Journal of Environmental Management (2001) 61, 281300 doi:10.1006/jema.2000.0413, available online at http://www.idealibrary.

com on

Industrial-waste management in developing countries: The case of Lebanon

M. El-Fadel* , M. Zeinati , K. El-Jisr and D. Jamali

This paper presents a critical assessment of the existing Lebanese industrial sector, namely the current status and classication of industrial establishments based on a comparative synthesis and analysis of recent nationwide surveys and studies pertaining to industrial-waste management. Characterisation of solid and liquid industrial wastes generated, including hazardous wastes, is presented together with current and projected waste loads, recycling opportunities, and export/import practices. Institutional capacity and needs pertaining to the enforcement of relevant environmental legislation, stafng and resources, monitoring schemes, and public participation are critically evaluated. Finally, realistic options for industrial-waste management in the context of country-specic institutional economic and technical limitations are outlined. The industrial sector in Lebanon consists of small-scale industries (84% employ less than 10 persons), primarily involved in light manufacturing (96%). These industries which are distributed among 41 ill-dened zones and decient in appropriate physical infrastructure, generate solid, liquid, and hazardous waste estimated at 346 730 tons/year, 20 169 600 m3 /year and between 3000 to 15 000 tons/year, respectively. Although the growth of this sector contributes signicantly to the socio-economic development of the country (industry accounts for 17% of the gross domestic product), in the absence of a comprehensive environmental management plan, this expansion may not be sustained into the coming millennium. The anticipated expansion will inevitably amplify adverse environmental impacts associated with industrial activities due to rising waste volumes and improper waste handling and disposal practices. These impacts are further aggravated by a decient institutional framework, a lack of adequate environmental laws, and lax enforcement of regulations governing industrial-waste management. 2001 Academic Press

Keywords: industrial/hazardous-waste management, institutional framework, developing countries, Lebanon.

Introduction
In the last decade the global economy has undergone radical changes which have had signicant implications for the future development and operation of industrial establishments, particularly in developing countries. These changes include the move from centrally planned economies into market economies, the establishment of large economic blocks, liberalisation of international trade and rapid advances in the elds of science and technology. These are further exemplied through the introduction of the ISO 14 000 standards for environmental control
Email of corresponding author: mfadel@aub.edu.lb
03014797/01/040281C20 $35.00/0

as well as other total quality management control measures (ESCWA, 1996; UNIDO, 1997). Furthermore, industrial reform policies, in developing economies, tend to emphasise accelerated industrialisation (UNIDO, 1995b). The driving force behind this trend is the realisation that greater socio-economic development including enhanced employment opportunities, higher incomes, and better standards of living can best be attained through rapid industrial expansion (UNIDO, 1995a). In response to global changes, many countries, especially developing economies, initiated industrial restructuring programs to promote the private manufacturing sector. While new policies are being adopted and

* Corresponding author Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, American University of Beirut, Bliss Street, P.O. Box 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon Department of Social and Public Policy, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK Received 17 November 1999; accepted 8 December 2000 2001 Academic Press

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implemented by governments around the world to face the challenges of the new international environment, many countries have yet to introduce changes of this sort. Lebanon experienced nearly 2 decades of civil unrest (19751990), during which most of the countrys physical infrastructure was severely damaged, especially electricity and transmission lines, road networks, telecommunications facilities and water supply and sewerage. Post-war reconstruction and development projects have focused on rehabilitating and upgrading basic physical infrastructure and enhancing the performance of national strategic sectors. Reconstruction efforts were mainly nanced through regional and international loans and grants in addition to foreign investment on a build operate transfer (BOT) basis. The industrial sector was of course one of the beneciaries, and its recovery has been remarkable as evidenced by the fact that 30% of existing industrial units were established between 1990 and 1994 (MoIP, 1994). This trend is indicative of the vitality and resilience of this economic sector, which is expected to continue to exhibit a strong future growth. However, this initial recovery remains shaky in view of national constraints and regional instability. Indeed, the Lebanese industrial sector still suffers from inadequate planning, decient physical infrastructure in certain areasparticularly industrial zoningand the absence of a comprehensive outlook concerning industrialwaste management. Current undertakings in waste handling have mainly been directed towards improving and upgrading municipal solid-waste management. The constraints faced in the collection, treatment and disposal of other waste types in addition to legislative and institutional deciencies remain issues of concern (Tebodin, 1998b). This paper evaluates the existing conditions of the industrial sector in Lebanon with emphasis on various classications of industrial establishments. Characterisation of solid and liquid industrial/hazardous wastes is presented together with current and projected waste loads. Institutional capacity and needs pertaining to the enforcement of relevant environmental legislation, stafng and training programs and monitoring schemes are critically evaluated. Finally, management options are evaluated taking

into consideration country-specic institutional, economic and technical limitations.

Sources of information
Several nationwide surveys and studies pertaining to industrial and hazardous waste management in Lebanon have been conducted since 1990. A list of these surveys and studies with a synopsis of their principal objectives and scope of work is presented in Table 1. The rst post-war nationwide industrial census (as outlined in Table 1) was completed in 1995 and was divided into two phases. The objective of the rst phase, conducted in 1994, was to collect baseline data on the total number of existing industrial establishments, their geographical localization, the number of salaried employees, their juridical form and nationality (MoIP, 1994). The second phase focused on data related to production volume, employment, workforce salaries, added value, investments and stocks (MoIP, 1995). Later studies relied on this census to characterise and estimate waste generation quantities and volumes (ERM, 1995a; Dar Al-Handasah, 1996, 1997; Tebodin, 1998a,b). In 1996, the existing legal framework pertaining to the classication of industries was reviewed, and an improved framework was developed on the basis of environmental and health zoning categories (IDAL/FUGRO, 1996). However, this framework has not been implemented to date. A recent characterisation and assessment of the Lebanese coastal zone area included an evaluation section on industrial impacts on this zone (ECODIT-IAURIF, 1997). Also a national industrial waste-management plan was proposed in 1997 covering a wide range of topics related to the industrial sector including, identication of existing sources, quantities, and volumes of various types of industrial waste through site visits; estimation of current and projected waste loads; assessment of industry-related institutional structures and methods for improving their capabilities (training and stafng requirements); drafting monitoring plans, and outlining the legal and social implications of the proposed management plan (Dar Al-Handasah, 1996, 1997).

