econservation

the online magazine No. 21, September 2011

DETERIORATION AND RATES OF WEATHERING OF THE MONUMENTAL ROCK INSCRIPTIONS AT WADI HAMMAMAT, EGYPT

By Hesham Abbas Kmally

DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

The famous ornamental stone known in antiquity as ''Bekhenstone'' comes from the Wadi Hammamat area and it has been used for ornamental purposes since the ancient Egyptian times. The Wadi Hammamat is one of the most ancient archaeological sites in Egypt because of the important rock inscriptions scattered in the area, dating from before the earliest Egyptian dynasties to the late period. These rock inscriptions suffered from serious damage due to natural weathering, pollution, salt efflorescence and other physicochemical weathering. Field observations referred that hard cement mortars were used for repointing the greywacke rock inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat. The different rate of expansion and contraction between the cement mortar and the greywacke rocks will eventually lead to the separation of the two materials. This paper tries to clarify the main types of deterioration and measure the chemical alteration and geological characteristics of the monumental greywacke rocks. In order to achieve this, several studies were performed using a petrographic microscope, SEM micrographs, Xray fluorescence and Xray diffraction analysis. The results have shown that the greywackes have a moderate weathering and high content of ferromagnesian minerals.

Introduction In Wadi Hammamat there are outcrops for about two kilometers of the Bekhenstone (conglomer ates, silt stone and greywackes) that were quar ried by the ancient Egyptians from the Predynas tic times until the Roman period. These rocks, called the Hammamat formation, are a thick se quence of late Precambrian age distributed in the Eastern Desert of Eygpt. The Wadi Hammamat area can be found halfway of the road between Qift and Qusier. This area contains hundreds of hieroglyphic and hieratic rock inscriptions (Fig ure 1), texts that represent royal and private names varying in length from a single word to several lines. Some inscriptions show a number of cartouches of several kings of Egypt who sent several military and quarrying expeditions to ex tract greywacke rocks. These rocks were used to make several statues, vessels, sarcophagi and other ornamental structural elements from the Predynastic time to the Roman period. Romans built watchtowers on the tops of the mountains to guard the road, wells and quarries (Figure 2). The Hammamat quarry still contains remains of ancient quarrymen's huts on the north side of QiftQusier road, built with dark greywacke and
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silt stone (Figure 3). The region also includes Bir Hammamat, located in the Central Eastern Desert of Egypt at Wadi Hammamat, which is a Roman watering station serving traffic travelling along the QiftQusier road (Figure 4). The Hammamat Group includes a thick sequence of unmetamorphosed, clastic, coarsemedium and fine grained sediments of molasse facies [1, 2]. The Hammamat sediments formed by alluvial fan braided stream [3] and composed mainly of con glomerate, greywacke, arkose, siltstone and little of mudstone [4], are affected by a very low grade regional metamorphism, characterised by the presence of muscovite, sericite and chlorite [5]. In time, the rock inscriptions were affected by several types of deterioration, namely exfoli ation, flakes, pits, joints, fissures, overloading, thermal expansion, dissolution and salt efflores cence. The Hammamat quarries have influence by natural hazards, including torrential rains and flash floods, salt efflorescence, mechanical and chemical weathering. In most cases these hazards
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Figure 1. Example of rock inscriptions from Wadi Hammamat.

and weathering agents work together influencing or strengthening each other. Moisture and rains are considered the primary factors of deteriora tion of the rock inscriptions in the studied area. The interaction between the stone and moisture or rain results in the appearance of destructive subsurface patterns such as flaking, crumbling and cracking of the stone surface. Granular disintegration represents the most im portant weathering process as result from the hydration and dehydration of salts and hydrolysis processes. The intensive alteration of greywacke rocks is very porous, individual mineral grains are weakened and bonding between them is lost du ring wittingdrying cycles of moisture and salt crystallisation, ultimately causing flakes and gra nular disintegration of the inscriptions [6, 7]. In arid or semiarid regions insolation weather ing, the alternating warming and cooling of rock surfaces through solar heating, is capable of
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Figure 2. Roman stone watchtowers on the top of hills.

