Documente Academic
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Page
Number
What is disease? Microorganisms as pathogens How do microorganisms get into the body? How do pathogens cause disease?
4-5
Maths Skills - Graphs showing bacterial growth Maths Skills Counting Bacteria
How are data on disease interpreted and analysed? What is a correlation and what does it mean? How is a causal link established?
3.1.1
Analysing and interpreting data on disease Correlations and causal relationships Looking critically at data
6-7
Maths Skills Correlations Key diagram - Figure 1: Estimated cumulative incidence of breast cancer per 100 women in developed countries HSW - If you don't brush and floss, is your heart at risk? Animation Viruses as pathogens Animation Bacteria as pathogens
What is risk? How is risk measured? What factors affect the risk of contracting cancer?
3.1.1
What is risk? - Measurement of risk - Health risks need a timescale - Risk is often relative - Misleading statistics Risk factors and cancer - Lifestyle choices and cancer Application - Smoking and lung cancer Risk factors and coronary heart disease - Factors we can control (lifestyle factors) Reducing the risk of cancer and CHD Application and How science works - Smoking and disease - History of smoking - Epidemiological evidence linking smoking to disease - Experimental evidence linking smoking to disease - The ethics of animal experimentation
8-13
Simulation Coronary Heart Disease and Risk Factors Key diagram - Figure 2: Incidence of deaths from lung cancer in the UK
Major parts of the digestive system What is digestion? - Physical breakdown - Chemical digestion
18-19
Carbohydrates monosaccharides
How are large molecules like carbohydrates constructed? What is the structure of a monosaccharide? How would you carry out the Benedicts test for reducing and non-reducing sugars?
3.1.2
Life based on carbon The making of large molecules - Monosaccharides - Test for reducing sugars Application - Semi-quantitative nature of the Benedicts test
20-21
Simulation - Food testing Practical - Food test 1: Benedict's test for reducing sugars Practical - Serial dilution: Finding the minimum sensitivity of Benedicts and Clinistix tests Key diagram - Figure 3: Results of Benedicts test according to the concentration of reducing sugar present
How are monosaccharides linked together to form disaccharides? How are -glucose molecules linked to form starch? What is the test for nonreducing sugars? What is the test for starch?
3.1.2
22-23
Carbohydrate digestion
How does salivary amylase act in the mouth to hydrolyse starch? How is starch digestion completed in the small intestine? How are disaccharides digested? What is lactose intolerance?
3.1.2
24-25
Maths skills - Finding the rate with a reciprocal (1) Maths skills - Finding the rate with a reciprocal (2)
Proteins
How are amino acids linked to form polypeptides the primary structure of proteins? How are polypeptides arranged to form the secondary structure and then the tertiary structure of a protein? How is the quaternary structure of a protein formed? How are proteins identified?
3.1.2
Structure of an amino acid The formation of a peptide bond The primary structure of proteins polypeptides The secondary structure of proteins Tertiary structure of proteins Quaternary structure of proteins Test for proteins Application - Protein shape and function - Fibrous proteins
26-29
Maths skills - Amino acid ratio Practical - Food test 3:The biuret test for proteins; the ethanol test for lipids Extension - Amino acids, proteins and enzymes Key diagram - Figure 2: The formation of a peptide bond HSW - Can proteins keep you young and beautiful?
Enzyme action
How do enzymes speed up chemical reactions? How does the structure of enzyme molecules relate to their function? What is the lock and key model of enzyme action? What is the induced-fit model of enzyme action?
3.1.2
Enzymes as catalysts lowering activation energy Enzyme structure Lock and key model of enzyme action - Induced fit model of enzyme action
30-32
Animation Enzyme action Practical - An investigation into enzyme specificity, using trypsin and amylase. HSW - Lock and key' versus 'induced fit' Key diagram - Figure 3: Mechanism of enzyme action
How is the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction measured? How does temperature affect the rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction? How does pH affect the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction? How does substrate concentration affect the rate of reaction?
3.1.2
Measuring enzymecatalysed reactions - Effect of temperature on enzyme action - Effect of pH on enzyme action - Effects of substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme action
33-35
Practical Investigating the action of amylase on starch: testing for disappearance of substrate and formation of product Practical - To investigate the effect of varying temperature on the reaction rate of trypsin Practical - To investigate the efect of varying pH on the reaction rate of trypsin Key diagram - Figure 3: Effect of temperature on the rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction Practical - An investigation into the effect of varying concentration of hydrogen peroxide on the reaction rate of catalase Key diagram - Figure 6: Effect of substrate concentration on the rate of an enzymecontrolled reaction
Enzyme inhibition
How do competitive inhibitors and non-competitive inhibitors affect the active site? What is enzyme inhibition?
