PART ONE The Creation of American Society 14501775 Objectives 1.

What were the main characteristics of traditional European society, and how successfully did European settlers replicate that society in America? 2. How did the Columbian Exchange affect the lives of Europeans and Native Americans? 3. How did whites, Native Americans, and Africans interact socially and economically? 4. How did traditional English notions of government give way to calls for political sovereignty and representative assemblies in America? 5. How did family roles, immigrants, and changing religious values affect the emergence of a new American identity? Chapter 1 Worlds Collide: Europe, Africa, and America 1450-1620 Chapter Instructional Objectives 1. How did Native American peoples structure their societies? Why did each society develop different economic, social, and political systems? 2. What were the main characteristics of traditional European society? 3. How did the European Renaissance and Reformation affect the organization of American society? 4. Why did European nations pursue overseas exploration and colonization? 5. Why do historians describe the contact between Europeans and Native Americans as the Columbian Exchange? 6. How did the Spanish invasion of the New World affect the lives of peoples in the Americas, Europe, and Africa? I. A. Native American Worlds The First Americans 1. The first people to live in the Western Hemisphere were migrants from Asia; most came between 13,000 B.C. and 11,000 B.C. across a land bridge connecting Siberia and Alaska. 2. Glacial melting created the Bering Strait and isolated the people of the Western Hemisphere for three hundred generations. 3. Around 6000 B.C. the ancestors of the Navajos and the Apaches crossed the Bering Strait, followed by the ancestors of the Eskimos around 3000 B.C. 4. For centuries, Native Americans were hunter gatherers; they developed horticulture around 3000 B.C. 5. Agricultural surplus led to populous and wealthy societies in Mexico, Peru, and the Mississippi River Valley. The Mayas and the Aztecs 1. The flowering of civilization began among the Mayan peoples of the Yucatn Peninsula and Guatemala; they built large religious centers and urban communities. 2. An elite class claiming descent from the gods ruled Mayan society and lived off the goods and taxes of peasant families. Beginning around A.D.800,Mayan civilization declined. 3. A second major Mesoamerican civilization developed around the city of Teotihuacn; by A.D. 800,Teotihuacn had also declined. 4. In A.D.1325 the Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitln (Mexico City), where they established a hierarchical social order and subjugated most of central Mexico. 5. By A.D.1500, Tenochtitln had grown into a metropolis of over 200,000 inhabitants, and the Aztecs posed a formidable challenge to any adversary. The Indians of the North 1. The Indians north of the Rio Grande had smaller, less coercive societies; in A.D.1500, most of these societies were self-governing tribes composed of clans. 2. Clan leaders resolved feuds and disciplined individuals, but because clan leaders were not as coercive, they had less power than the Mayan and Aztec nobles. 3. Some tribes exerted influence over their immediate neighbors through trade or conquest; byA.D.100, the Hopewells had spread their influence through Wisconsin and Louisiana. 4. For unknown reasons the Hopewell trading network gradually collapsed around A.D.400. 5. In the Southwest the complex Hohokam and Mogollon cultures developed by A.D.600, and the Anasazi culture developed by A.D.900. Drought brought on the collapse of both of these cultures after A.D.1150. 6. The advanced farming technology of Mesoamerica spread into the Mississippi Valley around A.D.800; the Mississippian society was the last large-scale culture to emerge north of the Rio Grande. 7. By A.D.1350, overpopulation, disease, and warfare over fertile bottomlands led to the decline of the Mississippian civilization. 8. Horticulture was a significant part of the lives of the women of the eastern Woodland peoples, and because of the importance of farming, a matrilineal inheritance system developed. 9. Due to their adeptness at farming, these Indian peoples ate well, but their populations grew slowly. 10. By A.D.1500, there were no great Indian empires left to lead a military campaign against the European invasion.

B.

C.