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DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

Figure 3. Remains of workmen huts.

Figure 4. Bir Hammamat, a Roman watering station for travellers.

breaking up rock inscriptions through thermal action [8]. Insolation weathering causes fracture of the minerals on the rock surface while the great temperature difference between the rock layers causes exfoliation [9], making the grey wacke rock to become weaker and more deform able. The majority of the rock fragments and different grains in the Hammamat sediments are composed of several elements with different chemical weathering. Thus, the major element contents (wt%) in the sedimentary rocks were used for calculating the rate of chemical altera tion and paleoweathering conditions [1014].

by SEM in the laboratories of the Scientific Mobark City in Alexandria. The present study tries to define the deterioration features and describe the conservation state of the rock inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat. A de tailed petrographic study covering about 20 thin sections was also performed.

Results and discussion Field observation Through a complete survey carried out by visual observation and digital photography at Wadi Hammamat quarries, we realised that there are different deterioration processes with varying degrees of weathering and decay features in the studied area. According to Fassina, all sediment ary, metamorphic and igneous rocks exposed to a weathering agents deteriorate continually as a result of physical and chemical processes [16]. Geologically, the Hammamat stone belong to the sedimentary rocks and have several weakness zones such as bedding, lamination, spherical and oval nodules from soft material. These zones are weaker than the rest of the rock, being more sus
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Materials and methods Fresh and weathered samples were collected from the rock inscriptions at Wadi Hammamat. The altered samples of siltstone and greywacke sur faces were studied by polarizing microscopy (PL), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Xray fluo rescence (XRF) and Xray diffraction (XRD) to determine their mineral composition, alteration products, morphological and the degree of chemi cal weathering. The major elements of greywacke rocks were determined by XRF at the central labo ratories of Egyptian Geological Survey, Cairo. Grey wacke samples were coated with gold and examined
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HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY

ceptible to weathering and erosion. Mechanically or structurally, the Hammamat stone inscriptions are predominantly dissected by many joint sets of different attitudes and separated by weathering processes as rectangular, angular and cuboidal joint blocks (Figure 5A). The process of jointing greatly increases the amount of surface space exposed to weathering. These joints in the rock allow the circulation of water and facilitate the disintegration of minerals by hydrolysis processes, leading to more mechanical and chemical weath ering. Several small and large pieces of greywacke are separated from the rock inscription walls due to the combination of bedding planes and vertical joints or inclined fractures (Figure 5B). It is also worth mentioning that the fall down of greywacke blocks lead to damage of many inscriptions. Wadi Hammamat was subject to heavy rains in 1925, 1954, 1960, 1979, 1987, 1991 and 1996 with an average amount of rain fall of 40300x106 mm3 over the area [17]. Several flash floods were also recorded in the Eastern Desert during the last decades (1969, 1980, 1984, 1985 and 1994) [18]. The rock slides in the area are attributed to structural features and a period of very high rain fall. The area has an arid desert climate, very high moisture in the early morning, appearing as con densation of water droplets on the surface of the greywacke and siltstone. Rocks may deteriorated and weaken by moisture and the action of water may reduce the compressive strength of sandstone up to 60% [19, 20]. The weathered rock inscrip tion surfaces show a dark brown ferruginous layer a few millimetres thick (Figure 5C) as a result of chemical processes (water action) that change ferrous iron to ferric iron in greywacke rocks. Also, chemical weathering leads to dissolution of calcite and clay nodules (Figure 5D) that create many fractures and extension fissures connected with the empty nodules (Figure 5E). The relative humidity (RH average) of the Eastern Desert
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ranges between 43% in summer to 48% in winter, while the temperature ranges between 21C and 41C and increase from north to south [18]. The temperature changes of the greywacke surface are due to warming by the sun during the day and cooling by night. The expansion and con traction are important thermophysical factors affecting their capacity to transform heat into mechanical external energy (tensile and shear ing stresses) leading to fractures and flakes in greywacke rocks. Spalling and flaking were ob served on the rock inscriptions as a result of the thermophysical action (Figure 5F). Contour scal ing phenomena was observed commonly in the studied area as several lamellar parallel the grey wacke surface as a result of thermophysical action and salt crystallisation (Figure 5G). Use of hard cement mortars for repointing greywacke rocks This is probably the most common form of human induced stone decay. Sedimentary rock walls need to breathe through porous to allow water to easily evaporate from them. Most cement mortars are harder, massive and less porous materials, so any evaporation is concentrated in the face of the rock rather than in the mortars filling joints, fractures and cleavages of greywacke rocks. This result in soluble salts crystallising in the surface layers of the greywackes and not in the adjoining mortar leading finally to flakes and crumbles of the rock rather than the pointing (Figure 5H). Interactions between the atmosphere and grey wackes or adjoining mortars lead to the formation of altered surface layers and producing damage in the original greywackes structure. The appear ance of salt efflorescence deposits over the rock inscriptions is common as a result of the reaction of Portland cement with the rock and/or atmo sphere pollution (Figure 5I). The main cause of damage of the cement mortars and their adjoining
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DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