3.1.2
36-37
Extension - Enzyme inhibitors, friends and foes Key diagram - Figure 2: Non-competitive inhibition
3 Cells and movement in and out of them Investigating the structure of cells
What is magnification and resolution? What is cell fractionation? How does ultracentrifugation work?
3.1.3
40-42
Maths skills - How magnified is it? Maths skills Measuring organelles Maths skills Thinking in 3D Practical - Using an optical microscope to observe specimens on prepared slides Practical Micrometry: observing specimens seen in the microscope Practical Microscopy;preparati on of temporary mounts and staining Key diagram - Table 1: Units of length Practical - Cell fractionation of potato: can starch and catalase be separated? Key diagram - Figure 2: Summary of cell fractionation
How do electron microscopes work? What are the differences between and transmission electron microscope and a scanning electron microscope? What are the limitations of the transmission and the scanning electron microscopes?
3.1.3
43-45
Key diagram - Figure 3: Part of an animal cell seen under a transmission electron microscope (TEM)
What is the structure and function of the nucleus? What is the structure and function of mitochondria? What is the structure and function of rough endoplasmic reticulum? What is the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus? What is the structure and function of lysosomes? What is the structure and function of microvilli? What can the ultrastructure of a cell indicate about its functions?
3.1.3
The nucleus The mitochondrion Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Ribosomes Microvilli Relating cell ultrastructure to function
46-49
Key diagram - Figure 5: The basic structure of a mitochondrion (top); false-colour transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of a mitochondrion (bottom) Key diagram - Figure 7: False-colour transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of a Golgi apparatus (orange)
Lipids
How are triglycerides formed? How can fatty acids vary? What is the structure of a phospholipid? How is the presence of a lipid identified?
3.1.3
50-51
What is the structure of the cell-surface membrane? What are the functions of the various components of the cell-surface membrane? What is the fluid-mosaic model?
3.1.3
52-53
Animation The fluid mosaic model Extension Microscopy; aspects of epithelial cells of the small intestine Practical - To investigate the effect of variation in temperature on the permeability of cell membranes, using fresh beetroot. Maths skills - Graph of Betalin release from beetroot tissue Key diagram - Figure 1: The fluid-mosaic model of the cellsurface membrane
Diffusion
What is diffusion and how does it occur? What affects the rate of diffusion? How does facilitated diffusion differ from diffusion?
3.1.3
54-56
Osmosis
What is osmosis? What is the water potential of pure water? What is the effect of solutes on water potential? How does water potential affect water movement? What is the result of placing animal cells and plant cells into pure water?
3.1.3
What is osmosis? - Solutions and water potential - Explanation of osmosis - Understanding water potential - Osmosis and animal cells Application - Osmosis and plant cells
57-60
Practical - To investigate the effect of varying solute concentration on the rate of water uptake by potato tuber tissue Maths skills - Are negative numbers confusing Maths skills Drawing a graph with negative axes HSW - John Snow and the communication of cholera Key diagram - Figure 1: Osmosis
Active transport
What is active transport? What does active transport require to take place?
3.1.3
61-62
Key diagram - Figure 1: Active transport Extension - The digestion of lactose and lactose intolerance
What part do villi and microvilli play in absorption? How are the products of carbohydrate digestion absorbed in the small intestine? What are the roles of diffusion, active transport and co-transport in the process?
3.1.3
Villi and microvilli - The role of diffusion in absorption - Role of active transport in absorption
63-64
Cholera
What are prokaryotic cells? How do prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes? What causes cholera and how does it produce the symptoms?
3.1.3
Structure of a bacterial cell How the cholera bacterium causes disease Application - Transmission of cholera
65-67
What is oral rehydration therapy and how does it work? How have more effective rehydration solutions been developed? What are the advantages of using starch in place of some glucose in rehydration solutions? How do drug trials follow a regulated set of ethical procedures?
