2011

Physics lab report

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad

Waseem Akram (FA10-BPH-013/ISB) Submitted to: MS Zarqa Iqbal Dated: December 28, 2011

Physics lab report III

Page 2

Contents
The e/m experiment........................................................................................3 Meldes experiment.......................................................................................13
Diffraction of electrons in polycrystalline lattice17 Speed of light 29 Ionization potential of mercury ..54

Hysteresis in magnetic materials ..57 References 66

Physics lab report III

Page 3

Physics lab report III

Page 4

Objective:

The

The
em

experiment

emexperiment

In this experiment we investigate the motion of electrons in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. The electron's charge to mass ratio em is determined by measuring the radius of curvature of an electron's path in a uniform magnetic field of known strength.

Analysis of the e/m of the Specific charge of the Determinatoin measurement: The magnetic force F acting on a charged particle of charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field BElectron equationFm=qvB. Since the is given by the
m

electron beam in this experiment is perpendicular to the magnetic field, we have the following equation relating the magnitudes Fm, q, v, and B.

Fm = qvB
The electron is moving in a circular path of radius r, with the magnetic force being equal to the centripetal forcemv2r. We therefore have qvb=mv2r Or We denote magnitude of charge q of electron by e therefore em=U(Br) The electrons accelerated the accelerating V, gaining energy equal charge times accelerating Therefore the velocity of are through potential kinetic to their the potential. eU=12mv2 the qm = UBr the the the and have

Physics lab report III

Page 5

electrons therefore is v=2eU2m. Inserting this expression for v in the equation above we obtain: em=2U(Br)2.. (A) U=em.12.r2.k2.I2 (B) The magnetic field B generated by the pair of Helmholtz coils is proportional to current I i.e. BI B =k.I (i) Where k is the proportionality factor whose value can be found by using the following equation: k=04532nR. (ii) Where 0is the permeability constant of free space. It is the measure of the ability of a material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself. In other words, it is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic permeability is typically represented by the Greek letter0, whose value is defined to be exactly:
0 = 410-7 T.mA. (iii)

R is the radius of coil that is R=150mm and the winding factor n is the number of turns of coil that is n=130.

Apparatus:
A beam of electrons is accelerated

through a known potential difference, so the kinetic energy and therefore the velocity of the electrons is known. A pair of Helmholtz coils can produce a uniform magnetic field at right angles to the electron beam. This magnetic field then deflects the electron beam in a circular path. A unique feature of the e/m tube is that the socket rotates, allowing the electron beam to be oriented at any angle (from 0-

Physics lab report III

Page 6

90 degrees) with respect to the magnetic field produced by the Helmholtz coils. The vector nature of the magnetic force on moving charged particles can therefore be explored. A small permanent magnet can also be used to deflect the electron beam. The e/m apparatus also has deflection plates that can be used to demonstrate the effect of an electric field on the electron beam.

The em Tube:
The em tube of diameter 16cm is filled with hydrogen at approx. pressure of 1 Pa. It contains an electron gun and deflection plates. The electron beam leaves a visible trail in the tube, because some of the electrons collide with hydrogen atoms. The atoms are excited and then radiate visible light.

The heater heats the cathode, which emits electrons. The electrons are accelerated by a potential difference between the cathode and the anode. The grid is held positive with respect to the cathode and negative with respect to the anode. It helps to focus the electron beam.

The Helmholtz Coils:

The radius of the coils is equal to their separation. This geometry provides a highly uniform magnetic field near the center of the coils. The Helmholtz coils of the em apparatus have a radius and a separation of 150mm.
Physics lab report III Page 7

Each coil has 130 turns. Max current ls through the coils: 2 A Holder: Dimensions: 26 cm x 42 cm x 40 cm Multi-core cable with plug for connection to the fine beam tube Connecting panel with circuit diagram and 4-mm sockets Weight: 2 kg

Tube power supply 0...500 V:

Particularly suitable for supplying electron tubes and fine beam tube. Two mutually independent, continuously adjustable short-circuit proof DC voltages with extremely low ripple, additionally equipped with one floating, fixed-voltage output and one variable DC voltage for heating-voltage supply.

DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A:

Universal power supply, as constant voltage operation with current limiting and as constant current operation with voltage limiting, parallel working and series operation of several devices are possible.

Mirrored Scale:
A mirrored scale is attached to the back of the rear Helmholtz coil. It is illuminated when the heater of the electron gun is powered. By lining the electron beam up with its image in the mirrored scale, the radius of the beam path can be measured without parallax error.

Steel tape measure:

With automatic rewind; spring band steel Technical Data Length: 2 m/78 inches
Page 8

Physics lab report III

Metric scale: cm and mm graduation Imperial scale: 1 /16 graduation

Measuringem:
Procedure Power supplies and meters are connected to the front panel of the em apparatus as shown in the figure given below:

The power supplies are adjusted to the following levels: The power supplies are adjusted to the following levels: Electron Gun Heater Voltage: 6.3 V AC Acceleration Voltage: 150 to 300 V DC After the cathode has heated up, the electron beam emerges from the electron gun. Its path is curved by the field from the Helmholtz coils. The electron beam's path is parallel to the Helmholtz coils.

Carefully read the current to the Helmholtz coils from the ammeter and the acceleration voltage from the voltmeter in the picture below.

Physics lab report III

Page 9

Carefully measure the radius of the circular path of the electron beam. Look through the tube at the electron beam. Measure the radius of the path as you see it on both sides of the scale, and then average the results. (The markings on the scale are in units of cm.) Record your result in the table.

Table I
r =5.1 x 10 m
-2

Curr ent to coils I (A)

I2 (A2)

Acc Ma eler gne em atin tic =2 g fiel UB volt d r2 age B = U(V KI )

Percentage error %

Physics lab report III

Page 10

(T) 1.30 1.69 250 1.0 x 10-3 1.15 x 10-3 1.23 x 10-3 1.38 x 10-3 1.55 x 10-3 1.65 x 10-3

(As/k g) 1.9 x 1011 1.15 x 1011 1.23 x 1011 1.61 x 1011 1.44 x 1011 1.41 x 1011 3.4 %

1.48

2.19

300

1.1 %

1.60

2.56

350

1.0 %

1.79

3.20

400

8.0 %

1.99

3.96

450

18.1 %

2.12

4.49

500

19.8 %

Graphical presentation of the measuring results from above table:1) The current I vs. accelerating potential U graph:

Physics lab report III

Page 11

Fig 1 From fig 1we are able to find the value of i.e. the slope of resulting line through the origin by using the following formula:
=y2-y1x2-x1=U2-U1I22-I12 x1,y1=I22,U1=3.2,400 x2,y2=I22,U2=4.49,500 =77.5vA2 Finding emfrom Fig 1:

em=2r2k2=1.0021011Askg

2) The magnetic field B of the Helmholtz coils versus current coil I graph

(values are taken from the table I):

Fig 2 From fig 1we are able to find the value of i.e. the slope of resulting line through the origin by using the following formula:
k=y2-y1x2-x1=B2-B1I2-I1 x1,y1= I1,B1=1.48,1.15 x2,y2=I2,B2=1.99,155 k = 0.78mTA-1 (Value obtained from graph) k= 0.72 mTA-1 (Value obtained by calculation using equation (ii))

Physics lab report III

Page 12

3) The current I of the coils and inverse of the radius r

keeping the

accelerating potential U constant:

Table II
U = 415V Current to coils I (A) Radius of the beam r (m) 1/r (m1 ) Magn etic field B= KI (T) Percentage error
em =2 UBr 2

(As/ kg) 1.6 7x 101

1

1.93

4.75 x 10-2

21. 05

1.48 x 10-3

5.1 %

2.05

4.5 x 10-2

22. 22

1.58 x 10-3

1.6 4x 101
1

6.8 %

2.15

4.25 x 10-2

23. 52

1.65 x 10-3

1.6 8x 101
1

4.5 %

Physics lab report III

Page 13

2.35

3.9 x 10-2

25. 64

1.81 x 10-3

1.6 6x 101
1

5.6 %

2.50

3.7 x 10-2

27. 02

1.93 x 10-3

1.6 2x 101
1

7.9 %

slope=y2-y1x2-x1=r2-r1I2-I1=2.5mA

Physics lab report III

Page 14

Meldes Experiment
To determine the frequency of AC supply

Physics lab report III

Page 15

Meldes experiment
Objective:
In this experiment we determine the frequency of AC supply by using Meldes apparatus.