Figure 5 (left to right, up tp down). Deterioration aspects of Hammamat quarry.(A) Several joint sets produced cuboidal jointing blocks. (B) The vertical joints intersecting the bedding plane and inclined fractures lead to damage the rock inscriptions. (C) The greywacke rock surfaces appear as a dark brown ferruginous layer. (D) Dissolution of calcite and clay nodules leads to serious loss of rock inscriptions. (E) Extension fissures developing on the rock inscriptions. (F) The mechanical spalling in the rock in scription. (G) Contour scaling on the greywacke surfaces as a result of high salt content near the surface. (H) Rock inscriptions flakes and crumbles as a result of repairs with Portland cement. (I) Whitish deposit over the surface due to the reaction of Portland ce ment with greywacke rock inscriptions.
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rock inscriptions is probably sulphating formation, in particular of gypsum and anhydrite. Sulphate damage is closely related to the location of the cement repair, indicating that the sulphate source is internal, obtained from a sulphurrich clinker phase in the cement mortars. Sulphates are also obtained from atmosphere pollution and soils. The different rate of expansion and contraction between the cement mortar and the greywackes will eventually lead to the two materials separat ing, a phenomenon referred to as bossing. Petrography of the altered greywackes (Polarizing Microscope) A Greywackes The examination of the greywacke samples thin section under polarized light microscope showed that the greywacke rock composed mainly of quartz, plagioclase, epidote and lithic fragments of sand size embedded in a finely crystalline pelitic ground mass (Figure 6A). The pelitic groundmass consists of chlorite, calcite, quartz, muscovite, sericite, epidote and iron oxides. Lithic fragments are subangular to rounded, composed mainly of glassy fragments and reworked siltstones. Quartz occurs as subangular to subrounded grains and stained by fine grained dust of ferric iron oxides as a result of alteration. Some quartz crystals show turbid colour, fractures and opening of microfrac tures as a result of mechanical external energy (tensile and shearing stresses) (Figure 6B). Plagioclase grains dissected by microfaults and partially altered to epidote and sericite (hydro mica) as a result of mechanical and chemical weathering (Figure 6C). Also, some of the weath ered plagioclase grain is completely kaolinitized due to chemical weathering. In some slices, plagio clase lamellae are bent as a result of deformation in greywacke rock. Sericite occurs as randomly small flakes and scaly aggregates that are frequently
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interlacing the quartz and plagioclase grains. The scaly aggregates of sericite filling the fractures in the quartz grains and replaced several plagio clase grains as a result of chemical activity of water and mechanical stress action, ultimately causes disintegration of the greywacke rocks. Calcite occurs as original mineral either as alte ration product of feldspar minerals or as a result of the chemical alteration by water. It appears as irregular patches scattered in the interspaces between the other constituents as a cement joint between grains and sometimes occurs as nodules scattered through the greywacke rocks. Epidote occurs as original mineral or as alteration products of feldspar minerals. Chlorite occurs as original mineral in the groundmass that cemented the greywacke rocks. Chlorite coats the quartz and plagioclase grains and gives the green pigmenta tion of greywacke rocks. Iron oxides are repre sented mainly by irregular granules, dust and films of hematite covering the other mineral constituents in the greywacke rocks. The grey wacke appears stained with a dark brown colour, indicating the presence of iron oxides suggesting extensive invasion of water and exposure to oxidizing conditions for a long period of time. B Foliated greywackes These rocks are fine grained, greenish grey in colour and foliated. They are composed mainly of subangular to subrounded quartz, plagioclase, clastic grains together with lithic fragments of sand size set in fine grained matrix of silty sand size consisting of quartz, chlorite, calcite, musco vite, epidote and iron oxides. The foliation is raised by the parallel arrangement of quartz, plagioclase, lithic fragments, chlorite and musco vite. The weathered plagioclase grain is partially kaolinitized and replacement by calcite patches due to chemical weathering.
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DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