3.1.3
What causes diarrhoea? What is oral rehydration therapy? Application and How science works - Developing and testing improved oral rehydration solutions - Testing new drugs, including oral rehydration solutions
68-70
HSW - The applications and ethical considerations of oral rehydration therapy Extension Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; cholera; membrane transport; ORT
Mammalian lungs
74-75
Key diagram - Figure 1: The gross structure of the human gasexchange system Animation Lung structure and function
How is air moved into the lungs when breathing in? How is air moved out of the lungs when breathing out? What is meant by pulmonary ventilation and how is it calculated?
3.1.4
76-77
Extension Breathing, PVR, gas percentages at four locations Practical Measurement of vital capacity, peak flow and height in people
What are the essential features of exchange surfaces? How are gases exchanged in the alveoli of humans?
3.1.4
78-79
What is the cause of pulmonary tuberculosis? What are the symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis? How is pulmonary tuberculosis transmitted between individuals in the population? How does disease develop within the body?
3.1.4
Causes and symptoms Transmission Course of infection Application and How science works - Prevention and control of TB
80-81
What are fibrosis, asthma and emphysema? How do each of the above diseases affect lung function?
3.1.4
Pulmonary fibrosis Asthma Emphysema Application and How science works - Risk factors for lung disease
82-85
HSW - Asbestos and its affects Key diagram - Figure 3: In the lung of a person with emphysema Simulation - Lungs
Structure of the human heart Supplying the heart muscle with oxygen
88-89
Animation - Heart control of the cardiac cycle Animation Heart disease Practical - Heart and lung dissection Key diagram - Figure 2: Section through the human heart HSW - Harvey's heart
What are the stages of the cardiac cycle? How do valves control the flow of blood through the heart? What is myogenic stimulation of the heart? What are the roles of the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node and bundle of His in controlling the cardiac cycle?
3.1.5
Relaxation of the heart (diastole) Contraction of the atria (atrial systole) Contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systole) Valves in the control of blood flow Cardiac output How is the cardiac cycle controlled? - Pressure and volume changes of the heart
90-93
Key diagram - Figure 1: The cardiac cycle Practical - An investigation into the effect of exercise on heart rate Key diagram - Figure 5: Pressure and volume changes in the left side of the heart during the cardiac cycle Extension - Analysis of the events in the cardiac cycle
Heart disease
What is an atheroma? What do thrombosis and aneurysm mean? Why does atheroma increase the risk of thrombosis and aneurysm? What is a myocardial infarction? What are the factors that affect the incidence of coronary heart disease?
3.1.5
Atheroma Thrombosis Aneurysm Myocardial infarction Risk factors associated with coronary heart disease - Smoking - High blood pressure - Blood cholesterol - Diet Application - A calculated risk Application and How science works - Electrocardiogram
94-97
Defence mechanisms Recognising your own cells Application - How lymphocytes recognise their own cells
100-101
Animation Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis
What is the first line of defence against disease? What is phagocytosis? What is the role of lysosomes in phagocytosis?
3.1.6
102-103
What are antigens? What are the two main types of lymphocyte? What is the role of T cells (T lymphocytes) in cellmediated immunity?
3.1.6
Antigens Lymphocytes Cell-mediated immunity - How T cells kill infected cells Application - Bird flu
104-106
What is the role of B cells (B lymphocytes) in humoral immunity? What are the roles of plasma cells and antibodies in the primary immune response? What is the role of memory cells in the secondary immune response? How does antigenic variation affect the bodys response to infection?
3.1.6
107-108
Animation Humoral response Extension - The science and ethics of transplanting pig hearts into humans Key diagram - Figure 2: Summary of role of B cells in humoral immunity
Antibodies
What is the structure of an antibody? How do antibodies function? What is a monoclonal antibody? How are monoclonal antibodies produced? How are monoclonal antibodies used to target specific substances and cells?
3.1.6
Antibodies Monoclonal antibodies Application and How science works - Producing monoclonal antibodies Application and How science works - Ethical production and use of monoclonal antibodies
109-111
Key diagram - Figure 1: Structure of an antibody (left); molecular model of an antibody(right) Extension Monoclonal antibodies
10
Vaccination
What is a vaccine? What are the features of an effective vaccination programme? Why does vaccination rarely eliminate a disease? What ethical issues are associated with vaccination programmes?
3.1.6
Features of a successful vaccination programme Why vaccination does not eliminate a disease The problems of controlling cholera and tuberculosis by vaccination Application and How science works - MMR vaccine Application and How science works - The ethics of vaccination programmes
112-115
Page
Number
Electronic Resources
124-125
Types of variation
What are the types of variation? What is the mean of a normal distribution? What is standard deviation and how is it calculated?
