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1. RESISTANCE TO EARTH The earthing resistance of an electrode is made up of: a. Resistance of the metal electrode. b.

Contact resistance between the electrode and the soil. c. Resistance of the soil from the electrode surface outward in the geometry set up for the flow of current outward from the electrode to infinite earth. The first two factors are very small fractions of an ohm and can be neglected for all practical purposes. The factor of soil resistivity depends on the area and nature of soil. Some values as per IS standard is given below. Table 1 Type of Soil Probable Range of Values (ohm.m) Values(ohm.m) Alluvium and lighter clays Clays excluding Alluvium Marls (ex: keuper marl) Porous Limestone (ex: Chalk) Porous sandstone (ex: keuper sandstone and clay shales) Clay slates and slatey shales Granite Fossil slates, igneous rocks * Depends on water level of locality. Earth resistance shall be calculated using earth megger and there by soil resistivity. Earth testers normally used for these tests comprise the current source and meter in a single instrument and directly read the resistance. The most frequently used earth tester is the four-terminal megger, when using such a megger, the resistivity may be evaluated from modified equation as given below. 5 10 20 50 100 1000 1000 2000 * 5-20 10-30 30-100 30-300 300-3000 100 upwards

= 2 S R
where

= resistivity of soil in ohm-meters, S = distance between successive electrodes in meters. R= megger reading in ohms.

2. EARTH ELECTRODES Resistance of Common Types of Earth Electrodes. 2.1 Plates. The approximate resistance to earth of a plate can be calculated from: Ohms where

= resistivity of soil (assumed uniform) in ohm-meters,


A= area of both side of the plate (in square meters). Where the resistance of a single plate is higher than the required value, two or more plates may be used in parallel and the total resistance is than inversely proportional to the number employed, provided that each plate is installed outside the resistance area of any other. This normally requires a separation of 10m but for sizes of plate generally employed, a separation of 2m is sufficient to ensure that the total resistance will not exceed the value obtained from the above formula by more than 20 percent. Even at the latter spacing it is generally more economical to use two plates in parallel, each of a given size, than one of twice that size. The size employed is, therefore normally not greater than 1.2 x 1.2 m. Plate electrodes shall be of the size at least 60cm x 60 cm. Plates are generally of cast iron not less than 12mm thick and preferably ribbed. The earth connection should be joined to the plate at not less than two separate points. Plate electrodes when made of GI or steel, shall be not less than 6.3mm in thickness. Plate electrodes of Cu shall be not less than 3.15mm in thickness. Plate electrodes shall be buried such that its top edge is at a depth not less than 1.5m from the surface of the ground. 2.2 Pipes or Rods. The resistance of a pipe or rod electrode is given by: Ohms where l = length of rod or pipe (in cm), d = diameter of rod or pipe in cm, and

= resistivity of soil (assumed uniform) in ohm-meters.

A number of rods or pipes may be connected in parallel and the resistance is then practically proportional to the reciprocal of the number employed so long as each is situated outside the resistance area of any other. In practice, this is satisfied with a separation equal to the drive depth. Little is to be gained by separation beyond twice the driven depth. A substantial gain is effected even at 2m separation. Pipes may be of cast iron of not less than 100mm diameter, 2.5 to 3 m long and 13 mm thick. Such pipes cannot driven satisfactorily and may, therefore, be more expensive to install than plates for the same effective area. Driven rods generally consist of round copper, steel-cored copper or galvanized steel 13, 16 or 19 mm in diameter from 1220 to 2440 mm in length. Effect of Buried Length of Rod or Pipe electrode on calculated resistance for soil resistivity of 100 Ohm meter (assumed uniform).

X-axis Buried Length of Pipe or Rod Y-axis- Calculated Resistance, Ohm Deeply driven rods are, are however, effective where the soil resistivity decreases with depth. In such cases the decrease of resistance with depth of driving may be very considerable.

3. PROTECTIVE CONDUCTORS Method: 1 The adiabatic equation for the calculation of protective conductor is given by:

where A = nominal cross sectional area of the protective conductor in square millimeters. I = r.m.s fault current for a fault of negligible impedance, which can flow through the protective device, in amperes. t = operated time of the disconnecting devices, in seconds. (As recommended is 3 seconds). k = a factor taking in account of the resistivity, temperature coefficient and heat capacity of the conductor material and the appropriate initial and final temperature of the conductors. CURRENT RATING OF PROTECTIVE EARTHING MATERIALS Bare Conductor with No Risk of Fire or Danger to any other Touching or Surrounding Material. Table 2 Boundary Conditions: Initial Temperature: 40 deg C Final Temperature: 395 deg C for Cu, 325 deg C for Al, 500 deg C for Steel. Material 1s current rating in A/sqmm 3s current rating in A/sqmm k3 ( k1) ( k3) Copper 205 118 Aluminium 126 73 Steel 80 46

Method: 2 The cross-sectional area of the protective conductor shall be not less than the appropriate value as shown in the table below. CROSS SECTION OF PROTECTIVE CONDUCTOR Table 3 Cross Sectional Area of Phase Conductors of the Installation S (Sqmm) S < 16 16 < S < 35 S > 35 Minimum Cross-sectional area of the corresponding Protective Conductor Sp (Sqmm) S 16 Use Method 1

If the application of this table produces non-standard sizes, conductors having the nearest higher standard cross-sectional area to be used. The values in the above table are valid only if the protective conductor is made up of the same metal as phase conductors.

The Earthing Calculations according to IS 3043-1987, is mentioned above, and some examples are given below: 1. CALCULATION OF SIZING OF EARTH PITS Q. Calculate the resistance to earth, R of a rod-type earth electrode having a depth of 2.5 m and a diameter of 25mm, which is installed in Clays excluding Alluvium soil of resistivity, ,10 Ohm meter. Ans: Substituting these values in the formula for pipes or rods mentioned above: Ohms

R=
= 3.81 Ohm (Answer)

To maintain the resistance to earth less than 1 Ohm, there shall be 4 nos. of rods connected in parallel provided each is situated outside the resistance area of any other. 2. CALCULATION OF EARTH CONDUCTOR SIZE Q. Calculate the size of the earth conductor and the number of strips required for a 415 V Distribution system assuming a maximum prospective earth fault current 16kA. Ans: Substituting these values in the adiabatic equation mentioned above:

From Table 3, the value of K for Copper conductor for a fault withstanding time of 3 seconds is given as 118 A/Sqmm. Therefore = 135.6 Sqmm For dissipating the above fault current, it is required a minimum cross sectional area more than 135.6 Sq.mm, so that the proposed earthing conductor is 32x6 mm Copper.

OR From Table 3, the value of K for Steel / GI conductor for a fault withstanding time of 3 seconds is given as 46 A/Sqmm. Therefore = 347.8 Sqmm For dissipating the above fault current, it is required a minimum cross sectional area more than 347.8 Sq.mm, so that the proposed earthing conductor is 50x10 mm G.I.

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