Apparatus:
AC supply

Pulley with stand Two small optical pins with stand Light string of about 2 meters Pan Weight box Meter scale

Theory:
Physics lab report III Page 16

Standing waves (Stationary waves) are produced by the interference of two travelling waves, both of which have the same wave length, speed and amplitude but travel in opposite directions through the same medium. The necessary conditions for the production of standing waves can be met in the case of stretched string by having waves setup by some vibrating body, reflected at the end of the string and then interfering with the incoming wave. A stretched string has many natural modes of vibration (three examples are shown below). If the string is fixed at both ends then there must be a node at each end. It may vibrate as a single segment, in which the length L of the string is equal to , the wavelength of the wave. It may also vibrate in two segments with a node at each end and one node in the middle; then the wavelength is equal to the length of the string. It may also vibrate with a larger integer number of segments. In every case, the length of the string equals some integer number of half wavelengths.

If we drive a stretched string at an arbitrary frequency, we will probably not see any particular mode; many modes will be mixed together. But, if the tension and the strings length are correctly adjusted to the frequency of the driving vibrator, one vibrational mode will occur at much greater amplitude than the other modes. For any wave with wavelength and frequency f, the speed v is: v=f .. (i) From above figure; L=2 or =2L Substituting the value of in (i) we have; f=v2L(ii) But the velocity in a stretched string is; v=T Where =ml m= mass of the string
Physics lab report III Page 17

l= length of the string Substituting the value of v in equation (ii), we have; f=12LT(A) Where; T = Mg M = mass of pan + mass added in the pan

Setup:
1. Measure the exact length of the string. Measure the mass of the string on a physical balance then calculate the linear density 0 (mass / length). 2. Measure the mass of the pan. 3. Clamp the pulley about 100cm apart from the string vibrator. Attach the string to the vibrating blade, run it over the pulley and hang the pan on the other side of the string. 4. Measure the distance from the knot where the string attaches to the string vibrator to the top of the pulley. This is distance L (it is not the total length of the string that we measured in step 1). 5. Connect the string vibrator to the AC power supply and turn it ON. 6. Adjust the tension T by adding or subtracting the mass in the pan. The tension should be so adjusted to achieve clean loop(s). 7. Note the mass that is added or subtracted from the pan. 8. One or more loops may be form in performing the experiment. 9. Calculate the length L of the one loop. 10. Substituting the length and mass in equation (A) the frequency of AC current can be found.

Observations and calculations:

1. Mass per unit length of string = 1.5 x 10-3 gm/cm 2. Mass of pan = 7.7 gm Mass in pan m2 (grams) Total mass M= m1+m2 Number of loops n Total length of n loops L (cm) Total length of one loop l = L/n
Page 18

Frequenc y of AC f (Hertz)

Physics lab report III

(grams) 20 50 100 27.7 57.7 107.7 1 2 1 47.5 135 92 47.5 67.5 92 44.76 45.40 45.43

Mean frequency = 45.19 hertz

Actual frequency = 50.0 hertz Percentage error = 9.3%

Physics lab report III

Page 19

Diffraction of Electron in a Polycrystalline lattice

Physics lab report III

Page 20

Diffraction of electrons in a polycrystalline lattice

To study the diffraction of electrons in a polycrystalline lattice

Objectives
Determination of wavelength of the electrons Verification of de Broglies equation Determination of lattice plane spacing of graphite

Introduction
Electron diffraction refers to the wave nature of electrons. However, from a technical or practical point of view, it may be regarded as a technique used to study matter by firing electrons at a sample and observing the resulting interference pattern. This phenomenon is commonly known as the wave-particle duality, which states that the behavior of a particle of matter (in this case the incident electron) can be described by a wave. For this reason, an electron can be regarded as a wave much like sound or water waves. Louis de Broglie suggested in 1924 that particles could have wave properties in addition to their familiar particle properties. He hypothesized that the wavelength of the particle is inversely proportional to its momentum:
= hp

Where;
= wavelength h = Plancks constant p = momentum of the particle Physics lab report III Page 21

In the present experiment the wave character of electrons is demonstrated by their diffraction at a polycrystalline graphite lattice (Debye-Scherrer Diffraction). From the electrons emitted by the hot cathode a small beam is singled out through a pin diagram. After passing through a focusing electro-optical system, the electrons are incident as sharply limited monochromatic beam on a polycrystalline graphite foil. The atoms of the graphite can be regarded as a space lattice which acts as a diffraction grating for the electrons. On the fluorescent screen appears a diffraction pattern of two concentric rings which are centered on the in diffracted electron beam. The diameter of the concentric rings changes with the wavelength and thus with the acceleration voltageU.

We know that Potential energy of electron = eU and the kinetic energy = 12mv2 Lets assume
eU= 12mv2

Multiplying and dividing by m on right side of equation, we get;

eU= 12m2v2m eU= 12p2m

It implies,
p= 2emU

We have the equation for the wavelength of particle;

= hp

Putting value of p in above equation, we get

Physics lab report III Page 22

= h2emU..(i)

In 1913, H.W. and W.L Bragg realized that the regular arrangement of atoms in a single crystal lattice can be understood as an array of lattice elements on a parallel lattice planes. When we expose such a crystal lattice to monochromatic X-Rays or mono-energetic electrons, and additionally assuming that those have a wave nature, then each element in a lattice plane acts as a scattering point, at which a spherical wavelet forms. According to Huygens Principle, these spherical wavelets are superposed to create a reflected wave front. In this model the wavelength remains unchanged with respect to the incident wave front, and the radiations directions which are perpendicular to the two wave fronts fulfill the condition angle of incidence = angle of reflection. For constructive interference the path difference of the waves
= 1+2=2dsin

Should be the integral multiples of the wavelength

2dsin=n n=1,2,3.(ii)

Where; d= lattice plane spacing =diffraction angle. This is called the Bragg Condition and the corresponding diffraction angle is known as glancing angle. In this experiment a poly crystallite material is used as diffraction object. This corresponds to a large number of small single crystallites which are irregularly arranged in space. As a result there are always some
Physics lab report III Page 23

crystals where the Bragg condition is satisfied for a given direction of incidence and wavelength. The reflections produced by these crystallites lie on a cones whose common axis is given by the direction of incidence. Concentric circles thus appear on a screen located perpendicularly to this axis. The lattice planes which are important for the electron diffraction pattern obtained with this setup possess the lattice plane spacing.
d1=2.13 x 10-10m d2=1.23 x 10-10m

We know that;
tan2= D2L

For extremely small angles

tan2=sin2=2sin

We get:
2sin= D2L

Substituting the value of 2sinin equation (ii) we get,

= dD2L.(iii)

Here;
D= L= d=

ring or circle diameter distance between graphite acting as diffraction grating and screen (fluorescent screen) lattice plane spacing

Equation equations (i) and(iii), we get

dD2L= h2emU D= 2Lhd2emx1U Physics lab report III Page 24

As 2Lhd2emterm is constant, so we get

D= k1U D1U

It means that the diameters D1and D2of the circles or rings formed on the fluorescent screen due to the diffraction of the electron beam by the graphite crystal lattice are a function of the accelerating potential or voltage Uthus allowing us to determine the lattice plane spacing d1 and d2.
Figure 2: Apparatus.