Industrial-waste management in developing countries Table 1. Reference MoIP (1994) Summary of recent industrial and hazardous-waste management surveys and studies in Lebanon Principal study objective/Scope of work First nation wide census of Lebanese industry since 1970. Its objective was to determine the total number of existing industrial establishments, their geographical localization, number of salaried employees, their juridical form and nationality Collect data on: production volume, employment, workforce salaries, added value, investments and stocks Assess the state of the environment including a section covering industrial activities and estimates of industrial-waste types and generation rate Collect data for a national industrial-waste-management plan Identify existing sources of industrial-waste through site visits Characterize industrial-waste types, quantities and volumes through a nationwide sampling of industrial companies Propose a national monitoring plan for waste discharge Identify institutional structures related to industry and propose methods for improving their capabilities Update and improve the existing legal industrial classication framework Propose a national industrial-waste-management plan Estimate current and projected waste loads Estimate incurred costs Dene staff training and qualication requirements of responsible authorities Identify legal and social implications of proposed management plan Assess environmental impacts along the Lebanese coast, including industrial zones Provide recommendations for sustainable development of the coastal zone by providing a basis for a future comprehensive coastal zone management plan Propose a national plan for the collection of used oils Recommend collection methods and treatment options Dene socio-economic and environmental impacts of proposed plan Develop a strategy for the introduction and implementation of a national hospital-waste-management plan including design of treatment/disposal facilities and transport routes, and assessment of environmental impacts of proposed sites Identify major industrial pollutants nationwide through site visits to several industries in six industrial zones selected by the Ministry of Environment Estimate industrial emissions into the atmosphere, water bodies and the generation of hazardous solid wastes through the use of the World Banks Decision Support System (DSS) for Integrated Pollution Control (IPC) Estimate current and future industrial and hazardous waste volumes Identify treatment and disposal options Evaluate institutional structures and legislation related to industry and present methods for improving their capabilities Propose strategies for a national industrial and hazardous-wastemanagement scheme

283

MoIP (1995) ERM (1995a)

Dar Al-Handasah (1996)

IDAL/FUGRO (1996) Dar Al-Handasah (1997)

ECODIT-IAURIF (1997)

ETEC (1998)

ERM and Issa Consulting (1998)

Tebodin (1998a)

Tebodin (1998b)

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The most recent study identied treatment and disposal options for hazardous waste, including cost estimates, proper monitoring instruments, and an outline of an updated legislative and institutional framework (Tebodin, 1998a,b). Note that hospital risk waste (ERM and Issa Consulting, 1998) and waste oil (ETEC, 1998) assessment studies were conducted separately. Despite occasional shortcomings in the published data, the information provided in these surveys and studies provide the basis for designing and implementing a sound industrial-wastemanagement plan. The studies and surveys were conducted following various methodologies including: (1) census of country-wide industrial establishments to gather basic background data; (2) distribution of standardised questionnaires, primarily to establishments with a relatively large workforce (producing the majority of the waste stream) to gather data pertaining to waste-management practices. Note that the samples were selected to be representative of different industry types and proportional to the distribution of industries across counties; (3) site reconnaissance visits and inspections of selected industries to verify waste-management practices and validate estimates. Establishments were selected from a list compiled by the Ministry of Environment (MoE) or perceived to be the major contributors of industrial-hazardouswaste generation based on responses to questionnaires; (4) interviews with managers of industrial establishments to assess wastemanagement practices; (5) sampling, testing, and analysis of selected waste sources, wastewater efuents, and gaseous emissions at a limited number of industrial establishments that were anticipated to produce hazardous materials; (6) application of the World Banks Decision Support System for Integrated Pollution Control (DSS IPC) to estimate industrial/hazardous-waste generation and release into the atmosphere and water bodies.

involved in manufacturing (96%) (MoIP, 1994). The 19941995 national industrial census identied more than 22 100 operational industrial establishments, employing approximately 145 000 workers. The census did not cover publicly owned industries including, those involved in power generation and distribution, storage of petroleum products, potable water treatment and supply, telecommunications, and ports. The establishments surveyed varied in size, from small backyard industrial companies employing less than ve persons1 to larger labour intensive industries employing more than 250 workers2 (MoIP, 1994, 1995). These industries are distributed amongst 41 zones within six counties (IDAL/FUGRO, 1996) (Figure 1), and are generally clustered around major cities and towns. Heavy primary industries are virtually absent from the Lebanese industrial scene. Large-scale industries, characterised by a large work force and output, include the cement plants, fertilizer factories and sugar reneries. Other important segments of the industry sector include food products and beverages (202%), furniture (163%), fabricated metal products (139%), wearing apparels and furs (136%), non-metallic mineral products (76%), and wood products (66%) (Figure 2). Industrial establishments fall under one of 24 subcategories based on the International Standard Industrial Code (ISIC). The large number of small-scale industrial companies can be primarily attributed to the preference of skilled labor to establish their own low capital costs businesses due to the low wage scale in the country (Dar Al Handasah, 1996). Note that approximately 65% of the industrial establishments are single ownership type (personal enterprises) with the remaining of a general partnership type (MoIP, 1994). It is evident from Figure 1 that the spatial distribution of industrial zones varies across counties with the counties of Mount Lebanon, Beirut and the North maintaining the highest number of industrial zones. The lower number in other counties can be attributed to
1 This category represents 68% of all existing industrial establishments, rising to nearly 84% when considering industrial companies employing less than 10 persons and together employ a total of 553% of the workforce. 2 This category represents only 02% of total industrial establishments, but employs 109% of the workforce.