3.2.1
Variation due to genetic factors Variation due to environmental influences Mean and standard variation - Calculating standard variation
126-127
Key diagram - Figure 3: The normal distribution curve showing values for standard deviation Practical - Collection and analysis of data relating to intraspecific variation
Nucleotide structure DNA structure - Pairing of bases - The double helix Function of DNA Application and How science works - Unravelling the code of DNA - DNA versus protein - Evidence that DNA is hereditary material - Proving that DNA is hereditary material
130-135
3.2.2
What is a gene? The triplet code Application - Features of the triplet code
136-137
How does DNA in prokaryotic organisms differ from the DNA in eukaryotic organisms? What is a chromosome? How are genes arranged on a DNA molecule? What are homologous chromosomes? What is an allele?
3.2.2
138-139
Why is meiosis necessary? What happens during meiosis? How does meiosis create genetic variation?
3.2.2
Why is meiosis necessary? The process of meiosis Independent segregation of homologous chromosomes - Variety from new genetic combinations Genetic recombination by crossing over
140-143
Animation Meiosis and genetic variation Key diagram - Figure 1: Summary of meiosis Key diagram - Figure 3: Crossing over Key diagram - Figure 4: Genetic variation as a result of recombination by crossing over
Genetic diversity Selective breeding The founder effect Genetic bottlenecks Application and How science works - Ethics of selective breeding in domesticated animals - Ethical implications
146-149
HSW - Where do your genes come from? HSW - Selective breeding in humans
12
- Selective breeding in cattle
Haemoglobin molecules The role of haemoglobin Why have different haemoglobins? - Why do different haemoglobins have different affinities for oxygen? - Loading and unloading oxygen
150-151
What is an oxygen dissociation curve? What is the effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the curve and why? How do the properties of the haemoglobins in different organisms relate to the environment and way of life of the organism concerned?
3.2.4
Oxygen dissociation curves Effects of carbon dioxide concentration Loading, transport and unloading of oxygen Application - Different lives different haemoglobins - Where you live is important - Size matters - Activity counts
152-155
Animation Oxygen dissociation HSW - EPO Key diagram - Figure 1: Oxygen dissociation curve for adult human haemoglobin Key diagram - Figure 2: The effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the oxygen dissociation curve
How are -glucose monomers arranged to form the polymers of starch and glycogen? How are -glucose monomers arranged to form the polymer cellulose? How do the molecular structures of starch, glycogen and cellulose relate to their functions?
3.2.4
156-157
Key diagram - Figure 1: Structure of a starch molecule Key diagram - Figure 3: Structure of a cellulose molecule
What is the structure of leaf palisade cells? What is the structure of a chloroplast and how is it related to its function? What is the plant cell wall composed of and what is its function? How do plant cells differ from animal cells?
3.2.4
Leaf palisade cell Chloroplasts Cell wall Differences between plant and animal cells Application - Specialised plant cells - The root hair cell - Xylem vessels - Other specialised cells
158-161
Key diagram - Figure 1: Representation of a leaf palisade cell as seen under a light microscope Extension Polysaccharides; plant cells Key diagram - Figure 2: Chloroplast structure
Semi-conservative replication Application and How science works - Evidence for semiconservative replication
164-167
Extension DNA and inheritance Key diagram - Figure 1: The semiconservative replication of DNA Key diagram - Figure 3: Different models of DNA replication
Mitosis
What is mitosis? When does DNA replication take place? What is the importance of mitosis?
3.2.5
168-169
Animation DNA replication Animation Mitosis Key diagram - Figure 1: The stages of mitosis in an animal cell
What are the three stages of the cell cycle? What happens during interphase? How does cancer and its treatment relate to the cell cycle?
3.2.5
170-171
172-173
HSW Stem cells Key diagram - Figure 1: Some of the various tissues that make up the organ called a leaf
Surface area to volume ratio Features of specialised exchange surfaces Application - Signifiance of the surface area to volume ratio in organisms
176-177
Practical - To investigate the effect of variation in size on the rate of heat loss HSW A question of scale
How do single-celled organisms exchange gases? How do terrestrial insects balance the need to exchange gases with the need to conserve water? How do insects exchange gases?
3.2.7
Gas exchange in singlecelled organisms Gas exchange in insects Application - Spiracle movements
178-179
What is the structure of fish gills? How is water passed along fish gills? What is the difference between parallel flow and countercurrent flow? How does countercurrent flow increase the rate of gas exchange?