Apparatus
1.

Electron diffraction tube

To demonstrate the wave nature of electrons by diffraction on a polycrystalline graphite grid (Debye-Scherrer interference), observation of the interference rings on the light screen, confirmation of the de Broglie equation by determining the wavelength at different anode voltages, includes magnet for alignment, fastening on the tube stand.

Technical Data Electron gun: connection through the tube holder Filament (direct): 6.3 V/ 1.5 A
Page 25

Physics lab report III

Anode voltage: 2.5 ... 5 kV Distance between the lattice planes in the graphite: 123 pm, 213 pm Distance between graphite grid and light screen: 13.5 cm Diameter of the light screen: 90 mm Diameter of the glass bulb: 90 mm Overall length: 270 mm

1. Tube stand
The tube stand is for the fastening and reliable highcontact of an LD with electrical circuit for electron gun. Metallic base variable magnetic of Helmholtz coils, with simple setup in Helmholtz mechanical voltage electrical demonstration tube, self-focusing plate for the mounting of a pair imprinted scale for geometry.

Technical Data Connections: five 4 mm safety sockets Dimensions: 16 cm x 35 cm x 30 cm Weight: 2.3 kg

1. High-voltage power supply 10 kV

High voltage power supply is earth-free highvoltage source with center tap, continually adjustable or controllable via an external voltage, for electrostatic experiments, experiments on
Physics lab report III Page 26

radioactivity, as well as operation of spectral tubes, gas discharge tubes and field-emission microscope. With built-in high-voltage proof transformer for tapping a heating voltage (6.3 V/2 A) for electron tubes. The integrated 2 digit instrument permits display of the voltage present at any of the output sockets. Passive current limiting ensures that no dangerous contact voltages can occur.

Experimental Setup
Connect the cathode heating sockets F1 and F2 of the tube stand to the

output on the back of the high voltage power supply 10kV. Connect the sockets C (cathode cap) and X (focusing electrode) of the tube stand to the negative pole. Connect the socket A (anode) to the positive pole of the 5kV/2mA output of the high voltage power supply 10kV.

Physics lab report III

Page 27

 Ground the positive pole on the high voltage power supply 10kV.

Carrying out the Experiment

Physics lab report III Page 28

1. Apply an accelerating voltage U of value 5kV and observe the

diffraction pattern. There would be two rings present on the fluorescent screen.
2. Measure the diameters of both the rings with the help of scale, and

note down the both of them in the table. It is advisable to use Vernier caliper, however.
3. Go on decreasing the accelerating voltage/potential in fixed set of

decrements and note down the corresponding diameters of the corresponding circles formed. 4. Measure the distance between the graphite foil and the screen.

Observations and Calculation

L= distance between graphite foil and screen = 13.5 x 10-2m e = elementary charge = 1.602 x 10-19C m= Rest mass of electron = 9.109 x 10-31kg h= Plancks constant = 6.626 x 10-34J.s d1=2.13 x 10-10m d2=1.23 x 10-10m

Important Formulae:
theoretical=theoretical wavelength of electron = h2meU experimental= experimental wavelength of electron = dnDn2L;here n=1 and 2.

Physics lab report III

Page 29

a) Determination of wavelength of electron: Table

No of Obse rvati ons Accelerati Diameter ng of inner Potential/V circle oltage
U (kV) D1(cm)

Diameter of outer circle

Wavelengt h of electron forD1

1(m) 2.7210-11 2.3610-11 2.1210-11

Wavelengt h of electrons for D2

2(m) 3.0910-11 2.7510-11 2.1810-11

Theoretical wavelength of electrons

theoretical(m)

D2(cm)

1 2 3

3 3.5 4

3.2 3.0 2.7

6.8 5.0 4.8

2.23x10-11 2.0610-11 1.9310-11

4 5

4.5 5

2.6 2.4

4.4 4.2

2.0410-11

2.0210-11

1.8210-11

1.8910-11

1.9110-11

1.7310-11

Conclusion
It is evident form the graph that the diameters of the circle formed on the screen or the wavelength of the electrons produced is inversely proportional to the accelerating potential applied.

Precautions
Physics lab report III Page 30

 Circles should be observed from front. Sideways observations will give wrong readings. Vernier calipers may be used for accurate measurements. Cathode should be heated for uniform emission. Accelerating potential should not be more than 6kV. Apparatus should be switched off as soon as the experiment ends.

Speed of light
To Determine the Speed of Light Using the Classic Foucault Method

Physics lab report III

Page 31

Speed of light
Objective
In this experiment we determine the speed of light using complete speed of light apparatus.

Introduction
The velocity of light in free space is one of the most important and intriguing constants of nature. Whether the light comes from a laser on a desk top or from a star that is hurtling away at fantastic speeds, if we measure the velocity of light, we measure the same constant value. In more precise
Physics lab report III Page 32

terminology, the velocity of light is independent of the relative velocities of the light source. Furthermore, as Einstein first presented in his Special Theory of Relativity, the speed of light is critically important in some surprising ways. In particular: 1. The velocity of light establishes an upper limit to the velocity that may be imparted to any object. 2. Objects moving near the velocity of light follow a set of physical laws drastically different, not only from Newtons laws, but from the basic assumptions of human intuition.

A brief history about measuring the speed of light: 1. 1667 Galileo Galilei: at least 10 times faster than sound: LIGHT
In 1667, Galileo Galilei is often credited with being the first scientist to try to determine the speed of light. His method was quite simple. He and an assistant each had lamps which could be covered and uncovered at will. Galileo would uncover his lamp, and as soon as his assistant saw the light he would uncover his. By measuring the elapsed time until Galileo saw his assistant's light and knowing how far apart the lamps were, Galileo reasoned he should be able to determine the speed of the light. His conclusion: "If not instantaneous, it is extraordinarily rapid". Most likely he used a water clock, where the amount of water that empties from a container represents the amount of time that has passed. Galileo just deduced that light travels at least ten times faster than sound.

2. 1675 Ole Roemer: 200,000 Km/sec:

In 1675, the Danish astronomer Ole Roemer noticed, while observing Jupiter's moons that the times of the eclipses of the moons of Jupiter seemed to depend on the relative positions of Jupiter and Earth. If Earth was close to Jupiter, the orbits of her moons appeared to speed up. If Earth was far from Jupiter, they seemed to slow down. Reasoning that the moons orbital velocities should not be affected by their separation, he deduced that the apparent difference must be due to the extra time for light to travel when Earth was more distant from Jupiter. Using the commonly accepted value for the diameter of the Earth's orbit, he came to the conclusion that light must have traveled at 200,000 Km/s.

Physics lab report III

Page 33

3. 1728 James Bradley: 301,000 Km/s SPEED OF LIGHT

In 1728 James Bradley, an English physicist, estimated the speed of light in vacuum to be around 301,000 km/s. He used stellar aberration to calculate the speed of light. Stellar aberration causes the apparent position of stars to change due to the motion of Earth around the sun. Stellar aberration is approximately the ratio of the speed that the earth orbits the sun to the speed of light. He knew the speed of Earth around the sun and he could also measure this stellar aberration angle. These two facts enabled him to calculate the speed of light in vacuum.

