Andrew Canfield - Art of Ancient Rome Notes (Early, High and Late Empire)

Early Empire

- Murder of Julius Caesar on Ides of March 44 BCE caused Roman civil unrest - Octavian (Augustus) beat Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra - Mark Antony and Queen Cleopatra commit suicide, and in 30 BCE Egypt becomes part of the Roman Empire - The Pax Romana: the peace Augustus made that lasted for two centuries; brought about artistic growth - Art used for propaganda and to influence public opinion

Early Empire under Augustus and the Julio-Claudians (27 BCE - 68 CE)

- Augustus calls on Roman artists to produce images of a young head of state (before it was old heads of state) - Augustus' images made in the likeness of a godlike leader - *Portrait of Augustus as general: locaated at wife Livia's villa at Primaporta Significance: based closely on Polykleitos' Doryphoros + similar to Polykleitan style + designed to carry a political message - *Portrait bust of Livia: marble portrait Significance: imperial women of the Augustna age shared the emperor's eternal youthfulness + unblemished image is like Classical Greek goddesses -*Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace): a shrine celebrating Augustus' establishment of peace Significance: Connection b/w emperor and the relief of Aeneas in the altar was a key element of Augustus' political ideology for his new Golden Age + the second panel depicting a woman is symbolized as fruits of the Pax Augusta +

portrayal of windblown clothes during breezes + third panel has procession frieze of the Parthenon - *Forum of Augustus: Augustus constructed new forum next to Julius Caesar's forum; both made of white Carrara marble; reference to Periclean Athens - *Maison Carree: temple at Nimes, France Significance: the style in this temple is similar to Augustan style used in the Forum of Augustus - *Point-du-Gard: aqueduct-bridge in Nimes, France Significance: maintained height of water channel + the placement of larger and smaller arches revealed that Roman engineer had a keen aesthetic and practical sense - *Porta Maggiore: water gate in Rome, Italy Significance: example of Roman rusticated (rough) masonry style - blocks combined smooth/rusticated surfaces - has attic (uppermost story) that hides the conduits of the aqueduct - *Nero's Golden House: Nero's new palace after old one was destroyed by fire Significance: the octagonal hall's shape design is entirely made out of concrete + showed potential of concrete

Early Empire under The Flavians (69 - 96 CE)

- Nero is out of power by this time b/c of suicide - Vespasian (family name Flavius) and his two sons Titus and Domitian ruled Rome - *Colossus and Colosseum: mark of the Flavians in the capital; the name is from its location next to the Colossus of Nero Significance: represents Rome for most people + concrete "skeleton" architectural style + use of engaged columns/lintel to frame openings is similar to Etruscan Porta Marzia at Perugia (Romans use this scheme commonly) + also had Roman practice of framing an arch w/ applied Greek order added variety to the surface

- *Portrait of Vespasian: bust portrait of Vespasian Signficance: reflected Vespasian's simpler tase + revived verism by not making himself a youthful god but old + had political statement proclaiming traditional Republican values - *Portrait bust of a Flavian woman: bust of elegant Flavian woman Significance: portraits of people of all ages exist in Flavian period - unlike the Republic where only elders were depicted + purpose was to project idealized beauty through current fashion instead of reference to images of Greek goddesses (the current fashion is curled hair) - *Arch of Titus: an arch erected in Titus's honors Significance: it is a triumphal arch (that commemorates many events including victories to the building of roads and buildings) + contained one passageway, and had a Composite (combination of Ionic volutes/Corinthian acanthus leaves) type of capital + reliefs depicting Victories (winged women) fill the spandrels (area b/w arch's curve and the framing columns and entablature) + contains two relief panels inside - *The Spoils of Jerusalem: one of two relief panels inside the Arch of Titus depicting Roman soldiers carrying the spoils (including the menorah) from the Temple of Jerusalem Significance: the relief uses deep carving that produces shadows + different placement of relief figures (some in the wall, some protruding out) + play of light and shade enhances sense of movement i nthe relief - *Titus in Triumph: the second of the two relief panels inside the Arch of Titus depicting Titus in his chariot Signficance: The panel is the first known instance of divine beings interacting w/ humans on an official Roman historical relief

High Empire

- Roman empire at its peak in the second century CE under Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines

High Empire under the rule of Trajan (98 - 117 CE)