II. A.

Traditional European Society in 1450 The Peasantry 1. There were only a few large cities in Western Europe before A.D.1450; more than 90 percent of the population were peasants living in small rural communities. 2. Cooperative farming was a necessity, and most farm families exchanged their surplus farm products with their neighbors or bartered it for local services. 3. Most peasants yearned to be yeomen, owners of small farms that provided a marginally comfortable living, but few achieved that goal. 4. As with the Native American cultures, many aspects of European life followed a seasonal pattern; even European birth patterns appear to have been seasonal. 5. Mortality rates among the peasants were high; life consisted of little food and much work. 6. The deprived rural classes of Britain, Spain, and Germany constituted the majority of white migrants to the Western Hemisphere. B. Hierarchy and Authority 1. In the traditional European social order, authority came from above; kings and princes lived in splendor off the labor of the peasantry. 2. Collectively, noblemen had the power to challenge royal authority; after A.D.1450, kings began to undermine the power of the nobility and create more centralized states. 3. The peasant man ruled his women and children; his power was codified in laws, sanctioned by social custom and justified by the teachings of the Christian Church. 4. The inheritance practice of primogeniture forced many younger children to join the ranks of the roaming poor; there was little personal freedom or individual fulfillment for these peasants. 5. Hierarchy and authority prevailed because they offered a measure of social stability; these values shaped the American social order well into the eighteenth century. C. The Power of Religion 1. The Roman Catholic Church served as one of the great unifying forces in Western European society; the Church provided a bulwark of authority and discipline. 2. Christian doctrine penetrated the lives of peasants; to avert famine and plague, Christians offered prayer and turned to priests for spiritual guidance. 3. Crushing other religions and suppressing heresies among Christians was an obligation of rulers and a task of the new orders of Christian knights. 4. Between A.D.1096 and 1291, successive armies of Christians embarked on Crusades; Muslims were a prime target of the crusaders. 5. The Crusades strengthened the Christian identity of the European population and helped broaden the intellectual and economic horizons of the European privileged class. III. Europe Encounters Africa and the Americas, 14501550 A. The Renaissance 1. Stimulated by the wealth and learning of the Arab world and the reintroduction of Greek and Roman texts, Europe experienced a rebirth; the Renaissance had the most impact on the upper classes. 2. A new ruling class of moneyed elitemerchants, bankers, and textile manufacturers created the concept of civic humanism. This concept celebrated the public expression of virtue and public service. 3. Works by artists such as Michelangelo, Palladio, and da Vinci were part of a flowering of artistic genius. 4. Following Niccol Machiavellis advice in The Prince (1513), an alliance of monarchs, merchants, and royal bureaucrats challenged the power of the agrarian nobility. 5. The increasing wealth of the monarchical nation-state propelled Europe into its first age of expansion. 6. Because Arabs and Italians dominated trade in the Mediterranean, Prince Henry of Portugal sought an alternate oceanic route to Asia; under Henrys direction, Portugal led European expansion overseas. 7. By the 1440s the Portuguese were the first Europeans engaged in the African slave trade. B. West African Society and Slavery 1. Most West Africans farmed small plots and lived with extended families in small villages that specialized in certain crops; they traded goods with one another. 2. West Africans spoke many different languages and formed hundreds of distinct groups, the majority of which lived in hierarchical societies ruled by princes. 3. Most peoples had secret societies that united people from different lineage and exercised political influence. 4. Their spiritual beliefs were varied; some were Muslim, but most recognized a variety of deities. 5. At first, European traders had a positive impact on the West African peoples by introducing new plants, animals, and metal products and by expanding the African trade networks. 6. Inland trade remained in the hands of Africans because the death rate among Europeans was often 50 percent a year due to disease. 7. A small portion of West Africans were trade slaves, mostly war captives and criminals sold from one kingdom to another. 8. Europeans soon joined the West Africans long-established trade in humans; by 1700, Europeans shipped hundreds of