Characterisation of the industrial sector

The industrial sector in Lebanon is characterised by small-scale establishments mainly

Industrial-waste management in developing countries

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ea

Me dit err an ea nS

1000 777 458 487 367 292

Lake Homs

1797 1761 1331 1442

North Lebanon 8, 18

569 502

Bekka Mount Lebanon Beirut

636 382 215 41 113 684

5, 9.8
517 218 300 270 338 147

24, 45

0, 12.6

Syria

Qaroun Lake
535 361 173 199 172 283

Food products and beverages Furniture and other manufacture products Wearing apparels, furs Fabricated metal products, except machinery

Nabatieh 1, 5.4 South Lebanon 3, 9

280 86 72 268 191 104

Other non-metallic mineral products Wood and wood products

10

10 Kilometers

Figure 1. Distribution of industrial zones in Lebanon. County border ( ), Industrial zones: class A ( ), ). Figures in boxes are (i) number of zones, (ii) percentage of industries. class B ( ), class C ( ), river (

their location near the southern international borders where political instability prevails. High industrial growth is expected in these areas with the onset of a Middle East peace agreement particularly that the counties of Beirut and Mount Lebanon are relatively saturated with limited land area left for future expansion. Note that no provisions were made to allow for the establishment of industrial zones in Beirut proper. This implies little room for development or even replacement of any of the currently existing industries in case of closure.

Classication of industries
In Lebanon, there are 209 types of establishments classied into one of three classes (Ministry of Environment, Lebanon, 1994). However, a new classication system, utilising ISIC criteria, was recently proposed by the government (IDAL/FUGRO, 1996) to expand the existing classication system from three to ve classes based on relative degrees of threat to the environment and potential local disturbance. The new classes

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Construction work Furniture and other goods Other transport equipment Motor vehicles and trailers Medical, optical, watches and clocks Radio and communication equipment Electrical machinery products Machinery and equipment Fabricated metal products Basic metals Other non-metallic minerals Rubber and plastic Chemicals and manmade fibers Coke and refined petroleum products Printed matter and recorded media Pulp and paper products Wood and wood products Leather products Wearing apparels Textiles Tobacco products Food and beverages Mining and quarrying Agriculture, hunting and forestry
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

Number of establishments

Figure 2. Distribution of industries sorted in accordance to the International Standard Industrial Code subcategory classication. Table 2. Current and proposed industrial classes Proposed ISIC based classication 1 2 3 4 5
IDAL/FUGRO (1996).

Description Serious threat to the environment and health Threat to the environment and health Limited threat to the environment and health Insignicant threat to the environment and health No threat to the environment and health (in general)

Existing equivalent Lebanese classes 1 1 2 3 3

range from serious threat to the environment and health to no threat. Table 2 provides a comparative equivalency between the newly proposed ISIC classication system and the existing classes. Note that based on the ISIC classication, only two types of Lebanese industries would be classied as Class 1, namely rened petroleum products, and pesticides or other agro-chemical products (IDAL/FUGRO, 1996). Based on the above classes, an evaluation system of industrial areas was developed consisting of four areas denoted A-Area, Barea and C-area and Buffer Zones (Figure 1). The criteria used for evaluation included environmental, geographical, planning and economical aspects. Each area is reserved for a given industrial class (Table 3). The fourth area consists of buffer zones and is located within A, B and C areas and around residential areas. In some cases, more than one class of industry may exist

in the same industrial area. For instance, A-Areas are reserved for class 1 industries, however, class 2 industries may be allowed in these areas if class 1 industries do not completely occupy the available space. The drawback is that this may hinder future expansion of industry classes that were originally designated for the area. The majority of the industrial areas fall under the C-Area class, which consists primarily of Class 3 industries that pose limited threats to the environment and health (Figure 3). Based on industrial zone classication only one zone was classied as A-Area (Figure 1).

Current and projected industrial waste loads

Estimates of industrial liquid efuents and solid-waste loads are presented in the

Industrial-waste management in developing countries Table 3. Class A-Area Proposed industrial area classication Description Reserved for Class 1 industries which can cause serious threat to the environment and/or serious disturbance to their surroundings. Class 2 industries may be allowed in these areas if Class 1 industries cannot ll up the area Reserved for Class 2 industries which can cause threat to the environment or which can cause disturbance to their surroundings. Class 3 industries may be allowed in these areas if Class 2 industries do not ll up the area Reserved for Class 3 industries which can cause no, or almost no, threat to the environment or disturbance to its surroundings. In these areas Class 2 industries can be allowed if they are presently operating in the area. New Class 2 industries must be located in A or B-Areas These buffer zones are located within A, B and C-Areas and around residential areas or other sensitive locations

287

B-Area C-Area

Buffer Zones
IDAL/FUGRO (1996).

C-area 67%

B-area 31% A-area 2%

Figure 3. to class.

Distribution of industrial areas according

following section together with projections up to the year 2020. Hazardous-waste projections are estimated separately.

Non-hazardous solid industrial waste

In the absence of waste generation and production statistics, the amount of solid waste generated was estimated using waste multipliers based on employment statistics. A mean generation rate of 8 kg of industrial waste per employee per day was used for all types of industrial facilities except for textiles and wearing apparels, for which a generation rate of 2 kg per employee per day was adopted

(Dar Al-Handasah, 1997). In contrast, industrial waste multipliers in several European countries (Williams, 1998) range between two to four times those used for Lebanon. Note that waste-generation multipliers will vary depending on the type of industry, variations in manufacturing processes, and economies of scale (Rhyner and Green, 1998). Future industrial solid waste loads were projected assuming an industrial growth rate of 8% up to year 2000 and 5% for the period 20012020 (Table 4). Other important assumptions include: (1) industrial employment will reach 350 000 by the year 2020; (2) no new industries would be permitted within the City of Beirut; and (3) half of the new industries would be located in Mount Lebanon. Note that the assumption that future industrial-waste quantities increase linearly with the degree of industrialisation tends to overestimate future waste production. It is reasonable to assume that the projected quantities of waste produced may be signicantly reduced with the introduction of new technology, waste minimisation schemes and initiation of recycling and reuse of industrialwaste material. However, a quantication of this reduction is not possible in the absence of relevant historical trends.