- Domitian is assassinated b/c of extravagant lifestyle/ego - Senate then choose Nerva as emperor; Nerva establishes a pattern of successors before his death - Nerva chooses Trajan as successor and next emperor - Trajan: the first Spanish emperor/ first non-Italian to rule Rome - Trajan brings Roman rule to farther areas and institutes social programs for people's welfare - Trajan is granted title of Optimus (the Best) - *Plan of Timgad: Trajan finds a new colony for army veterans at Timgad Significance: center of Roman authority + key to Romanization of provinces + planned w/ precision, resembling w/ Roman military castrum (camp) + Roman plan is a modification of Hippodamian plan of Greek cities - *Rome's Greatest Forum: Forum of Trajan twice the size of Augustus' forum; made by Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan's chief military engineer Significance: glorified Trajan's victories + had huge basilica, not temple in the open square - *Column of Trajan: commemorative column in Forum of Trajan Significance: showed dedication to Trajan himself in the Forum - *Basilica Ulpia: basilica in Forum of Trajan Significance: had apses (semicircular recesses) on each short end + entrance was on long side facing the Forum unlike Christian and Pompeian basilicas + early Christian architectures embraced feature of the clerestory at the Basilica Ulpia for the design of the first churches - *Trajan's Columnar Tomb: Tomb below Column of Trajan Significance: the square base of the column serves as Trajan and his wife Plotina's tomb - *Markets of Trajan: built by Apollodorus of Damascus; Market that housed both shops and offices

Significance: the transformation of a natural slope into a complex was possible only by concrete + basic unit was taberna (a single-room shoped covered by barrel vault) - *Arch of Trajan: arch honoring Trajan Significance: relief panels cover both facades of Trajanic arch, giving it a billboard-like function + scenes depicting the ruler of Rome as a divine ruler in the company of the gods became the norm in official Roman art - *Funerary relief of a circus official (of Circus Maximus): shows circus official's life overlooking Circus Maximus (circus restored by Trajan) Significance: shows how different art is when produced for working class and not for aristocratic families + example of continuous narration: same figure appears more than once in the same space at different stages of a story + rules of classical design ignored in this piece

Hadrian (117 - 138 CE)

- Hadrian is Trajan's successor and fellow Spaniard - *Portrait bust of Hadrian as general: bronze portrait of Hadrian wearing cuirass Signficance: closely resembles Kresilas' portrait of Pericles + showed beard which was norm for Roman emperors - *Pantheon: temple of all the gods located in Rome, Italy Significance: revealed full potential of concrete + different design based on intersection of two circles, both simple and difficult + domes weight was lessened through use of coffers (sunken decorative panels) + symbolism of orb as earth and dome as the vault of the heavens - *Canopus and Serapeum at Hadrians Villa in Tivoli, Italy: one of Hadrians architectural project of a construction of pool and grotto (respectively) Significance: grotto is made of concrete + has dome that Hadrian probably designed himself + Greek columns and marble statues circle the pool + Corinthian colonnade has arcuated (curved or arched) lintels unlike traditional Greek lintels + shows respect for both Grek architecture and willingness to break Greek design

- *Roman Baroque Tomb in a Mountain: Tomb name is Al Khazneh AKA the Treasury Significance: one of many tomb facades cut into rock of mountains + basic Greek architecture, but the method of creation is Roman

Ostia

- *Insula: Insula is a multistory apartment block in Rome Significance: average Romans home + did not have space or light of domes + some had toilets + brick facades were not concealed and brick was exposed - *Room IV of Insula of the Painted Vaults: frescoed groin vaults located in Ostia, Italy Significance: typical of painted ceiling design in second/third centuries CE + one of few preserved painted ceilings after eruption of Mt. Vesuvius - *Baths of Neptune: black-and-white mosaic in the floor showing four seahorses pulling Neptune across the sea Significance: artist rejected polychrome (usage of many colors) modeling of figures in Pompeian mosaics and instead used simple black silhouettes + looked as surface decorations and not 3-D windows - *Workers Tombs: Tombs of worker class contain reliefs of working people Significance: scenes of daily life appear on Roman funerary reliefs all over Europe

The Antonines (138 192 CE)

- Hadrian adopts 51 yr old Antoninus Pius as successor - Antoninus adopts Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as successors Aurelius and Verus become first Roman coemperors after Antoninus death

- *Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius: memorial column of Antoninus Pius erected by Marcus and Lucius after Antoninus death; pedestal has a relief showing a potheosis (ascent to the heavens) of Antoninus and his Faustina; the sides of the relief have two reliefs of the decursio (ritual circling of the imperial funerary pyre) Significance: apotheosis relief is in classical tradition w/ elegant and proportional figures and singleground lines + first time that wife and husband ascend together in an elite setting + decursio relief is nonclassical & have chunky figures & the panel was not considered as a window into the world & the ground is considered the whole surface of the relief - *Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius: larger-than-life size gilded-bronze equestrian statue Significance: inspired many Renaissance sculptors to portray their patrons on horseback + expresses Roman emperors majesty and authority - *Portrait of Marcus Aurelius: detail of a panel from a lost arch; portrait of aged emperor Marcus Aurelius Significance: First portrait of aged emperor in which the emperor appears tired, sad, and worried + major turning point in history of ancient art marked beginning of the end of classical arts domination in the Greco-Roman world - Romans begin to favor burial over cremation; influenced Christianity and made belief of afterlife for a human body - Ash urns are common; rising demand for sarcophagi - *Sarcophagus with the myth of Orestes: early example of Greek mythology as a subject on a sarcophagus Significance: Orestes mythological presence in the sarcophagi - Repetition of sarcophagus compositions indicates that sculptors had access to pattern books - Western sarcophagi have reliefs only on front and sides, while Eastern sarcophagi have reliefs on all four sides - *Asiatic Sarcophagus w/ Kline (bed) portrait of a woman: example of sarcophagus of the Eastern type; shows woman resting on kline (bed) Significance: decoration of images with Greek gods/heroes is Asiatic but the lid portrait is a feature of Western Roman coffins + winged infant god holds a torch, reference to death of a woman who was as beautiful as his mother, Venus