thousands of slaves to American plantations. Europe Reaches the Americas 1. While they traded with the Africans, the Portuguese continued to look for a direct ocean route to Asia. 2. Bartholomew Das sailed around the southern tip of Africa in 1488,and ten years later Vasco da Gama reached India. 3. In 1502, Vasco da Gamas ships outgunned Arab fleets; the Portuguese government soon opened trade routes from Africa to Indonesia and up the coast of Asia to China and Japan. 4. The Portuguese replaced the Arabs as leaders in world commerce and African slave trade. 5. Spain followed Portugals example, but they sought a western route to the riches of the East. 6. Christopher Columbus, a Christian and Genoese sea captain, set sail on August 3, 1492, with the support of Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, and financially backed by Spanish merchants. 7. In addition to searching for riches, Ferdinand and Isabella wanted Columbus to carry Catholicism to the peoples of Asia. 8. On October 12, 1492, Columbus landed on what he thought was the Indies and called the native inhabitants Indians; he had actually landed at the present-day Bahamas. 9. Although Columbus found no gold, the monarchs sent three more expeditions over the next twelve years; the Spanish monarchs wanted to make the new land they called Las Indias a Spanish empire. D. The Spanish Conquest 1. To encourage adventurers to expand its American empire, the Spanish crown offered plunder, landed estates, titles of nobility, and Indian laborers in the conquered territory. 2. In 1519, Hernn Corts and his fellow Spanish conquistadors landed on the Mexican coast and overthrew the Aztec empire. 3. Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, believed that Corts might be a returning god and allowed him to enter the empire without challenge; the empires collapse was mainly due to internal rebellion and death by disease. 4. In the late 1520s the Spanish conquest entered a new phase when Francisco Pizarro overthrew the Inca empire in Peru; the Incas were also easy prey due to internal fighting over the throne and disease brought by the Spanish. 5. In little more than a decade, Spain had become the master of the wealthiest and most populous regions of the Western Hemisphere. 6. The conquests devastated the Native American population, and survivors were forced to work on plantations. 7. The Spanish invasion of the Americas had a significant impact on life in Europe and Africa due to a process of transfer known as the Columbian Exchange. 8. Native Americans lost part of their cultural identity; a new mestizo, or mixed-race, culture emerged. 9. Indians who resisted assimilation lacked the numbers or the power to oust Spanish invaders; for the original Americans, the consequences of the European intrusion were tragic and irreversible. IV. The Protestant Reformation and the Rise of England A. The Protestant Movement 1. Christianity ceased to be a unifying force in European society as new religious doctrines divided Christians into armed ideological camps of Catholics and Protestants. 2. Over the centuries the Catholic Church became a large and wealthy institution, controlling vast resources and political power throughout Europe. 3. Martin Luther publicly challenged Roman Catholic practices and doctrine with his Ninety-five Theses; the document condemned the sale of indulgences by the Church. 4. Luther argued that people could be saved only by grace, not good works. He dismissed the need for priests to act as intermediaries between Christians and God and downplayed the role of high-ranking clergymen and popes by naming the Bible the ultimate authority in matters of faith. 5. As peasants mounted violent social protests of their own, Luther urged obedience to established political institutions and condemned the teachings of religious dissidents more radical than him. 6. The Peace of Augsburg allowed princes to decide the religion of their subjects; southern German rulers installed Catholicism, and Northern German rulers chose Lutheranism. 7. In his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536), Protestant John Calvin preached predestinationthe idea that God determines who will be saved before they are born. 8. Despite widespread persecution, Calvinists won converts all over Europe. 9. When the pope denied his request for a marriage annulment, King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church and created a national Church of England the Anglican Church. 10. Henrys daughter, Elizabeth I, combined Lutheran and Calvinist beliefs. Angered by Elizabeth, some radical Protestants took inspiration from the Presbyterian system in which male church elders guided the church. 11. Other radical Protestants called themselves Puritans; they wanted to purify the church of false Catholic teachings and practices. B. The Dutch and the English Challenge Spain 1. King Philip II wanted to root Protestantism out of the Netherlands. 2. To protect their Calvinism and political liberties, the seven northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands declared their independence in 1581 and became the Dutch Republic (or Holland). 3. In 1588 the Spanish Armada sailed out to reimpose Catholic rule in England and Holland but was defeated. C.