Non-hazardous liquid industrial waste

In determining industrial wastewater ows, it was assumed that each employee contributes 300 l/day to the total ow (Dar

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M. El-Fadel et al. Table 4. County Industrial solid waste loads Regional share of industrial employment Industrial solid waste generated (kg/day)a 1994 Beirut Bekaa Mount Lebanon Nabatiyeh North Lebanon South Lebanon Total for entire country 0121 0065 0602 0025 0129 0058 1000 110 073 69 693 644 152 27 262 137 848 61 662 1 050 690 2020 110 073 883 883 2 167 341 46 847 720 756 162 010 4 090 909

Dar Al-Handasah (1997). a Generation rate of 8 kg of industrial waste per employee per day except for textiles and wearing apparels, for which a generation rate of 2 kg per employee per day was adopted.

Al-Handasah, 1997). Since actual wastewater ow arising from industrial activities is not directly proportional to the number of employees, existing and future wastewater loads were estimated based on derived water consumption rates for every industrial establishment, accounting for their size and type. Three size categories were used for this paper: Industry Light Medium Heavy Number of employees <10 10100 >100

Since a signicant number of industries adopt dry processes, generating minimal quantities of liquid waste, the estimation of industrial wastewater loads considered only the proportion of the industries in each sector that do generate liquid waste. Overall, the industrial wastewater ow for the entire country was reported to constitute 12% of the total estimated wastewater generated from domestic and commercial activities. This contribution varies signicantly according to county, due to varying densities of industrial zones. Hence, the contribution of industrial wastewater to total wastewater in 1994 ranged between 3%, for the county of Beirut and Nabatieh, to 21% in Mount Lebanon. In 2020, this contribution is expected to range between 1%, in Beirut, to 23% in the Bekaa (Table 5). These projections are based on similar assumptions governing non-hazardous industrial solid-waste generation rates. Determining the contribution of industrial wastewater to the total wastewater stream is critical for

the selection of an adequate and cost effective treatment and disposal method. If co-disposal following pretreatment at the source is the recommended option for industrial wastewater management, then industrial wastewater must not exceed 1520% of the total to ensure proper performance of treatment facilities (Dar Al-Handasah, 1997). The volumes of solid and liquid waste estimated above are not purely industrial in nature since the waste generation rate per worker per day (28 kg or 300 l for solid or liquid waste) includes waste categories similar to municipal solid waste (MSW) such as plastics, paper and cardboard, and glass. These projections are, however, valuable for estimating the contribution of industries to total waste volumes. An alternative method to estimate waste volumes relies on chemical and physical characteristics distinct from MSW (Tebodin, 1998b). In this context, industrial-waste categories were identied as a function of the generation source or type of industry. Only four waste categories were proposed and they include hazardous waste, nonhazardous and/or recyclable waste, construction and demolition waste and putrescent waste. Derived volumes for each source and type of waste were partly based on site visits and questionnaires, and partly using existing data from recent surveys (Tebodin, 1998a). The overall distribution of industrial waste volumes using this method is presented in Table 6. An estimated 188 850 tons of medium to high impact waste are generated in Lebanon each year. This is signicantly less than the total mixed industrial waste

Industrial-waste management in developing countries Table 5. County Wastewater generated m3 /d Beirut Bekaa Mount Lebanon Nabatieh North Lebanon South Lebanon Totals for entire country
Dar Al-Handasah (1997).

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Industrial wastewater loads 1994 Industrial wastewater (percent of total) 3 10 21 3 6 6 12 Wastewater generated m3 /d 2754 422 159 107 584 1479 34 378 3269 191 623 2020 Industrial wastewater (percent of total) 1 23 17 2 11 3 12

2754 5279 43 914 698 6084 2391 61 120

Table 6. Category

Current (1998) industrial waste-generation estimates Source/type Pesticides manufacturing Industrial waste containing heavy metals Quantity (ton/year) 326 1166 Remarks Mainly packaging waste and sludge contaminated with pesticides From waste paper recycling, printing, ceramics industry (pigments), metal galvanizing, non-ferro metal recycling Residues from waste oil recycling, oily sludge, residues from solvents recycling Mainly from paint, and wooden and metal products manufacturing Hazardous due to chromium content Scrap leather, wood and paper waste, waste from textile, printing and ferro-metal industry Dumped at private landlls

Hazardous waste

Industrial oily waste

1018

Industrial paints, resins, dyes, adhesive residues Polychlorinated biphenols Tanneries Non-hazardous waste or recyclable waste Various process waste with heavy metal contents below hazardous waste limits Sludge from asbestos/cement manufacture Used lubricating oils End of life vehicles End of life vehicles

538 40 250 1292

2400 10 000 6300 700

Recyclable parts Non-recyclables, this can be hazardous waste, depending on the type of car dismantling

Construction and demolition waste Putrescent waste

Industrial mixed waste (non-process related) Car tires Ceramic industry (tiles, ags), cement industry Food and beverage manufacturing Slaughterhouses

20 000 14 000 73 000 Around 71 000 tons/year of this waste is dumped at private landlls (cement industry)

17 820 40 000 188 850

Total
Tebodin (1998b).

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volume, estimated at 347 000 tons per year (Table 4). This difference provides some indication on the relative volumes of low to high-impact industrial wastes (including hazardous wastes) and the uncertainties in estimating accurate waste-generation quantities.

Hazardous waste
Accurate statistics on the quantities and types of hazardous wastes produced in Lebanon are difcult to obtain. Reliable methods for estimating quantities generated are non-existent, except through comprehensive eld surveys. In order to estimate the current and forthcoming volumes of hazardous industrial waste, a tentative list of potentially hazardous industrial wastes generated was compiled by Tebodin (1998a). The list included asbestos, acids, alkalis, organic solvents, waste oils and tannery wastes. Annex III of the Basel Convention (UNEP, 1999) species 14 different properties which render a material potentially hazardous; however, the most frequently reported and used characteristics in practice are explosivity, ammability, corrosivity and reactivity (La Grega et al., 1994). In the absence of a clear national denition and primary data, hazardous waste generation in Lebanon was estimated using three different methods: Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP); Employment statistics; DSS IPC model.
10 Generation GDP (kg/US $1000)