- *Mummy Portrait of a Man: portrait of man with long curly hair and beard Significance: shows painters use of brush, shading, and his portrayal of the subjects calm mood

Late Empire - Marcus son Commodus succeeded but was assassinated and brought an end to Antonine dynasty - Late Empire: era where pagan ancient world became Christian Middle Ages

The Severans (193 235 CE)

- Septimius Severus: African emperor - *Painted portrait of Septimius and his family: Significance: only surviving painted likeness of any Roman emperor + gray hair indicated aging & face of emperors younger son Geta erased the tondo (circular format) portrait is dedicated to the damnation of Roman rulers (Getas brother Caracalla killed his brother Geta and erased his image) - *Portrait of Caracalla: Caracalla killed his brother Geta and is son of Septimius Significance: Emperor Caracalla had well textured short hair and a suspicious facial expression - *Chariot procession of Septimius Serverus: relief from the Arch of Septimius depicting Septimius and his two sons Significance: gives no sense of rushing motion + frontality + floating figures + style used is called Late Antique Style b/c of abstract style - *Baths of Caracalla: bathing complex made to win the publics favor Significance: had stuccoed vaults, mosaic floors, marble walls, and statues in the complex, as well as aqueduct and hot air furnaces The Soldier Emperors (235 284 CE)

- Severan dynasty ended when Severus Alexander was muredered - Aurelian constructs new defensive wall circuit for capital - *Portrait bust of Trajan Decius: sculpted portrait of Trajan Decius known for his persecution of Christians Significance: portrayed as old man with bags under his eyes and sad expression reveals sad soul of the man and of the times - *Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus: bronze portrait of Decius successor Trebonianus Gallus Significance: appears in heroic nudity + represented emperor as also a soldier w/ big legs and trunk - *Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus: sarcophagus portraying battle of Romans and barbarians Significance: chaotic scene of writhing soldier figures battling + it is dedicated to Mithras, the Persian god of light and truth b/c the general has Mithras emblem - *Sarcophagus of a Philosopher: Romans become interested in philosophy b/c of wartime; deceased is a philosopher surrounded by others Significance: popular for Christian burials + wise-man motif was used to portray deceased but to show Christ surrounded by his apostles composition w/ central figure and other figures looking towards it - *Restored view and plan of Temple of Venus: Stone temple formed around the cella Significance: nonclassical architecture & first architecture that has fivesided Corinthian capitals with pentagonal bases

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (284 306 CE)

- Emperor Diocletian establish tetarchy (rule by four) with other three tetrarchs - *Portraits of the Four Tetrarchs: Four tetrarchs portrayed together Significance: Artist did not catch individual appearance but portrayed four equal people in power + clothing is similar and bodies are shapeless + formal rigidity of human body as opposed to realistic/idealistic body - *Palace of Diocletian: well-protected suburban palace

Significance: designs central axis was emphasized + tomb in the palace was popular as a church and mausoleum Constantine (306 337 CE)

- Constantine I ends persecution of Christians - Constantine executes Licinius - Constantinian art: transition from classical to medieval world - *Arch of Constantine (south side): triple-passageway arch Significance: largest in Rome since end of Severan dyasty + arch reuses columns and decorations from earlier monuments + monuments were from earlier good emperors to give off good impression for Constantine - *Arch of Constantine (north frieze): detail of relief with emperor shown with attendants Significance: rigid formality of crowd surrounding Constantine + reused classical style but rejected norms of classical design - *Portrait of Constantine: marble portrait of Constantines head Significance: held orb as symbol of global power has look of authority, not of nervousness like the Soldier Emperors Era - *Basilica Nova: New Basilica in Rome Significance: construction of buildings such as great market hall applied to the Roman basilica has groin vaults, lighting system - *Aula Palatina: a palace complex that has abasilica-like audience hall; main hall deivided by triumphal arch (arch that represents victory) Significance: brick exterior characterized much of later Roman and early Christian architecture + use of lead framed panes of glass to give life and movement to surfaces - *Coins with Portraits of Constantine: Two portraits of Cosntantine stamped on Roman coins Significance: first coin is of Constantine portrayed like an old tetrarch (and therefore unidentifiable) + second coin is after Constantines war victories: the coin has Constantine look eternally youthful + showed ability of Roman emperors to choose any official image that suited their needs + second coin belongs to both classical and medieval world has Roman shield and a Cross together