As Spanish government and economy struggled, the Dutch Republic became the leading commercial power of Europe. Englands economy was stimulated by a rise in population and mercantilism, a system of state-supported manufacturing and trade. 6. Mercantilist-minded monarchs like Queen Elizabeth encouraged merchants to invest in domestic manufacturing, thereby increasing exports and decreasing imports. 7. By 1600 the success of merchant-oriented policies helped to give the English and the Dutch the ability to challenge Spains monopoly in the Western Hemisphere. C. The Social Causes of English Colonization 1. The Price Revolution, major inflation, caused social changes in England; the nobility were its first casualties largely because they had rented their lands on long-term leases at low rents. 2. In two generations the price of goods tripled, but income from rents barely increased, causing aristocrats to lose wealth. 3. As the influence of the House of Commons increased, rich commoners and small property owners had a voice; this had profound consequences for English and American political history. 4. Due to enclosures and inflation, many peasants lost the means to earn a living and were willing to go to America as indentured servants, while yeomen looked to America to secure land for their children. 5. This massive migration to America brought about a new collision between European and Native American worlds. Chapter 2 The Invasion and Settlement of North America, 1550 1700 Objectives 1. What goals did the Spanish, French, Dutch, and English pursue in North America? How did these ambitions lead to different settlement patterns? 2. How did the European settlements of North America affect Native American populations? 3. How and why did a system of forced labor emerge in the Chesapeake and Virginia colonies? 4. What were the economic, religious, political, and intellectual foundations of Puritan society in New England? 5. How did colonial society in the Chesapeake region differ from that of New England? 6. How did the conflicts of the 1670s affect relations among colonists, Indians, and Africans in America? I. A. Imperial Conflicts and Rival Colonial Models New Spain: Colonization and Conversion 1. Spanish adventurers were the first Europeans to explore the southern and western United States. 2. By the 1560s their main goal was to prevent other Europeans from establishing settlements. 3. In 1565, Spain established St. Augustine, the first permanent European settlement in America; most of Spains other military outposts were destroyed by Indian attacks. 4. In response to the Indian attacks, the Spanish adopted The Comprehensive Orders for New Discoveries (1573) and employed missionaries. 5. For Franciscans, religious conversion and assimilation went hand in hand, but Spanish rule was not benevolent. 6. Most Native Americans tolerated the Franciscans, but when Christian prayers failed to prevent disease, drought, and Apache raids, many returned to their ancestral religions and blamed the Spanish for their ills. 7. Santa Fe was established in 1610, and after the Indian revolts, the system of missions and forced labor was reestablished. 8. By 1680 many Pueblos in New Mexico were faced with extinction; the Pueblos eventually joined with the Spanish to protect their lands against nomadic Indians. 9. Spain maintained its northern empire but did not achieve religious conversion or cultural assimilation of the Native Americans. 10. The cost of expansion delayed the Spanish settlement of California. New France: Furs and Souls 1. Quebec, established in 1608, was the first permanent French settlement; New France became a vast fur-trading enterprise. 2. The Hurons, in exchange for protection from the Iroquois, allowed French traders into their territory. 3. French traders set in motion a series of devastating Indian wars over the fur market, and they also brought disease to the Indians. 4. Beginning in the 1640s, the New York Iroquois seized control of the fur trade and forced the Hurons to migrate to the north and west. 5. While French traders amassed furs, French priests sought converts; unlike the Spanish, French missionaries did not use Indians for forced labor, and they won religious converts by addressing the needs of the Indians. New Netherland: Commerce 1. The Dutch republic emphasized commerce over religious conversion. 2. In 1621 the West India Company had a trade monopoly in West Africa and exclusive authority to establish outposts in America. 3. The company founded the town of New Amsterdam as the capital of New Netherland. 4. To encourage migration, the company granted land along the Hudson River to wealthy Dutchmen. 5. New Netherland failed as a settler colony but flourished briefly in fur trading. 6. When the Dutch seized prime farming land from the Algonquians and took over their trading network, the Algonquians responded with force.

4. 5.

B.

C.

7.

D.

II. A.

B.

C.

D.

The West India Company largely ignored the floundering Dutch settlement and concentrated instead on the profitable importation of African slaves to their sugar plantations in Brazil. 8. The Dutch ruled New Amsterdam shortsightedly, rejecting requests for representative government, and after a lightly resisted 1664 English invasion, New Amsterdam happily accepted English rule. The First English Model: Tobacco and Settlers 1. English merchants replaced the landed gentry as the leaders of English expansion. 2. In 1606, King James I granted a group of London merchants the right to exploit from present-day North Carolina to southern New York; this region was named Virginia. 3. In 1607 the Virginia Company sent an expedition of men to North America, landing in Jamestown, Virginia; the goal of the Virginia Company was trade, not settlement. 4. Life in Jamestown was harsh: death rates were high, there was no gold and little food. 5. Native American hostility was another major threat to the survival of the settlement; as conflicts over food and land increased, Chief Powhatan threatened war with the settlers. 6. Tobacco farming became the basis of economic life and an impetus for permanent settlement in Jamestown. 7. To encourage English settlement, the Virginia Company granted land to freemen, established a headright system and a local court system, and approved a system of representative government under the House of Burgesses. 8. The resulting influx of settlers sparked war with the Indians but did not slow expansion; by 1630,English settlement in the Chesapeake Bay was well established. The Chesapeake Experience Settling the Tobacco Colonies 1. In 1622, James I dissolved the Virginia Company and created a royal colony in Virginia in 1624. 2. The Church of England was established in Virginia, and property owners paid taxes to support the clergy. 3. The model for royal colonies in America consisted of a royal governor, an elected assembly, and an established Anglican Church. 4. King Charles I conveyed most of the territory bordering the Chesapeake to Lord Baltimore, a Catholic aristocrat. 5. Baltimore wanted Maryland to become a refuge from persecution for English Catholics; settlement of Maryland began in 1634. 6. Baltimore granted the assembly the right to initiate legislation. 7. A Toleration Act was enacted in 1649, granting religious freedom to all Christians. 8. Demand for tobacco started an economic boom in the Chesapeake and attracted migrants, but diseases, especially malaria, kept population low and life expectancy short. Masters, Servants, and Slaves 1. The majority of migrants to Virginia and Maryland were indentured servants; most masters ruled with beatings and withheld permission to marry. 2. Most indentured servants did not achieve the escape from poverty they had sought, although about 25 percent benefited from their ordeal, acquiring property and respectability. 3. The first African workers fared even worse than the indentured servants, and their numbers remained small. 4. At first, Africans were not legally enslaved, although many served their masters for life. 5. By becoming a Christian and a planter, an enterprising African could sometimes aspire to near equality with English settlers. 6. In the 1660s, Chesapeake legislatures began enacting laws that lowered the status of Africans; being a slave had become a permanent and hereditary condition. The Seeds of Social Revolt 1. By the 1660s the Chesapeake tobacco market had collapsed and long-standing conflicts between rich planters and men with small farms or no property flared up in political turmoil. 2. In an effort to exclude Dutch and other merchants, Parliament passed an Act of Trade and Navigation (1651), permitting only English or colonial-owned ships into American ports. 3. The number of tobacco planters increased, but profit margins were growing thin; the Chesapeake ceased to offer upward social mobility to whites as well as blacks. 4. The Chesapeake colonies came to be dominated by elite planter-landlords and merchants. 5. Social tensions reached a breaking point in Virginia during Governor William Berkeleys regime; Berkeley gave tax-free land grants to himself and members of his council. 6. The corrupt House of Burgesses changed the voting system to exclude landless freemen, but distressed property-holding yeomen were no longer willing to support the rule of the corrupt landed gentry. Bacons Rebellion 1. Poor freeholders and aspiring tenants wanted the Indians removed from the treaty guaranteed lands along the frontier. 2. Wealthy planter-merchants were opposed to Indian removal; they wanted to maintain the labor supply and to continue trading furs with the Native Americans. 3. Poor freeholders and propertyless men formed militia and began killing Indians; the Indians retaliated by killing whites.