Figure 6 (left to right). The examination of the greywacke samples thin section under cross polarised microscope.(A) grey wacke rock composed mainly of quartz, plagioclase and epidote embedded in pelitic groundmass. (B) Quartz crystals occur fractures and opening of microfractures. (C) Plagioclase grains dissected by microfaults and partially altered to epidote and sericite as a result of mechanical and chemical weathering.

Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM micrographs of the deteriorate rock inscrip tions show that the greywacke surface is rough, porous, crumbling, and fractures have flakes, scales and etch pits due to alteration and weath ering processes (Figure 7A). Mechanical weath ering effects take place in hot deserts such as Wadi Hammamat. The absorbed sun heat causes not only heating of the rock surface but also external mechanical stress for linear and volume expansion or contraction of the rock and its minerals [21]. These stresses are causing many fissures and flakes in greywacke as seen in SEM micrographs (Figure 7B). Several rock fragments weather and the surfaces can be seen rough, scaled and flaked as a result of the thermal action. On the other hand, the action of rain, moisture and groundwater on the greywackes can cause a diffe rent expansion and consequently contraction of minerals upon drying. Between wet and dry zones a shear force may set up and causes many fractures both between and within mineral grains. The SEM micrographs of greywackes show many deep fissures inside the internal structure and the opening of the mineral grains boundaries as a
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result of water action. Water weathering leads to changes of the mechanical behaviour and strength parameters of the rock. The rock strength para meters were changed by the development of crack fractures and microfractures due to water absorption [22]. Pits are also present on the studied samples, with diameters and depths ranging from macroscopic to microscopic scales. Secondary minerals such as chlorite, sericite, kaolinite and calcite typically cemented the greywackes. With prolonged wet ting and draying, these secondary minerals beco me soft and fail readily, creating numerous pits. For instance, the dissolution and leaching of calcite by acidic water lead to the formation of irregular pores which may be randomly distribu ted. Moreover, the increase in number and size of pits in the greywacke is due to the intermineral space that results from transformed several pri mary minerals into fine aggregates from secon dary minerals have total volume less than the total volume of the primary minerals (Figure 7G). For instance, several feldspars are pitting as a result of partially or completely altered to seri cite (hydromica) and clay minerals, through the
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Figure 7 (left to right). The SEM micrographs of external deteriorated greywacke surfaces (rock inscriptions). (A) The weathered greywacke surfaces are porous and fractures have flakes and scales. (B) Many fissures and flakes of rock break away from the greywacke surfaces (C) Kaolinite grains and several secondary minerals contain many residual pores between them.