3.2.7
180-181
How do plants exchange gases? What is the structure of dicotyledonous plant leaf? How is the leaf adapted for efficient gas exchange?
3.2.7
Structure of a plant leaf and gas exchange Stomata Application - Exchange of carbon dioxide
182-183
HSW - Carbon dioxide, climate change, and plants Key diagram - Figure 2: Section through a leaf of a dicotyledonous plant
How do large organisms move substances around their bodies? What are the features of the transport systems of large organisms? How is blood circulated in mammals?
3.2.7
Why large organisms need a transport system Features of transport systems Transport systems in mammals
184-185
What are the structures of arteries, arterioles and veins? How is the structure of each of the above vessels related to its function? What is the structure of capillaries and how is it related to their function?
3.2.7
Structure of blood vessels - Artery structure related to function - Arteriole structure related to function - Vein structure related to function - Capillary structure related to function Tissue fluid and its formation - Formation of tissue fluid - Return of tissue fluid to the circulatory system Application and how science works - Blood flow in various blood vessels
186-189
Key diagram - Figure 1: Comparison of arteries, veins and capillaries Practical - To investigate the nature of mass flow tissue in celery leaf petiole PracticalTo measure the rate of uptake of water by a cut, leafy shoot in still and moving air, using a simple potometer Key diagram - Figure 6: Formation and return of tissue fluid
How is water taken up by the root hairs? How does water pass through the cortex of a root? What are the apoplast and symplast pathways? How is water passed through the endodermic into the xylem?
3.2.7
Uptake of water by root hairs The apoplastic pathway The symplastic pathway Passage of water into the xylem
190-192
15
Movement of water up stems
What is transpiration? How does water move through the leaf? How does water move up the xylem?
3.2.7
Movement of water out through stomata Movement of water across the cells of a leaf Movement of water up the stem in the xylem Application - Hug a tree
193-195
Why does transpiration occur? How do external factors such as light, temperature, humidity and air movement affect transpiration?
3.2.7
Role of transpiration Factors affecting transpiration - Light - Temperature - Humidity - Air movement Application and How science works - Measurement of water uptake using a potometer
196-199
How do terrestrial organisms balance the need for gas exchange and the need to conserve water? How do plants adapt to living in areas where water loss from transpiration way exceed their water intake? What are xerophytic features?
3.2.7
Xerophytic plants Application - Not only desert plants have problems obtaining water
200-201
14 - Classification Classification
What is a species? How are species named? What are the principles of classification? How is classification related to evolution?
3.2.8
The concept of a species Naming species the binomial system Grouping species together the principles of classification Organising the groups of species taxonomy Phylogeny Application - The difficulties of defining species Application - Relationships
204-207
15 Evidence for relationships between organisms Genetic comparisons using DNA and proteins
How can comparisons of base sequences in DNA be used to investigate how closely related organisms are? What is DNA hybridisation and how is it used to determine relationships between organisms? How can comparisons of amino acid sequences in proteins be used to investigate the relationships between organisms? How are immunological comparisons used to investigate variations in proteins?
3.2.9
Comparison of DNA base sequences - DNA hybridisation Use of DNA base sequencing in classifying plants Comparison of amino acid sequences in proteins - Immunological comparisons of proteins Application - New classification of flowering plants Application and How science works - Establishing relationships
208-212
Courtship behaviour
What is the role of courtship in ensuring successful mating? How does courtship help members of a species recognise each other?
3.2.9
213-214
Mutations Conjugation Application and How science works - Discovering conjugation in bacteria
218-220
Antibiotics
What are antibiotics and how do they work? How do bacteria become resistant to antibiotics? How is resistance passed on to subsequent generations and other species?
3.2.10
221-222
How do strains of bacteria emerge that are resistant to many drugs? What are the implications of using antibiotics frequently? What are the problems in treating tuberculosis and MRSA?
3.2.10
Antibiotic resistance and tuberculosis Antibiotic resistance and MRSA Application and How science works - Implications of antibiotic use Application and How science works - A dilemma
223-225
226-228
Practical - To measure the diversity indices of lawn plants at two sites HSW Organic farming Extension Bovine TB and cattle
What is the influence of deforestation and the impact of agriculture on species diversity?
3.2.11
Impact of agriculture Impact of deforestation Application and How science works - Human activity and loss of species in the UK
229-230