4. 1849 Hippolyte Louis Fizeau: 313,300 Km/s:

A French physicist, Fizeau, shone a light between the teeth of a rapidly rotating toothed wheel. A mirror more than 5 miles away reflected the beam back through the same gap between the teeth of the wheel. There were over a hundred teeth in the wheel. The wheel rotated at hundreds of times a second; therefore a fraction of a second was easy to measure. By varying the speed of the wheel, it was possible to determine at what speed the wheel was spinning too fast for the light to pass through the gap between the teeth, to the mirror, and then back through the same gap. He knew how far the light traveled and the time it took. By dividing that distance by the time, he got the speed of light. Fizeau measured the speed of light to be 313,300 Km/s.

5. 1862 Leon Foucault 299,796 Km/s:

Another French physicist, Leon Foucault, used a similar method to Fizeau. He shone a light to a rotating mirror, then it bounced back to a remote fixed mirror and then back to the first rotating mirror. But because the first mirror was rotating, the light from the rotating mirror finally bounced back at an angle slightly different from the angle it initially hit the mirror with. By measuring this angle, it was possible to measure the speed of the light. Foucault continually increased the accuracy of this method over the years. His final measurement in 1862 determined that light traveled at 299,796 Km/s.

Physics lab report III

Page 34

299,792.458 km/s is the speed of light in vacuum But 1400 years ago it was stated in the Quran* (Koran, the book of Islam) that angels travel in one day the same distance that the moon travels in 1000 lunar years, that is, 12000 Lunar Orbits / Earth Day. Outside gravitational fields 12000 Lunar Orbits / Earth Day turned out to be the known speed of light! Did you know?

Sunlight takes about 8 to reach the Earth (based distance)

minutes, 19 seconds on the average

*reference given at the last page

Physics lab report III

Page 35

Apparatus:
Below is the complete apparatus for measuring the speed of light.

1. Advanced Optics 1 m Optics Bench This one-meter-long Optics Bench is guaranteed straight to within 0.25 mm over its entire length. The bench is made of extruded aluminum and includes a built-in metric scale, four leveling screws and a magnetic surface for mounting instruments and component holders. An alignment rail ensures easy and accurate alignment of components.

2. Advanced Optics Laser Alignment Bench This Laser Alignment Bench connects to the Optics Bench with the included couplers. It leaves the full

Physics lab report III

Page 36

one-meter length of the Optics Bench free for experimental work.

3. Advanced Optics Double Convex Lens (48 mm) This ground-glass lens is mounted in recessed plastic holder to protect the optical surface.

4. Advanced Optics Plano Convex Lens (252 mm) This ground-glass lens is mounted in a recessed plastic holder to protect the optical surface.

5. Advanced Optics Calibrated Polarizer The Calibrated Polarizer (HN-32), a Complete Speed of Light Apparatus component, is calibrated in 2 degree increments.

6. High Speed Rotating Mirror The High Speed Rotating Mirror comes with its own power supply and digital display. The mirror is flat to within 1/4 wavelength. Its supported by high speed ball bearings, mounted in a protective housing, and driven by a DC motor with a drive belt. A plastic lock-screw lets you hold the mirror in place during the alignment procedure.
Physics lab report III Page 37

An optical detector and the digital display provide measurements of mirror rotation to within 0.1% or 1 rev/ sec. The display and the controls for mirror rotation are on the front panel of the power supply. Rotation is reversible and the rate is continuously variable from 100 to 1,000rev/sec. In addition, holding down the MAX REV/SEC button will bring the rotation speed quickly to its maximum value at approximately 1,500rev/sec.

7. Advanced Optics Mini Laser with Bracket

It includes a mounting bracket that attaches to the magnetic optics bench and permits adjustment of the laser beam in the X and Y Axes. The aperture has a 15.8 mm (5/8") receptacle for mounting beam spreaders or spatial filters. An AC adapter is included, or the unit can be powered with any power source providing 0. 7 A at 12 VDC.

Determine the Speed of Light Using the Classic Foucault Method:

Measurement of the velocity of light by means of the rotary mirror method utilizes a concept first proposed by L. Foucault in 1850 and perfected by A. A. Michelson in 1878. In the variation utilized here, a laser beam is deviated into a fixed end mirror located next to the light source via a rotating mirror set up at a distance of a =12.1 m. The end mirror reflects the light so that it returns along the same path when the rotary mirror is at rest. Part of the returning light is imaged on a scale using a beam divider. A lens with f = 5 m images the light source on the end mirror and focuses the image of the light source from the mirror on the scale. The main beam between the lens and

Physics lab report III

Page 38

the end mirror is parallel to the axis of the lens, as the rotary mirror is set up in the focal point of the lens.

Figure 1: Diagram of the Foucault Method

Qualitative Description In this experiment, you will use a method for measuring the speed of light that is basically the same as that developed by Foucault in 1862. A diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Figure 1, above. With all the equipment properly aligned and with the rotating mirror stationary, the optical path is as follows. The parallel beam of light from the laser is focused to a point image at point s by lens L1. Lens L2 is positioned so that the image point at s is reflected from the rotating mirror MR, and is focused onto the fixed, spherical mirror MF. MF reflects the light back along the same path to again focus the image at point s. In order that the reflected point image can be viewed through the microscope, a beam splitter is placed in the optical path, so a reflected image of the returning light is also formed at point s. Now, suppose MR is rotated slightly so that the reflected beam strikes MF at a different point. Because of the spherical shape of MF, the beam will still be reflected directly back toward MR. The return image of the source point will still be formed at points s and s. The only significant difference in rotating
Physics lab report III Page 39

MR by a slight amount is that the point of reflection on MF changes. Now imagine that MR is rotating continuously at a very high speed. In this case, the return image of the source point will no longer be formed at points s and s. This is because, with MR rotating, a light pulse that travels from MR to MF and back finds MR at a different angle when it returns than when it was first reflected. As will be shown in the following derivation, by measuring the displacement of the image point caused by the rotation of MR, the velocity of light can be determined. Quantitative Description In order to use the Foucault method to measure the speed of light, its necessary to determine a precise relationship between the speed of light and the displacement of the image point. Of course, other variables of the experimental setup also affect the displacement. These include:

Rate of rotation of MR Distance between MR and MF Magnification of L2, which depends on the focal length of L2 and also on the distances between L2, L1, and MF.

Each of these variables will show up in the final expression that we derive for the speed of light.

To begin the derivation, consider a beam of light leaving the laser. It follows the path described in the qualitative description above. That is, first the beam is focused to a point at s, and then reflected from MR to MF, and back to MR. The beam then returns through the beam splitter, and is refocused to a point at point s, where it can be viewed through the microscope. This beam of light is reflected from a particular point on MF. As the first step in the derivation, we must determine how the point of reflection on MF relates to the rotational angle of MR.