dissolution and leaching processes. Generally the connected pores and microfracture within grey wacke minerals act as channels through which the soluble salts and the alteration products mi grate and cause many deterioration features in greywackes. These soluble salts entrapped in the pores, between grains and cover the greywacke surfaces, often causing microfractures, pores and fractures. In some weathered greywacke close to the position of the Portland cement mortars, the SEM micrographs show that the gypsum salts pre cipitate in pore spaces and coatings the calcite grains as a result of chemical processes. Ollier stated that a thermal and hydration stresses developed when salts precipitated in the pores and cracks between or in the grains of the rock [6]. The salt crystals expand and exerts hydra tion pressure against the pore and crack walls when hydrates. Ultimately the thermal and hydra tion processes lead to disintegration of the grey wacke rock. Sulphates may be coming from the atmosphere (pollution) or cement mortars. Interactions between the greywackes and the atmosphere or adjoining mortars leads to the formation of gypsum salts, producing damage to the original structural of greywacke rocks. SEM
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micrographs of some greywacke samples adjoining the cement mortars show crumple of the gypsum crust and rolled the outer layer of greywacke, ultimately separated from the rock inscriptions. Commonly, the salt weathering leads to flaking and scaling the stone surface [23, 24].

XRay Diffraction Analysis Four samples of greywacke rock inscriptions were collected and studied by Xray diffraction to de termine their mineral composition. The results of the analyses is shown in Table I. The altered grey wacke sample from the Hammamat quarry wall consists of quartz (SiO2), microcline (KALSi3O8), plagioclase, calcite (CaCO3), halite (NaCl), anhyd rite (CaSO4), iron oxide nontronite (smectite group), orthoclase, hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4), halloysite, kaolinite (hydrated aluminum silicate), greenalite (Fe2+, Fe3+) 23 SiO2O5(OH)4, chloritoid, magnesio chloritoid and forsterite (Mg2SiO4). The clay minerals shown in Table I are represented mainly by nontronite (smectite group) kaolinite
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DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

Table I. Results of Xray diffraction analysis of greywacke rocks from Wadi Hammamat.

Sample

Material Type

Chemical composition Quartz (51.65%), Microcline (3.2%), Calcite (5.89%), Halite (9.66%), Anhydrite (6.25%), Iron oxide (6.76%), Nontronite (smectite group, 5.58%), Caplagioclase (anorthite, 1.14%), Epidote (7.39%), and Chloritoid (Brittle mica, 2.48%)

Greywacke rock from Wadi Hammamat

Quartz (63.65%), orthoclase (14.51%), Hematite (3.63%), Anhydrite (13.56%), Epidote (4.65%) Quartz (62.35%), Microcline (6.01%), Calcite (8.11%), Magnetite (8.3%), Hematite (11.97%) Chloritoid (3.25%) Quartz (53.65 %), Halloysite (4.9%), Kaolinite (hydrated aluminum silicate) (4.56%), Gypsum (10.46 %), Hematite (4.33%), Greenalite (Fe2+, Fe3+) 23 SiO2O5 (OH)4 (8.5%), Magnesio chloritoid (5.7%), Forsterite (Mg2SiO4) (7.9%)

and halloysite, commonly dispersed as a result of chemical alteration of feldspar minerals and ferro magnesian minerals. The clay minerals normally occur as alteration products, filling the fractures, microfractures and cleavages. The change of the moisture content of clay minerals can cause signi ficant problems related to the high swelling pres sures such as the opening up of microfractures and fractures and lead to rock falls. The crystallisation of soluble salts in pores and cracks between or in the grains of rock is one of the major causes of greywackes decay in nature [25, 26]. Halite and gypsum accumulation occurs on the faces of the Hammamat stone inscriptions due to the influence of meteoric water, condensation, groundwater and Portland cement. XRD analyses have shown the predominance of gypsum in their crystalline phases (gypsum and anhydrite). The accumulation of gypsum and halite salts behind the rock inscrip tion surfaces lead to a detachment of the stone material in the form of granular disintegration, contour scaling and flaking.
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XRay Fluorescence Analysis Three samples from the altered greywacke rock inscriptions were collected and analysed by XRF to determine their elements. The results of this analysis are listed in Table II. There are some differences between the chemical composition of greywacke rocks in amounts of SiO2, TiO2, MnO, K2O, Fe2O3, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, CaO and Na2O. These differences may be due to the alteration and deterioration processes. The high amount of Na2O in greywacke samples is attributed to the greater amount of Narich plagioclase and alkali feldspar. The greywacke samples have a high content of iron oxides due to the mineral alteration and high content of MgO due to the high amount of phyllosilicate minerals such as chlorite, mica and clay minerals. Moreover, the CaO content is higher in greywacke samples, which can attributed to the greater amount of Carich plagioclase, epidote and carbonate minerals.
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Table I. Results of Xray diffraction analysis of greywacke rocks from Wadi Hammamat.