When GDP values are correlated to the industrial status of a country, it is suggested that hazardous waste generation would be in the order of 1000 tons per billion US$ GDP in developing countries; 2000 tons in newly industrialized countries; and approximately 5000 tons in countries with developed industries (World Bank, 1989). An inter-country comparison of hazardous waste generation to GDP within the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is presented in Figure 4. For Lebanon, using US$ 10 billion GDP in 1996 (EIU, 1996), corresponding hazardous waste would be in the order of 10 000 to 20 000 tons per year, the equivalent of 29 to 58% of total industrial solid waste. The percent range of estimated hazardous waste produced is comparable to some OECD countries based on numbers reported by Petts and Eduljee (1994). An average of 15 000 tons was adopted to promote a broad estimate of the amount of hazardous waste generated. This value was projected over the next 20 years using the same industrial growth rates previously dened to estimate industrial/hazardous solid-waste generation. The resulting trend in hazardous-waste generation in Lebanon using the GDP approach is shown in Figure 5. The estimates in Figure 5 assume that industrial growth is proportional to industrialisation. This can be justied only for the short-term because the market for manufactured products in developing countries results in continuous economic growth

57.23

8 6 4 2 0

Austria

Canada

Australia

Denmark

Belgium

Finland

New Zealand

France

Germany

Luxembourg

Netherlands

Iceland

Ireland

Japan

Switzerland

Greece

Italy

Norway

Portugal

Spain

Sweden

Turkey

Figure 4. Inter-country comparisons of hazardous-waste generation within the OECD (Yakowitz, 1993). The USA estimate includes large quantities of dilute wastewater not reported in other OECD countries.

USA

UK

Industrial-waste management in developing countries

80 000 60 000
45 800 58 500

291

40 000
28 100

35 900 15 000 22 040

20 000 0

1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Year

Figure 5. Hazardous-waste generation based on the GDP approach.

at elevated rates compared to developed nations. Note that the highest industrialgrowth rates are observed in companies that were the most pollution intensive (ESCAP, 1994). In the long term such a rate is expected to diminish particularly as waste minimisation strategies are adopted. As an alternative, hazardous waste generation can be estimated using employment statistics (Dar Al-Handasah, 1997). This approach yields an estimate of approximately 16 900 tons of hazardous industrial waste, which is consistent with the value obtained using the GDP approximation. Current and future estimates for seven hazardous waste types based on existing industry types and employment data are presented in Figure 6. Finally, the DSS IPC model (World Bank, 1998) was applied using a sample of 200

industries which produce signicant quantities of industrial wastes (Tebodin, 1998b). The resulting volume of hazardous waste was estimated at less than 3000 tons per year (Table 7). This assessment, however, reects only sources that can be collected and handled separately, leading to an amount that is signicantly less than that estimated through the previous two approaches. At present, there are no provisions for the separate collection of special waste arising from households. As a consequence, this waste will be mixed with other municipal waste and disposed of in municipal sanitary landlls. With respect to hospital risk waste, estimated at 4000 tons per year, a proposed management plan includes separate collection, treatment and disposal techniques (ERM and Issa Consulting, 1998).

Hazardous waste (1000 tons per year)

Management of industrial and hazardous waste

While industrial-waste management is a pressing need in Lebanon, the bulk (more than 90%) of wastes generated can be classied as non-hazardous waste most of which is similar to domestic municipal waste (Dar Al-Handasah, 1997; Tebodin, 1998a). Industrial activities, which require special attention from an environmental perspective, are

Figure 6. Estimated hazardous-waste generation based on industry types and employment data. 1995, ; 2020, .

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M. El-Fadel et al. Table 7. DSS IPC Estimated hazardous-waste generation by source 1998 quantity (ton/year) 1166 1018 538 2722 2008 quantity (ton/year) 1200 1500 600 1478a 3171a 7949 2020 quantity (ton/year) 1482 2652 803 3252 6976 17 185

Hazardous waste category Heavy metals Oily waste Paint, resins, dyes etc. Incineration residues Waste water sludge Total

Tebodin (1998b). a Based on expected governmental plans for waste management options.

undertaken by cement production and manufacturing industries involved in metal products, food processing, tanneries and textile nishing (Tebodin, 1998b). Waste generated from these activities is potentially hazardous due to high sulfur and heavy metal (zinc, cadmium, mercury, chromium and copper) efuent content. As such, they require special treatment and disposal techniques. At present, most waste arising from the industrial sector is released into the surrounding atmosphere, discharged into adjacent water bodies (rivers, streams, sea), stored on site, disposed of in privately owned landlls, incinerated in the open, or dumped haphazardly (Dar Al-Handasah, 1997; ECODIT-IAURIF, 1997; ERM, 1995a; Tebodin, 1998b). Such practices resulted in environmental stresses particularly along the coastal zone where the industrial zones are spread (ECODITIAURIF, 1997; ERM, 1995a). The management of industrial waste faces several constraints typical of developing countries, including (ERM, 1995a,b): the majority of the industry is small-scale in nature and fragmented all over the country leading to difculties in collection, separation and proper disposal; low awareness amongst waste generators about environmental and health hazards associated with improper handling and exposure to certain wastes and their chemical constituents; inadequate access to information on proper waste management and best available technologies; lack of enforcement of existing wastemanagement regulations; cash stripped rms which are unlikely to voluntarily invest in costly pollution prevention and minimisation technologies

in the light of lax enforcement of legislation and lack of monetary or tax incentives; absence of efcient and effective industrial information systems to support or guide policy and decision-making.

Recycling of industrial waste

Recycling and/or recovery practices for industrial liquid efuents or solid waste products are currently not widespread in Lebanon and will not signicantly alter or reduce waste loads within the next couple of decades because of the absence of a market for recyclable materials. At present, recycling is limited to a few companies and is carried out on an ad hoc basis mainly in the metal processing, paper, plastic manufacturing industries (Dar Al-Handasah, 1996). In addition, an estimated 2000 tons per year of mineral waste oil or about 711% of total waste oil generated nation-wide,3 are recycled (Tebodin, 1998a) and approximately 90% of the 7000 tons of lead acid batteries discarded annually from vehicles and uninterrupted-power-supply systems are recycled (Tebodin, 1998b). Quantitative data concerning other recycled material are not available.