Physics lab report III

Page 40

Figure 2a shows the path of the beam of light, from the laser to MF, when MR is at an angle q. In this case, the angle of incidence of the light path as it strikes MR is also and, since the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, the angle between the incident and reflected rays is just 2 . As shown in the diagram, the pulse of light strikes MF at a point that we have labeled S. Figure 2b shows the path of the pulse of light if it leaves the laser at a slightly later time, when MR is at an angle 1 = + . The angle of incidence is now equal to 1 = + , so that the angle between the incident and reflected rays is just 2 1 = 2( + ). This time we label the point where the pulse strikes MF as S1. If we define D as the distance between MF and MR, then the distance between S and S1 can be calculated:

S1 - S = D (2

- 2 ) = D [2( + ) - 2 ] = 2D

(EQ1)

In the next step in the derivation, it is helpful to think of a single, very quick
Physics lab report III Page 41

pulse of light leaving the laser. Suppose MR is rotating and this pulse of light strikes MR when it is at angle , as in Figure 2a. The pulse will then be reflected to point S on MF. However, by the time the pulse returns to MR, MR will have rotated to a new angle, say angle 1. If MR had not been rotating, but had remained stationary, this returning pulse of light would be refocused at point s. Clearly, since MR is now in a different position, the light pulse will be refocused at a different point. We must now determine where that new point will be.

The situation is very much like that shown in Figure 2b, with one important difference: the beam of light that is returning to MR is coming from point S on MF, instead of from point S1. To make the situation simpler, it is convenient to remove the confusion of the rotating mirror and the beam splitter by looking at the virtual images of the beam path, as shown in Figure 3.

The critical geometry of the virtual images is the same as for the reflected images. Looking at the virtual images, the problem becomes a simple application of thin lens optics. With MR at angle 1, point S1 is on the focal axis of lens L2. Point S is in the focal plane of lens L2, but it is a distance S = S1 - S away from the focal axis. From thin lens theory, we know that an object of height S in the focal plane of L2 will be focused in the plane of point s with a height of (-i/o) S. Here i and o are the distances of the lens from the image and object, respectively, and the minus sign corresponds to the inversion of the image. As shown in Figure 3, reflection from the beam splitter forms a similar image of the same height.

Physics lab report III

Page 42

Figure 3: Analyzing the Virtual Images

Therefore, ignoring the minus sign since we arent concerned that the image is inverted, we can write an expression for the displacement ( s) of the image point:

(EQ2) A i s' = s = S = S D+B o

Combining equations 1 and 2, and noting that S = S1 - S, the displacement of the image point relates to the initial and secondary positions of MR by the formula:

(EQ3) s ' =
Physics lab report III

2 DA D+B
Page 43

The angle depends on the rotational velocity of MR and on the time it takes the light pulse to travel back and forth between the mirrors MR and MF, a distance of 2D. The equation for this relationship is:

(EQ4) = 1D c

Where c is the speed of light and is the rotational velocity of the mirror in radians per second. (2D/c is the time it takes the light pulse to travel from MR to MF and back.)

Using equation 4 in equation 3 gives:

(EQN 5) s ' = 4 AD c( D + B )
2

Equation 5 can be rearranged to provide our final equation for the speed of light:

Physics lab report III

Page 44

(EQN 6) c= 4 AD ( D + B ) s'
2

Where:

c = the speed of light

= the rotational velocity of the rotating mirror (MR)

A = the distance between lens L2 and lens L1, minus the focal length of L1

B = the distance between lens L2 and the rotating mirror (MR)

D = the distance between the rotating mirror (MR) and the fixed mirror (MF)

s = the displacement of the image point, as viewed through the microscope. (s = s1 s); where s is the position of the image point when the rotating mirror (MR) is stationary, and s1 is the position of the image point when the rotating mirror is rotating with angular velocity .)

Equation 6 was derived on the assumption that the image point is the result of a single, short pulse of light from the laser. But, looking back at equations 1-4, the displacement of the image point depends only on the difference in
Physics lab report III Page 45

the angular position of MR in the time it takes for the light to travel between the mirrors. The displacement does not depend on the specific mirror angles for any given pulse. If we think of the continuous laser beam as a series of infinitely small pulses, the image due to each pulse will be displaced by the same amount. All these images displaced by the same amount will, of course, result in a single image. By measuring the displacement of this image, the rate of rotation of MR, and the relevant distances between components, the speed of light can be measured.
EQUIPMENT SETUP

Figure 5: Equipment Alignment

IMPORTANT: Proper alignment is critical, not only for getting good results, but for getting any results at all. Please follow this alignment procedure carefully. Allow yourself about three hours to do it properly the first time. Once you have set up the equipment a few times, you may find that the alignment summary at the end of this section is a helpful guide.

For reference as you set up the equipment, Figure 5 shows the approximate positioning of the components with respect to the metric scale on the side of the Optics Bench. The exact placement of each component depends on the position of the Fixed Mirror (MF) and must be determined by following the
Physics lab report III Page 46

steps of the alignment procedure described below.

Figure 6: Placing Components Flush against the Fence for Proper Alignment

All component holders, the Measuring Microscope, and the Rotating Mirror Assembly should be mounted flush against the fence of the Optics Bench (Figure 6). This will insure that all components are mounted at right angles to the beam axis.

To Setup and Align the Equipment:

1. Place the Optics Bench on a flat, level surface. 2. Place the Laser, mounted on the Laser Alignment Bench, end-to-end with the Optics Bench, at the end corresponding to the 1-meter mark of the metric scale. 3. Use the Bench Couplers and the provided screws to connect the Optics Bench and the Laser Alignment Bench. Details are shown in Figure 7. Do not yet tighten the screws holding the Bench Couplers.

Physics lab report III

Page 47

Figure 7: Coupling the Optics Bench and the Laser Alignment Bench

Note that the leveling screws must be removed from the Optics Bench and from the Laser Alignment Bench to attach the Bench Couplers. Two of the removed leveling screws are then inserted into the threaded holes in the Bench Couplers and are used for leveling.

4. Mount the Rotating Mirror Assembly on the opposite end of the bench. Be sure the base of the assembly is flush against the fence of the Optics Bench and align the front edge of the base with the 17 cm mark on the metric scale of the Optics Bench (see Figure 8).
5. The laser must be aligned so the beam strikes the center of the Rotating

Mirror (MR). Two alignment jigs are provided for this purpose. Place one jig at each end of the Optics Bench as shown in Figure 8, with the edges flush against the fence of the bench. When properly placed, the holes in the jigs define a straight line that is parallel to the axis of the Optics Bench.

Physics lab report III

Page 48

Figure 8: Using the Alignment Jigs to Align the Laser

6. Turn on the Laser.

CAUTION: Do not look into the laser beam, either directly or as it reflects from either mirror. Also, when arranging the equipment, be sure the beam path does not traverse an area where someone might inadvertently look into the beam.

7. Adjust the position of the front of the laser so the beam passes directly through the hole in the first jig. (Use the two front leveling screws to adjust the height. Adjust the position of the laser on the Laser Alignment Bench to adjust the lateral position.) Then adjust the height and position of the rear of the laser so the beam passes directly through the hole in the second jig. 8. To fix the laser in position with respect to the Optics Bench, tighten the screws on the Bench Couplers. Then recheck the alignment of the laser.
9. Align the Rotating Mirror. MR must be aligned so that its axis of rotation is

vertical and also perpendicular to the laser beam. To accomplish this, remove the second alignment jig and then rotate MR so that the laser beam reflects back toward the hole in the first alignment jig (Figure 9). Be sure to use the reflective side of the mirror. It helps to tighten the locks crew on the rotating mirror assembly just enough so MR holds its position as you adjust its rotation.
Physics lab report III Page 49

Figure 9: Aligning the Rotating Mirror (MR)

If needed, use pieces of paper to shim between the Rotating Mirror Assembly and the Optics Bench so that the laser beam is reflected back through the hole in the first jig.

10.Remove the first alignment jig.