Samples SiO2 1 2 3 65.08 64.22 66.69 TiO2 0.58 0.70 0.82 Al2O3 13.25 13.90 14.50

Element Contents (wt %) Fe2O3 6.05 6.60 2.95 MnO 0.06 0.15 0.10 MgO 2.51 5.10 2.12 CaO 9.65 4.65 6.17 Na2O 2.03 2.62 4.70 K2O 0.75 0.98 1.19 Total 99.96 98.92 99.24

Chemical Classification Different diagrams were constructed to classify the sedimentary rocks according to the chemical analysis such those of Pettijohn et al. [27], Crook [28], and Blatt et al. [29].The analysed samples were plotted using Blatts Ternary diagram [29]. This diagram indicates that the plotted samples fall in the greywacke field lying close to the Fe2O3 + MgO field. This is again confirmed by plotting the samples on the Log (Na2O/K2O) versus Log (SiO2 /Al2O3) diagram, suggested by Pettijohn et al. [27], where the studied samples mostly fall in the greywacke field. Furthermore, the samples were plotted on the Na2O K2O diagram by Crook [28] where the all greywacke samples fall in the quartzintermediate field. Combining the three diagrams, the greywacke rock inscriptions can be described as ferromagnesian rich and quartz intermediate greywacke. The chemical classifica tion diagrams also prove that the greywackes have a high content of ferromagnesian minerals such as chlorite, mica, chloritoid (brittle mica), Magnesio chloritoid and forsterite (Mg2SiO4) as detected by XRD. The petrographic study suggests that the groundmass in greywacke consists essen tially in ferromagnesian minerals and calcite. It is know that the ferromagnesian minerals were rapidly altered as a result of chemical processes and converted into clay minerals.
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Degree of Weathering The degree of chemical weathering for greywacke rocks can be quantified by applying the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) [15]. The CIA was used to quantify and to calculate the degree of rock alteration and deterioration [10]. The CIA can be obtained by using the following equation: [Al2O3/ (Al2O3 + CaO* + Na2O + K2O)] 100. If the CIA value less than 50% it indicates that the rock is unweathered. In case the CIA value ranges between 50% and 75%, it indicates that the rock have a moderate weathering While if the value if more than 75% this indicate that the rocks suf fered strong weathering. The CIA values of the samples analysed were of 58, 69 and 73, indica ting a moderate weathering. This index reflects the chemical alteration of plagioclase, orthoclase, microcline and mica to kaolinite. Generally, this index is used for calculating the total chemical weathering of greywackes in Wadi Hammamat. Conclusions The greywacke rock inscriptions have significantly deteriorated in the last decades. Several types of rock deterioration can be found, namely exfolia tion, flakes, efflorescence, current detachment of stone material and deformation. The site is affected by a series of joints, faults, cracking,
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DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