Import and export of industrial waste

At present, Lebanon can be depicted as a closed system with respect to the ow of waste. Export of waste is not practiced as
3 Plans for future expansion have been proposed for the recovery and reuse of waste oil (Arnaout, 1997; ETEC, 1998).

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most of the waste is not of a suitable quality to be sold in the regional or international market as secondary waste material. During the years of civil unrest, industrial and hazardous wastes were imported from several industrialised nations and improperly disposed of throughout the country. Public condemnation resulted in re-exporting most of this waste back to the countries of origin. Moreover, recent regulations banned the import of waste for the purpose of nal disposal (Ministry of Environment, Lebanon, 1997a,b). Nevertheless, importing waste oil from neighboring countries to be recycled in a centralized facility as part of a future national strategy for recovery and reuse of waste oil has been proposed (ETEC, 1998) to improve economic sustainability of the waste oil recovery plan. Furthermore, the generation of pesticides and PCB related wastes are relatively insignicant therefore it is more economic to export such wastes for treatment and disposal.

developing countries and must be enhanced as a prerequisite for private sector competitive growth (UNIDO, 1995a). A recent institutional reform effort in Lebanon culminated in the creation of the Ministry of Environment in 1993 (Ministry of Environment, Lebanon, 1993), and contributed (at least conceptually) to strengthening the institutional capacity for the design and implementation of sound environmental policies. For example, a recent decision, issued by the MoE, sets various air, soil, and water standards for the protection of the environment (Ministry of Environment, Lebanon, 1996).

Recent legislation
A national strategy for the management of industrial waste requires addressing legislative deciencies. A comprehensive national Environmental Framework Law (EFL) is currently awaiting parliamentary approval. In addition to other provisions related to environmental protection and management the EFL includes sections on waste management requirements. Specically, the EFL consists of 102 articles grouped into seven main divisions that will provide a legislative framework for the subsequent drafting of individual decrees to shape the national environmental management strategy. Unlike laws, decrees address environmental issues at the micro level, by setting clear standards, guidelines and dening permissible management practices. The objectives of relevant EFL decrees concerning waste management are summarised in Table 8.

Legislative and institutional framework

Lebanon has a substantial body of environmental related laws, however most date back to the 1930s and are in need of updating and consolidation (El-Fadel et al., 2000; ESCWA, 1999; ERM, 1995b). While existing environmental regulations are aimed at minimising nuisance and the protection of public health, they are decient with regards to standards pertaining to waste management. In addition, existing standards deal primarily with domestic municipal solid waste. While, there is a law related to hazardous materials (Lebanon, 1988), it lacks clarity in terms of waste classication and is rarely applied. This law predates the 1989 Basel Convention,4 which denes properties and tests for classifying materials as hazardous (UNEP, 1999) and as a consequence, does not conform to its classications or denitions. Decient institutional support capabilities constitute a major limitation in most
4 Lebanon is a signatory to the Basel Convention and ratied it on December 21, 1994. It became effective on March 3, 1995.

Responsible authorities
The management of industrial activities in Lebanon is the responsibility of the Ministry of Industry (MoI) which was created in 1997 (Ministry of Industry, Lebanon, 1997) and was formerly a directorate general under the Ministry of Industry and Petroleum. While the MoI is responsible for registering and licensing industrial establishments in coordination with other ministries, it has no authority to reject a license application for an industry (ERM, 1995a). Industrial waste

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M. El-Fadel et al. Table 8. Objectives of the EFL waste management related decrees Decree Waste denitions and classications Integrated waste management Objective To dene waste categories and allow the differentiation between municipal and industrial/hazardous waste. Adoption of the Basel Convention denition since Lebanon must use this classication in international contacts To provide guidelines and rules for both private and public organizations dealing in waste-management activities: collection, transport, storage, sorting, reuse, treatment and disposal To identify permit requirements for various types of waste management rms (collection, transport, storage, treatment or disposal) To limit the number of waste treatment companies To regulate and ban the use of specic materials or substances that complicate waste treatment To support investment in cleaner production technologies, waste recycling and treatment methodologies To incorporate clearly dened tasks, project identication procedures, conditions and management To ensure that industrial wastes are disposed of properly To account for a comprehensive waste-management program especially for the hazardous waste generating industry To adopt the polluter pays principle To set high/severe levels to deter infringement

Product legislation National fund for environmental protection Standards for atmospheric emissions, wastewater efuents, water and soil protection EIA and permitting Monitoring and enforcement Fines and sanctions

management on the other hand, falls within the scope of the Ministry of Environment, although the main executive institution is the Ministry of Interior (Dar Al-Handasah, 1997). Other ministries and public agencies have industrial-waste-management responsibilities, resulting in the fragmentation of authority and low level of accountability. Table 9 depicts a matrix for the role of various ministries and public authorities in industrial-waste management. It illustrates functional gaps and the overlap in responsibilities. Despite the apparent attempt at integrating the environmental management system under a separate environmental protection ministry (MoE) with independent administrative functions and resources, the institutional framework for environmental management remains fragmented and weak. This is because the MoEs broad mandate relating to environmental issues5 overlaps with those of a number of other ministries
5

or governmental agencies as depicted in Table 9.

Resources and stafng

Low levels of technical and managerial capabilities constitute a major limitation in most developing countries (UNIDO, 1995c). In this context, Lebanon is no exception as the available resources6 and stafng7 levels are such that the MoEs capacity for environmental management is very limited (World Bank, 1996). The low salaries offered in the public sector in general, do not help in maintaining motivated inspectors which restricts the Ministrys ability to have a real impact on the coordination of various sector initiatives and on facilitating the integration and enforcement of environmental laws and policies (ERM, 1995b). As such, the MoE lacks provisions for an environmental monitoring and enforcement unit with an acute shortage of qualied technical personnel who can conduct monitoring operations associated with waste management.
6 Annual budget of US$ 5 million in 1995 reduced to less than US$ 2 million in 1999. 7 Thirty-eight full-time employees out of 139 specied by law and an unspecied number of contractors depending on budget and grant availability.