11. Mount the 48 mm focal length lens (L1) on the Optics Bench so that the

centerline of the Component Holder is aligned with the 93.0 cm mark on the metric scale of the bench. Without moving the Component Holder, slide L1 as needed on the holder to center the beam on MR (see Figure 10). Notice that L1 has spread the beam at the position of MR.

Physics lab report III

Page 50

Figure 10: Positioning and Aligning L1

12. Mount the 252 mm focal length lens (L2) on the Optics Bench so the

centerline of the Component Holder aligns with the 62.2 cm mark on the metric scale of the bench. As for L1 in step 11, adjust the position of L2 on the Component Holder so that the beam is again centered on MR. 13.Place the Measuring Microscope on the Optics Bench so that the left edge of the mounting stage is aligned with the 82.0 cm mark on the bench (see Figure 5). The lever that adjusts the tilt of the beam splitter should be on the same side as the metric scale of the Optics Bench. Position this lever so it points directly down. CAUTION: Do not look through the microscope until the polarizers have been placed between the laser and the beam splitter in step 19. The beam splitter will slightly alter the position of the laser beam. Readjust L2 on the Component Holder so the beam is again centered on MR.

14. Place the Fixed Mirror (MF) from 2 to 15 meters from MR, as shown in

Figure 11. The angle between the axis of the Optics Bench and a line from MR to MF should be approximately 12 degrees. (If it is greater than 20Physics lab report III Page 51

degrees, the reflected beam will be blocked by the Rotating Mirror enclosure.) Also be sure that MF is not on the same side of the optical bench as the micrometer knob, so you will be able to make the measurements without blocking the beam.

Figure 11: Positioning the Fixed Mirror (MF)

NOTE: Best results are obtained when MF is 10 to 15 meters from MR. See Notes on Accuracy near the end of the manual.

15. Position MR so the laser beam is reflected toward MF. Place a piece of

paper in the beam path and walk the beam toward MF, adjusting the rotation of MR as needed.
16. Adjust the position of MF so the beam strikes it approximately in the

center. Again, a piece of paper in the beam path will make the beam easier to see.
17. With a piece of paper still against the surface of MF, slide L2 back and

forth along the Optics Bench to focus the beam to the smallest possible point on MF.

Physics lab report III

Page 52

18. Adjust the two alignment screws on the back of MF so the beam is

reflected directly back to the center of MR. This step is best performed with two people: one adjusting MF, and one watching the beam position at MR.
19. Place the polarizers (attached to either side of a single Component

Holder) between the laser and L1. Begin with the polarizers at right angles to each other, than rotate one until the image in the microscope is bright enough to view comfortably.

If you cant find the point image there are several things you can try: Vary the tilt of the beam splitter slightly (no more than a few degrees) and turn the micrometer knob to vary the transverse position of the microscope until the image comes into view. Loosen the lock-screw on the microscope. As shown in Figure 13, remove the microscope and place a piece of tissue paper over the tube to locate the beam. Adjust the beam splitter angle and the micrometer knob to center the point image in the tube of the microscope.

Physics lab report III

Page 53

Figure 13: Looking for the Beam Image

Slide the Measuring Microscope a centimeter or so in either direction along the axis of the Optics Bench. Be sure that the Microscope stays flush against the fence of the Optics Bench. If this doesnt work, recheck the alignment, beginning with Step 1. 1. Bring the cross hairs of the microscope into focus by sliding the microscope eyepiece up and down. 2. Focus the microscope by loosening the lock-screw and sliding the scope up and down. If the apparatus is properly aligned, you will see the point image through the microscope. Focus until the image is as sharp as possible. IMPORTANT: In addition to the point image, you may also see some extraneous beam images resulting, for example, from reflection of the laser beam from L1. To be sure you are observing the right image point, place a piece of paper between MR and MF while you watch the image in the microscope. If the point does not disappear, it is not the correct image.

3. In addition to the point image, you may also see interference fringes

through the microscope (as well as the extraneous beam images mentioned above). These fringes cause no difficulty as long as the point image is clearly visible. However, the fringes and extraneous beam images can sometimes be removed without losing the point image. This is accomplished by turning L2 slightly askew, so it is no longer quite at a right angle to the beam axis (see Figure 12).

Physics lab report III

Page 54

Figure 12: Turning L2 Slightly Askew to Clean Up the Image

Alignment Summary

Figure 14: Equipment Alignment

This summary is for those who are familiar with the equipment and the experiment, and just need a quick reminder of the steps in the alignment procedure. If you have not successfully aligned the apparatus before, we recommend that you take the time to go through the detailed alignment procedure in the preceding section.

1. Align the laser so the laser beam strikes the center of MR (use the

alignment jigs). 2. Adjust the rotational axis of MR so it is perpendicular to the beam (i.e. as MR rotates, there must be a position at which it reflects the laser beam directly back into the laser aperture). 3. Insert L1 to focus the laser beam to a point. Adjust L1 so the beam is still centered on MR. 4. Insert L2 and adjust it so the beam is still centered on MR.
Physics lab report III Page 55

5. Place the Measuring Microscope in position and, again, be sure that the

beam is still centered on MR. CAUTION: Do not look through the microscope until the polarizers have been placed between the laser and the beam splitter.

6. Position MF at the chosen distance from MR (2 15 meters), so the

reflected image from MR strikes the center of MF.

7. Adjust the position of L2 to focus the beam to a point on MF. 8. Adjust MF so the beam is reflected directly back onto MR.

9. Insert the polarizers between the laser and the beam splitter. 10.Focus the microscope on the image point. 11.Remove polarizers.

Alignment Hints
Once you have the microscope focused, it may still be difficult to obtain a good spot. There may be several other lights visible in the microscope besides the spot reflected from the fixed mirror.

The most common of these are stray interference patterns. These are caused by multiple reflections from the surfaces of the lenses, and may be ignored. If necessary, you may be able to eliminate them by angling the lenses 1 2.

Physics lab report III

Page 56

Stray Spots are most often caused by reflections off the window of the rotating mirror housing. To determine which spot is the one you must measure, block the beam path between the rotating mirror and the fixed mirror. The relevant spot will disappear.

If the spot you need to measure is significantly off-center, you can move it by adjusting the angle of the beam splitter.

Another common problem is a spot that is stretched with no easily discernible maxima. Check first to make sure that this is the spot you need by blocking the beam path between the moving and fixed mirrors. If it is, then twist L2 slightly until the image coalesces into a single spot.

Physics lab report III

Page 57

Once the mirror begins to rotate, it is safe to look into the microscope without the polarizers. You will notice that your carefully aligned pattern has changed: now the entire field is covered with a random interference pattern, and there is a bright band down the center of the field. Ignore the interference pattern; theres nothing you can do about it anyway. The band is the image of the laser when, once each rotation, the mirror reflects it into the microscope beam splitter. This is also unavoidable.

Your actual spot will probably be just to one side of the bright band. You can check for it by blocking and unblocking the beam path between the rotating mirror and fixed mirror and watching to see what disappears.

If you aligned everything perfectly, the spot will be hidden by the bright band; in this case, make sure that you have a spot when the rotating mirror is fixed and is reflecting the laser to the fixed mirror. If you do have the correct spot under stationary conditions, then misalign the fixed mirror very slightly (0.004 or less) around the horizontal axis. This will bring the actual spot out from under the bright band.