sliding movements, dislocation block and rock falls. It is worth mentioning that the fall down of the stone blocks leads to the damage of many rock inscriptions carving on greywacke rocks. Furthermore, two types of the failure might result from thermal weathering (insolation weathering), including exfoliation and disintegration of the stone. In addition, water from rainwater, moisture and groundwater assist in the weathering of greywacke minerals, increasing the chemical weathering and leading to the formation of clay minerals. The petrographic analysis reveals that all the greywacke rocks are mainly cementing by calcite, iron oxides, sericite, chlorite and clay minerals. The ferromagnesian (chlorite, chlori toid, magnesio chloritoid and forsterite), iron oxide, calcite and clay minerals were easily al tered and removed by chemical weathering. With increasing grade of the chemical weathering by the dissolution of calcite and clay minerals the amount of microfractures and voids increases in the greywacke rocks and causing damage of the rock inscriptions. The XRF analysis reveals that the greywackes have a high content of Fe2O3 due to the alteration processes and the high content of MgO due to the high amount of ferromagnesian minerals. Gypsum, anhydrite and halite were the common salts developing in the greywacke rock inscriptions. High gypsum content near the sur face is a crucial factor for flaking, pitting and contour scaling, when the areas with high load of halite are characterised by a visibly darker weak surface. Gypsum and anhydrite formation cause damage of the Portland cement mortars and their adjoining rock inscriptions. The reaction between the cement mortar and the greywackes will eventually lead to flake, crumble and deterio rate greywacke rocks. The chemical classification diagrams confirmed that the greywacke rock can be described as ferromagnesian rich quartzinter mediate and have a high content of ferromagne sian minerals as detected from petrographic
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studied, XRD and XRF analysis . These minerals are easily altered and finally transformed into clay minerals and cause intensive disintegration of greywacke rock inscriptions. Moreover, the CIA values of the analysed greywacke samples indica ted a moderate to less strong weathering. Conse quently, we believe that the temperature change, moisture, rain, salts, and incorrect restoration representing the very important factors lead to the disintegration of greywacke rocks. Geochemically, the greywacke deterioration can be attributed to the dissolution of calcite, clay and iron oxides. Feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals by intensive alteration were easily remo ved, altered into iron oxides and clay minerals very rapidly and cause different deterioration features in the greywacke rock inscriptions.

Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank Dr. Mohamed Fathy, geology in the laboratory of Egyptian Geological Survey in Cairo for his helping during laboratory work. This work has been supported by the High Institute of Tourism and Restoration, AlexandriaEgypt.

References [1] M.K. Akaad, and A.M. Nowier, Geology and lithostratigraphy of the Arabian Desert Orogenic Belt of Egypt between Latitudes 25 30' and 26 30' N, Bulletin of the Institute of Applied Geology 4(3), King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah, 1980, pp. 127134 [2] M.K. Akaad, and A.M. Nowier., Lithostrati graphy of the Hammamat Um Seleimat district, Eastern Desert, Egypt, Nature 223, 1969, pp. 284285
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[3] B. Grothaus, D. Eppler and R. Ehrlich, Deposi tional environment and structural implication of the Hammamat formation, Annals of the Geolo gical Survey of Egypt 9, 1979, pp. 564590 [4] M. Ghanem, A.A. Dardir, M.H. Francis, A.A. Zalata, and K.M. Abu Zeid, Basement rocks in Eastern Desert of Egypt north of latitude 1640'N, Annals of the Geological Survey of Egypt 3, 1973 [5] A.E.A. Ahmed, M.L. Kabesh, and S.G. Mawas, Dokhan Volcanics of Abu Gawa area and their epiclastic derivatives Central Eastern Desert, Egypt, Bulletin of the Faculty of Science, Assiut University 17, 1988, pp. 195222 [6] C.D. Ollier, Weathering, Longman, New York, 1984 [7] G. Benito, M. J. Machado and C. Sancho, Sand stone weathering processes damaging prehistoric rock paintings at the Albarracin Cultural Park, NE Spain, Environmental Geology 22(1), 1993, pp. 7179, doi:10.1007/BF00775287 [8] M.J. Selby, Earth's changing surface. An intro duction to Geomorphology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1985 [9] L.P. Zhu, J.C. Wang, and B.Y. Li, The impact of solar radiation upon rock weathering at low temperature: A laboratory study, Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 14, 2003, pp. 6167, doi: 10.1002/ppp.440 [10] H.W. Nesbitt, and G.M. Young, Early Prote rozoic climates and plate motions inferred from major element chemistry of lutites, Nature 299, 1982, pp. 715717 [11] J.R. Price, M.A.Velbel, Chemical weather ing indices applied to weathering profiles develo
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ped on heterogeneous felsic metamorphic parent rocks, Chemical Geology 202, 2003, pp. 397416 [12] Z. Jin, J. Cao, J. Wu and S. Wang, A Rb/Sr record of catchment weathering response to Holocene climate change in Inner Mongolia, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 31, 2006, pp. 285291, doi: 10.1002/esp.1243 [13] S.L. Yang, F. Ding, Z.L. Ding., Pleistocene chemical weathering history of Asian arid and semiarid regions recorded in loess deposits of China and Tajikistan, Geochimica et Cosmochi mica Acta 70, 2006, pp. 16951709, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2005.12.012 [14] S. Ceryan, New Chemical Weathering Indices for Estimating the Mechanical Properties of Rocks: A Case Study from the Krtn Granodiorite, NE Turkey, Turkish Journal of Earth Sciences 17, 2008, pp. 187207 [15] D.E. Kirkwood, H.W. Nesbitt, Formation and evolution of soils from an acidified watershed: Plastic Lake, Ontario, Canada, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55, 1991, pp. 12951308, doi: 10.1016/00167037(91)90308R [16] V. Fassina, Atmospheric pollutants respon sible for stone decay. Wet and dry surface deposi tion of air pollutants on stone and the formation of black scabs, in F. Zezza (ed.), Weathering and Air pollution, First Course, Community of Mediter ranean Universities, University School of Monu ment Conservation, Mario Adda Editore, Bari, 1991, pp. 6786 [17] M.B. Ismaiel, Geoarchaeological Study on Rock Art Sites, with Special Emphasis on Gebel El Silsilah and Wadi Hammamat, Qena 7(2), Faculty of Arts South Valley University, 1996, pp. 759
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DETERIORATION OF ROCK INSCRIPTIONS IN EGYPT