Including the power to: (1) formulate general environmental policy and propose measures for its implementation in coordination with other concerned agencies; (2) protect the natural and man-made environment in the interest of public health and welfare; and (3) control and prevent pollution, irrespective of the source, (Ministry of the Environment, Lebanon, 1993, 1997c).

Industrial-waste management in developing countries Table 9. Functiona Industrial-waste-management matrix MoE MoI Interior Public Finance Labor IDALb LIBNORc Munici Directorate health and Social -palities of urban affairs planningd X O O O X O O O X O X O X O X X O O O X O X O O O X O O O

295

Policy setting Licensing procedures Health/safety Public health protection Occupational safety Monitoring Classication Industry type Land use/industrial zones Waste disposal management Product quality control Legislation Regulation and codes Standard setting Waste denition Enforcement Investment encouragement Introduction of technology

a Level of implementation of function: medium (), low (O), non-existent (X). b Investment Development Authority of Lebanon, is an independent public authority. c LIBNOR (Lebanese Norms and Standards Institution) operates d The directorate functions under the Ministry of Public Works.

under the tutelage of the MoI.

Environmental monitoring
Monitoring is an essential part of developmental activities to ensure environmental protection. Monitoring data provide a useful tool for raising public awareness and can even be used as the basis for a publicalert system in environmental-management schemes. Such a system relies on a monitoring network to alert the responsible authority when levels of pollution come to be perceived as having serious health effects. In Lebanon, environmental monitoring is still in its infancy and replicable methods for evaluating environmental stresses are still decient, which is typical of most developing countries. This is attributed to intensive resource requirements, as well as high capital, operational and maintenance costs associated with environmental monitoring. Given the limited human and nancial capacity of the MoE, comprehensive environmental monitoring to environmental release standards is not foreseen in the near future. This implies that there is a need to insure that the implemented strategies are nancially sustainable

in addition to being environmentally sound. If funds can be raised for specic areas of implementation then these assets can be mobilised to secure both human and technical resources to implement the required mitigation measures and policies. Municipalities in coordination with the MoE can implement these activities with the overall responsibility for monitoring under the latter. In addition, there is a potential for increasing the involvement of private sector associations, institutions, and NGOs in environmental management (ERM, 1995b; World Bank, 1996). This involvement may promote sustainability, but it is likely to remain decient in the absence of proper institutional support mechanisms (UNIDO, 1995b).

Public participation, Non-governmental organisations, and information dissemination

Education and information dissemination play an important role in changing the public perception concerning proper environmental

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management. Environmental education is vital to raise the overall level of awareness and mobilise public opinion when a local community is faced with a polluting industry. At times, the most effective way to deal with polluting industries that escape governmental control is to mount an aggressive campaign involving the local community and the media to force industries into compliance. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) can play a vital role in bringing agrant violations to the attention of responsible authorities (ERM, 1995b). During the last decade about 65 environmental NGOs were created in Lebanon (ESCWA, 1999); many are involved in raising awareness on current environmental issues, exposing environmental threats, protecting natural reserves and habitats, and preventing excessive pollution. In addition, a few international NGOs have established ofces in the country and coordinate efforts and activities with their local counterparts.

and policies is also crucial to the success of industrial-waste management. Sound monitoring practices are necessary to ensure that future regulations are developed on the basis of accurate data and waste trends.

Management options
In assessing management options, it is important to note that neither the government nor the industries are able to immediately introduce and sustain radical changes which necessarily entail high investment costs. While the post-war reconstruction drive has burdened the Lebanese government and its resources, the majority of industries still face numerous obstacles that impede production. Despite the existence of various technologies that can mitigate and reduce environmental impacts associated with industrial wastes (both at the source of generation or at a central waste-treatment facility), their implementation requires nancial resources that existing small and medium scale industries cannot afford. Imposing additional nancial burdens will inevitably marginalise the industries further. However, newly established industrial companies that utilise more advanced technology can implement pollution control and waste minimisation options. Technical management practices should therefore aim at reducing pollutant levels sufciently to achieve compliance standards. Fortunately, the bulk of industrial waste in Lebanon requires only minimal treatment to render it adequate for regular disposal. Therefore, the most cost effective waste-management strategy should be based on pre-treatment at the source followed by proper disposal (engineered landll for solid wastes and codisposal with municipal wastewater for liquid efuents). Pre-treatment options based on pollutant type and characteristics are well established (WEF, 1994; LaGrega et al., 1994). Following pre-treatment of waste, the preferred treatment/disposal option will depend on the volume and composition of waste, environmental standards (Williams, 1998) as well as the availability of adequate technical and nancial resources. Hazardous

Discussion and Conclusion

The industrial sector in Lebanon is relatively small with 84% of all industrial units employing less than 10 workers. More than 22 000 industrial establishments generate a heterogeneous stream of noimpact, low and high impact substances. An estimated 347 000 tons of solid waste, 20 169 600 m3 /year of liquid waste and between 3000 and 16 000 tons of hazardous waste are generated annually from 41 poorly delineated industrial zones and currently disposed of without any control measures. Country-specic options for industrial-waste management require pre-treatment at source for the majority of industrial waste efuents and secured landlling for hazardous waste. Waste minimisation technologies should be adopted and industry owners and managers encouraged to initiate material recycling and reuse. While the development and construction of waste treatment and disposal facilities is essential to manage the waste generated, it is imperative to address the necessary institutional needs and introduce effective legislation with proper standards for environmental protection and pollution prevention. The systematic enforcement of regulations

Table 10. Preferred waste-treatment/disposal options Waste category Hazardous waste Waste containing heavy metals Industrially oily waste Industrial paint, resins, dyes, residues Incineration y ash and bottom slag Industrial wastewater sludge Hospital waste Car tires 4000 14 000 1166 1018 538 Not quantied Not quantied Type of waste Approximate quantity (1998) Feasibility/limitation Cheap and feasible low availability in urban areas

Treatment/disposal option

Landlling

Incineration

Infectious waste combustibles

Expensive Lack of technical expertise Public opposition Economy of scale Expensive Cheap and feasible Increased generation of high strength leachate

Export Non-hazardous waste Low heavy metal content waste Industrial mixed waste Wastewater sludge End of life vehicle Special household waste Asbestos waste Sludge from asbestos/cement manufacturing 2400 Non-hazardous waste Ceramic/cement industry waste 73 000 Phosphoric acid gypsum Recyclable waste Used lubricating oils End of life vehicles Industrial recyclable packaging waste Food and beverage production Municipal wastewater sludge Industrial wastewater sludge 10 000 6300 Not quantied 32 000 80 000 6000 1290 20 000 Not quantied 700 3000

Hazardous waste

Pesticides PCB

326 40

Co-disposal with MSW

On-site storage

Limited capacity

Recycling schemes

Economy of scale Lack of technical expertise Cheap and feasible Health impacts Soil degradation

Agricultural applications

Putrescent waste

Industrial-waste management in developing countries

Modied from Tebodin, 1998b.

