracture Mechanics
1
KI K IC
1/S
M. Ramulu
41
M. Ramulu
max yield
42
1/4/2012
Scale effects:idealized illustration of the important length scales involved for cleavage crack growth in a relatively ductile polycrystalline metal. The relevant length scales range from that of the macroscale object to the atomic scale, including the various microstructural length scales in between that are associated with, for example, particles, grains, and defect structures
(a) The component scale; (b) the plastic zone governed by macroscopic continuum plastic flow; (c) the grain scale in a polycrystalline metal; (d ) the scale of discrete slip planes and of individual dislocations; and
The various relevant scales that may determine the response of a crack in a macroscopic component.
M. Ramulu
A Crack in a structure
Failure may occur
Crack size
Design strength
Residual strength
Cycles or Time
Cycles or Time
M. Ramulu
46
Summary
We have Discussed in this module briefly:
History of fracture Mechanics Failure Modes Fracture Mechanics and Design
M. Ramulu
47
M. Ramulu
48