[18] A.A. Abdel Monein, Overview of the geomor phological and hydrogeological characteristics of the Eastern Desert of Egypt, Hydrogeology Journal 13(2), 2005, pp. 416425, doi:10.1007/s10040 0040364y [19] K.I. Meiklejohn, Aspects of the weathering of the Clarens formation in the KwazuluNatal drakens berg. Implications for the preservation of indige nous rock art, PhD Thesis, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1995, unpublished [20] F.G. Bell, Engineering properties of soils and rocks, Butterworths, London, 1983 [21] S.M. Soliman, Thermal weathering of sedimen tary ancient monuments, Department of Geology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, 1999 [22] P. A. Rebinder, L. A. Shreiner, K. F. Zhigach, Hardness reducers in drilling: a physicochemical method of facilitating the mechanical destruction of rocks during drilling, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 1948 [23] D.A. Robinson, and R.B.G. Williams, (eds), Rock Art and Landform Evolution, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1994 [24] S. Hoerle, A preliminary study of the weath ering activity at the rock art site of Game pass shelter(KwazuluNatal) in relation to its conserva tion, South African Journal of Geology 108(2), 2005, pp. 297308, doi: 10.2113/108.2.297 [25] I.S. Evans, Salt crystallisation and weath ering: a review, Revue de Geomorphologie Dyna mique 19, 1970, pp. 15377 [26] E.M. Winkler, and P.C. Singer, Crystallisation pressure of salts in stone and concrete, Geological Society of America Bulletin 83, 1972, pp. 35093514
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HESHAM ABBAS KMALLY Conservation scientist Contact: heshamabbas@windowslive.com Hesham Kmally is a conservation scientist specialised in conservation of rock inscriptions. He obtained his Master degree in Geochemistry, Petrography and Structural Studies of Rocks from South Valley University, Egypt in 1999. He was director of the Conservation Center at the Nubia Museum in Alexandria, Egypt up to 2003, after which he pursued a PhD in Archaeological Quar rying and Conservation of Rock Inscriptions in Aswan from the same university in 2005. He now works at the Conservation Department of the High Institute of Tourism, Hotel Management and Restoration, Egypt.
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