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waste requires separate treatment, handling and disposal methods. In this context, several treatment and disposal options can be considered simultaneously, including reuse and recycling; physical, chemical or biological treatment; landlling, incineration and export (World Bank, 1989; Freeman, 1998). A synopsis of country-specic preferred treatment-disposal alternatives under current economic conditions is presented in Table 10.

Institutional considerations
Evolving the necessary institutional infrastructure encompasses a wide range of requirements including: (1) appropriate nancial services; (2) training facilities; (3) development of quality standards; (4) industrial information systems; (5) promotion of investment and technology inow; and (6) research and development (UNIDO, 1995b). The growth and expansion of small and medium industries, particularly in developing countries, is largely dependent on the availability of proper institutional support and nancial resources (UNIDO, 1995a). Moreover, the establishment of clear institutional responsibilities is essential to ensure the effective implementation of policies and reduce the potential for conicts of interest. It is not possible to develop an operational wastemanagement system and recover incurred
NGOs/public Environmental monitoring/education

costs in the absence of a proper institutional setup (Tebodin, 1998b). This involves a dramatic reform in the current institutional setup, and introducing appropriate re-organisation and regulations. This seems to be unacceptable to many policy-makers, particularly in developing countries, where rigid social, cultural, political and economic structures prevail (ESCWA, 1996). Figure 7 depicts a proposed framework for waste management taking into consideration existing country-specic institutional characteristics. The MoE would be the natural entity to assume the responsibility in initiating and executing proposed actions of a wastemanagement plan. This will require the unfailing cooperation and support of the other ministries in drafting, implementing and enforcing the decrees within the Environmental Framework Law. Although it is evident that a grace period will be required for existing industrial establishments to comply with proposed environmental standards, the imposition of punitive measures on lawbreakers should be enforced as a deterrent to future violations.

Acknowledgements
Nationwide surveys and studies on industrial waste management in Lebanon were funded by the Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Program (METAP), World Bank, German

Ministry of Environment Propose national environmental policy Update waste-management legislation Set standards (air quality, wastewater effluent, water, soil) Set clear definitions for waste types and hazardous materials Establish proper waste disposal methods/techniques Require EIA procedures in industrial licensing

Ministries of Public Health/Labor Protect public health/safety

IDAL/Directorate of Urban Planning Industry type classification Land use zoning for industry

Promote waste minimisation and recycling Environmental education/awareness Environmental monitoring

Ministry of Industry Devise a national industrial management strategy Simplify industrial permitting requirements Implement industrial information management systems Monitor industrial establishments Environmental education/awareness

Municipalities/Governorates Licensing requirements Environmental monitoring

Ministry of Interior Enforce legislation and regulations

Figure 7.

Proposed inter-relation of institutions in industrial-waste management.

Industrial-waste management in developing countries Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) and the European Commission. Freeman, H. (ed.) (1998). Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal, 2nd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill. Investment Development Authority of Lebanon (IDAL) and FUGRO (1996). Classication of Industries and Industrial Zones. Beirut, Lebanon: IDAL. LaGrega, M., Buckingham, P. and Evans, J. (1994). Hazardous Waste Management. New York: McGraw Hill. Lebanon (1988). Law Number 64 Dated 12 August 1988, Protection of the Environment Against Pollution From Hazardous Waste and Toxic Substances. Ofcial Gazette. Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon (1993). Law Number 216 Dated 3 April 1993, Creation of the Ministry of Environment. Ofcial Gazette, Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon (1994). Decree 4917 Dated 24 March 1994, Amendment of Decree 21 of 1932, The Classication of Hazardous, Detrimental to Health and Nuisance Causing Establishments. Ofcial Gazette, Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon (1996). Decision 52/1 Dated 29 July 1996, Standards and Limits for the Prevention of Air Water and Soil Pollution. Ofcial Gazette, Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon (1997a). Decision 71/1 Dated 19 May 1997, Organization of Waste Importation. Ofcial Gazette, Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon (1997b). Decision 161/1 Dated 31 October 1997, Amendment of Decision 71/1 of 19 May 1997. Ofcial Gazette, Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Environment, Lebanon (1997c). Law 667 Dated 27 December 1997, Amendment of Law 216 Dated 3 April 1993 Pertaining to the Creation of the Ministry of Environment. Ofcial Gazette, Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Industry, Lebanon (1997). Law 642 Dated 2 June 1997, Creation of the Ministry of Industry. Ofcial Gazette, Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Industry and Petroleum (MoIP) (1994). Report on Industrial Census, First and Preliminary Phase. Ministry of Industry and Petroleum, Directorate of Industry. Beirut, Lebanon. Ministry of Industry and Petroleum (MoIP) (1995). Report on Industrial Census, Phase II: Final Results. Ministry of Industry and Petroleum, Directorate of Industry. Beirut, Lebanon. Petts, J. and Eduljee, G. (1994). Environmental Impact Assessment for Waste Treatment and Disposal Facilities. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Rhyner, C. R. and Green, B. D. (1988). The predictive accuracy of published solid waste generation factors. Waste Management and Research 6, 329338. Tebodin (1998a). Industrial Pollution Control, Lebanon. The World Bank, UNIDO, Ministry of Environment. Beirut, Lebanon. Tebodin (1998b). Industrial and Hazardous Waste Management Strategy for Lebanon. Ministry of Environment. Beirut, Lebanon.

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