PROCEDURE

Making the Measurement The speed of light measurement is made by rotating the mirror at high speeds and using the microscope and micrometer to measure the corresponding deflection of the image point. By rotating the mirror first in one direction, then in the opposite direction, the total beam deflection is doubled, thereby doubling the accuracy of the measurement.
Physics lab report III Page 58

Importantto Protect the Rotating Mirror Assembly: Before turning on the motor, be sure the lock screw for the rotating mirror is completely loosened, so the mirror rotates freely by hand. Whenever the speed of the motor is accelerated, the red LED on the front panel of the motor control box will light up. As the speed stabilizes, this light should go off. If it does not, turn off the motor. Something is interfering with the motor rotation. Check to be sure the lock-screw for MR is fully loosened. Never run the motor with the MAX REV/SEC button pushed for more than one minute at a time, and always allow about a minute between runs for the motor to cool off.
1. With the apparatus aligned and the beam image in sharp focus (see the

previous section), set the direction switch on the rotating mirror power supply to CW, and turn on the motor. If the image was not in sharp focus, adjust the microscope. You should also turn L2 slightly askew (about 1 2) to improve the image. To get the best image you may need to adjust the microscope and L2 several times. Let the motor warm up at about 600revolutions/sec for at least 3 minutes. 2. Slowly increase the speed of rotation. Notice how the beam deflection increases. 3. Use the ADJUST knob to bring the rotational speed up to about 1,000 revolutions/sec. Then push the MAX REV/SEC button and hold it down. When the rotation speed stabilizes, rotate the micrometer knob on the microscope to align the center of the beam image with the cross hair in the microscope that is perpendicular to the direction of deflection. Record the speed at which the motor is rotating, turn off the motor, and record the micrometer reading.

Physics lab report III

Page 59

Figure 15: Diagram of the Foucault Method

4. Reverse the direction of the mirror rotation by switching the direction switch on the power supply to CCW. Allow the mirror to come to a complete stop before reversing the direction. Then repeat your measurement as in step 3. NOTES: When reversing the direction of movement of the micrometer carriage, there will always be some movement of the micrometer knob before the carriage responds. Though this source of error is small, it can be eliminated. Just adjust the initial position of the micrometer stage so that you always turn the micrometer knob in the same direction as you adjust it. When the mirror is rotated at 1,000 rev/sec or more, the image point will widen in the direction of displacement. Position the microscope cross hair in the center of the resulting image. The micrometer on the Measuring Microscope is graduated in increments of 0.01 mm for the beam deflections. 1. The following equation was derived earlier in the manual:

Physics lab report III

Page 60

c=

4 AD 2 ( D + B ) s '

When adjusted to fit the parameters just measured, it becomes:

c=

8AD 2 (Re v / seccw + Re v / secccw ) ( D + B )(s 'cw s 'ccw )

Use this equation, along with the diagram in Figure 15, to calculate c, the speed of light. (To measure A, measure the distance between L1 and L2, then subtract the focal length of L1, 48 mm.)

Physics lab report III

Page 61

Ionization Potential of Mercury

Physics lab report III

Page 62

Ionization potential of mercury

Objective:
Ionization potential of mercury is designed to determine ionization of mercury.

Apparatus:
A micro-amp meter Volt meter Heater supply A continuously variable power supply

Theory:
The energy required detaching an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the ionization potential, or ionization energy. In a diode when cathode is heated, electrons are emitted which collect around it is known as space charge. In presence of space charge the relation between anode current and anode potential is represented by ChildLongmuir formula i.e.
Ia=AVa32

And a graph between log (Ia) and log (Va) is straight line. If, however, the diode contains some mercury vapor and the anode potential is increased to ionizing value of mercury, atoms are ionized by inelastic collision with electrons. Positive ions are thus formed the neutralizing the space charge. Now Child-Longmuir formula no longer holds and graph between log ( Ia) and log (Va) depart from straightness. Ionization potential of
Physics lab report III Page 63

mercury can be obtained from the point where the curve departs from straightness.

Procedure:
1. Insert the mercury diode tube in the tube holder provided on the apparatus and connect the lead on the top of tube. 2. Plug the apparatus to main supply 220V AC and let the tube be heated for some time. 3. Increase the anode voltage Va in regular steps and note corresponding value of anode current till the anode current till the anode current shoots up rapidly. 4. Plot a graph between Ia along the x-axis. The graph will be straight in the beginning but depart from straightness. Draw a parallel line to yaxis passing through the point where the curve departs from the straightness. The anode potential corresponding to the point where this line parallel to y-axis meets the x-axis gives the value of ionization of potential of mercury.

Observations and calculations:

No. of observations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Anode current Ia 3.8 5 6.5 8 10.4 12 13.5 Anode potential Va 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Log (Ia) 0.5797 0.6989 0.8129 0.9030 1.0170 1.0791 1.1303 Log (Va) 0 0.3010 0.4771 0.6020 0.6989 0.7781 0.8450

Physics lab report III

Page 64

Value of ionization potential of mercury from the graph=1.2860 V

Hysteresis in magnetic materials

Physics lab report III

Page 65

Hysteresis in Magnetic Materials

Objective:
The experiment illustrates the energy loses in a transformer by using hysteresis curves. The difference between B and H curve encountered in the lecture course is illustrated. You will: Use a hysteresis curve to measure the power loss of an iron core transformer For comparison, measure the loss for a ferrite core transformer Estimate the curie point for a ferrite

Magnetic Hysteresis:
In the context of magnetic materials, hysteresis refers to the following phenomenon: When a piece of un-magnetized iron is placed in solenoid which is carrying a current, the iron will become magnetized. If the current in solenoid is then reduced to zero, the iron will partly magnetized. In order to demagnetize the iron it is necessary to reverse the direction of current in the solenoid but if the current in the reverse direction is increased further, the iron will magnetize in the reverse direction. The lag or delay of a magnetic material known commonly as Magnetic Hysteresis, relates to the magnetization properties of a material by which it firstly becomes magnetized and then de-magnetized. We know that the magnetic flux generated by an electromagnetic coil is the amount of magnetic field or lines of force produced within a given area and that it is more commonly called "Flux Density". Given the symbol B with the unit of flux density being the Tesla, T. We also know that the magnetic strength of an electromagnet depends upon the number of turns of the coil, the current flowing through the coil or the type of core material being used, and if we
Physics lab report III Page 66

increase the current number of we can increase magnetic strength, symbol H. A hysteresis shows the

either or the turns the field

loop

relationship between the induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a" almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux remains in the material even though the magnetizing
Physics lab report III Page 67

force is zero. This is referred to as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost their alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve moves to point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove the residual magnetism from the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of the material. As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the loop. From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can be determined.
1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to

the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at point b on the hysteresis curve.)
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux

density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must

be applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of H at point c on the hysteresis curve.)
4. Permeability, - A property of a material that describes the ease

with which a magnetic flux is established in the component.

5. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows

to the establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in an electrical circuit.
Physics lab report III Page 68

Another model of small compass needle is available to demonstrate the magnetizing effects:

To distinguish between
(a) the magnetic field in the iron (i.e. the field due to solenoid plus the

field due to the magnetization of the iron), and

(b) The part of magnetic field created by the solenoid, it is useful to define

the magnetic field quantities: one is the magnetic field B the other is the auxiliary field H (discussed previously). These quantities are often referred to simply as the B field and the H field. If we wound a coil of N turns on an iron ring and pass a current I through the coil, the value of H in the iron can be found from the Amperes law:
H.dl=Ni

Giving,
H=Nil. (1)

Where: l = length of the iron ring (i.e. the length of dotted line in Fig A5-1)

Physics lab report III

Page 69

The value of H is proportional to i and N but does not depend on the state of magnetization of the iron. The iron itself produces a magnetic field which depends on the degree of alignment of magnetic dipoles in the iron setup by orbital and spinning electrons. The degree of alignment can be specified by a quantity known as magnetization, M. In an un-magnetized piece of iron, M=0, but the dipoles remain align over small regions in the iron known as magnetic domains. In an un-magnetized piece of iron, the domains are aligned in the random directions. The effect of applying an H field is to align some of the domains to produce a non-zero value of M. The total magnetic field in the iron is:
B=0H+M(2)

Where o is the permeability of free space, experimentally we can measure the B by winding a second coil on the iron core and measuring the emf induced in the coil when B changes with time. As the current i in figure A5-1 increases from zero, the magnetization M will increase from zero up to a certain value at which all the domains in the iron are perfectly aligned. Any further increase in i will have no effect on the value of M, and the iron is said to be saturated. A curve of the total B vs. the applied field H as H increases from zero is called a magnetization curve. A typical magnetization curve for iron is given in Fig. A5-2. Suppose we reach some arbitrary point (H0, B0) on the magnetization curve shown (dotted) in fig. A5-3, if we then decrease H to zero (by decreasing the current in the external coil), the iron will remain partly magnetized and there will be a residual field BR (see Fig A5-3). By reversing the current we can decrease B to zero at a value of H known as the coercive force, Hc.

Physics lab report III

Page 70

As H is made more negative, the iron magnetizes in the reverse direction and it will arrive at the point (-H0, -B0) when the reverse current is equal in magnitude to the initial forward current, a curve of B vs. H for a complete cycle of increasing and decreasing current is known as hysteresis curve. Various hysteresis curves are possible for a given specimen of iron, depending at which point on the magnetization curve the hysteresis curve is started.

Physics lab report III

Page 71

Apparatus:

The circuit shown in Fig.A5-4 can be used to display the hysteresis curves of an iron core transformer directly on an oscilloscope screen. The transformer consists of a primary coil of N1 = 100 turns and a secondary coil of N2 = 30 turns, both wound on an iron core. A high power oscillator is used to produce an alternating current i in the primary coil. The H field in the iron is related to the current by eqn. (1). The current is indicated on a peak-reading ammeter A, which indicates the amplitude of the current. The current amplitude can be varied by a gain control on the oscillator, and the alternating frequency can be varied from 1Hz to 30 kHz. The magnetic field B in the iron varies with time and induces a voltage:
vs= N2A dBdt..(3)

in the secondary coil, where A is the cross-sectional area of the iron. Since we need to measure B rather than dB/dt, we will integrate the voltage vs electronically. The basic principles of integrating circuits are described in the circuits and electronics notes. The battery operated integrator in Fig. A5-4 produces an output voltage vo which is related to the input voltage vs by:
v0= 1RCvsdt =N2ARCdBdtdt =N2ARCB..(4) Physics lab report III Page 72

Where R and C are the resistance and capacitance, respectively, of the components used in the integrating circuit; the integrator provided has R = 1M and a gain control switch to select either C = 0.01 F or C = 0.001 F. For uncertainty calculations, assume tolerances of 2% on R and C. Both B and vo will vary with time, but at all times:
B=RCN2Av0.(5) The output signal from the integrator is connected to the Y input of an oscilloscope to produce a vertical deflection of the oscilloscope trace. The vertical deflection formed on the oscilloscope screen depends on the applied voltage vo and on the VOLTS/CM setting on the oscilloscope, and is proportional to B. The ammeter used to measure the primary current has a resistance of RA = 5.0, so the voltage across the meter will be RAi. This voltage signal can be applied to the X input of the oscilloscope to produce a horizontal deflection of the oscilloscope trace proportional to i, and therefore to H.

When conducting the experiment, take care not to let the current rise above about 1.2A because the fuse in the ammeter will burn out. The oscilloscope trace will therefore deflect vertically by an amount proportional to B and horizontally by an amount proportional to H. As the current in the primary coil alternates between positive and negative values, a hysteresis curve (B vs. H) on the oscilloscope screen will automatically be traced out.

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit shown in Fig. A5-4. In this experiment we will use

an oscilloscope as an XY display to analyze the hysteresis curve. Set the coupling for each channel on the oscilloscope to DC. If your hysteresis curve appears backwards, reverse the leads connecting the transformer to the integrator. 2. Set the gain control switch on the integrator to C = 0.01 F and obtain a hysteresis curve at an oscillator frequency f = 50Hz. (If the curve on the oscilloscope display is highly distorted, then use the C = 0.001 F capacitor). Note that, as the amplitude of the primary current increases, the hysteresis curves grow in size. The extreme tips of the
Physics lab report III Page 73

curves lie on the magnetization curve (Fig A5-3). Record the coordinates (H0, B0) of the tips of the hysteresis curves for primary currents between 0.05A and 1.0A. The coordinates can initially be recorded in volts (corresponding to the Channel 1 and Channel 2 V/cm settings). Plot the magnetization curve (B0 vs. H0) on a linear graph, after converting your measured values to B (Tesla) and H (Amps metres1) units using eqn. (1) and eqn. (5). The dimensions of the iron core are = 125mm and A = 19mm 17.5mm, with uncertainties of 2% in both and A.
3. The ratio B0/0H0 = r for points along the magnetization curve is

called the relative permeability of the iron. For a vacuum, B = 0H (since M = 0), so r is the factor by which B is increased due to the presence of iron. Use your results to plot a graph of r vs. H and compare your results with those given in the bench notes. 4. For current amplitudes i = 0.1A and 1.0A, make graphs of the hysteresis curves observed on the oscilloscope, labeling the axes carefully in B and H units. Curves such as these are used in studying the behavior of transformers. The area of the hysteresis curve is important since it represents the work done in one hysteresis cycle per unit volume of iron. To prove this result, note that the current in the primary coil is i = H/N and the voltage across the primary coil is v = N1A (dB/dt). Since the power used is p = vi, and the work done in a small time dt is dW = p dt, the total work done in one complete cycle is:
W= pdt =NAdBdtHlNdt =VHdB

Here, V = A is the volume of the iron core and HdB is the area enclosed by the hysteresis curve (in units of H B). Estimate the area enclosed by the 0.1A hysteresis curve and hence estimate the power dissipated in the transformer at 50Hz. Power = (Area of curve) x (Volume of iron) x (Frequency)

Physics lab report III

Page 74

References
The e/m experiment:
http://www.ld-didactic.de/phk/produkte.asp?Overview=1&L=2 http://www.ld-didactic.de/phk/a.asp?a=555581&L=2 http://www.ld-didactic.de/phk/a.asp?a=555571&L=2

Diffraction of electron in polycrystalline lattice:

http://www.ld-didactic.de/phk/a.asp?a=555600&L=2

Speed of light experiment:

*http://www.speed-light.info/measure/speed_of_light_history.htm
http://www.pasco.com/prodCatalog/OS/OS-9262_basic-speed-of-lightapparatus/index.cfm http://www.pasco.com/prodCatalog/OS/OS-9262_basic-speed-of-lightapparatus/index.cfm#resources_widget_1_slider_1 Physics lab report III Page 75

http://www.pasco.com/prodCatalog/EX/EX-9932_speed-of-lightexperiment/#overview

Meldes experiment:
http://www.pasco.com/prodCatalog/WA/WA-9857_string-vibrator/ http://www.pasco.com/prodCatalog/WA/WA-9857_string-vibrator/#resources

Ionization potential of mercury:

http://www.indiamart.com/chandra-scientificindus/science-laboratoryequipment.html

Physics lab report III

Page 76