Not wanting the fur trade disrupted, Governor Berkeley proposed building frontier forts. Settlers saw Berkeleys strategy as a plot to impose high taxes and to take control of the tobacco trade. Nathaniel Bacon, a member of the governors council, led a protest against Berkeleys strategy; Bacon and his men killed a number of peaceful Indians for which Berkeley arrested Bacon. 7. When Bacons militant supporters threatened to free Bacon by force, Berkeley agreed to political reforms and restored voting rights to landless freemen. 8. Not satisfied, Bacons men burned Jamestown and issued a Manifesto and Declaration of the People, demanding removal of all Indians and an end to the rule of wealthy parasites. 9. Although Bacon died in 1676, Bacons Rebellion prompted tax cuts, a reduction of corruption, opening of public offices to yeomen, and the expansion into Indian lands. 10. To forestall another rebellion among former indentured servants, Virginia and Maryland turned away from indentured servitude, and laws were enacted to legalize African slavery. III. Puritan New England A. The Puritan Migration 1. New England differed from other European settlements; it was settled by men, women,and children. 2. The Pilgrims, Puritans who were Separatists from Englands Anglican Church, sailed to America in 1620 on the Mayflower. 3. They created the Mayflower Compact, a covenant for religious and political autonomy and the first constitution in North America. 4. The first winter in America tested the Pilgrims as hunger and disease took a heavy toll; thereafter, the Plymouth Colony became a healthy and thriving community. 5. After having Anglican rituals forced upon their churches, Puritans sought refuge in America; in 1630, John Winthrop and 900 Puritans established the Massachusetts Bay colony. 6. Over the next decade, 10,000 Puritans migrated to Massachusetts Bay along with 10,000 others fleeing hard times in England. 7. The Puritans created representative political institutions that were locally based. 8. The right to vote and hold office was limited to Puritan church members, and the Bible was the legal as well as spiritual guide for Massachusetts Bay. B. Religion and Society, 16301670 1. Puritans eliminated bishops and devised a democratic church structure; influenced by John Calvin, they believed in predestination. 2. Puritans dealt with the uncertainties of divine election in three ways: conversion experience, a born-again conviction of salvation; preparation, confidence in redemption built on years of piety and discipline; and belief in a covenant with God that promised salvation in exchange for obedience to Gods laws. 3. Puritans of Massachusetts Bay felt that they must purge their society of religious dissidents. 4. Roger Williams, a religious dissident, and his followers founded settlements in Rhode Island, where there was no legally established church. 5. Anne Hutchinson was considered a heretic because her beliefs diminished the role of Puritan ministers; Puritans believed that when it came to governance of church and state, women were clearly inferior to men. 6. In 1636, Thomas Hooker and others left Massachusetts Bay and founded Hartford; in 1639, the Connecticut Puritans adopted the Fundamental Orders, which provided for a representative assembly and a popularly elected governor. 7. Connecticuts government also included a representative assembly and elected governor; Connecticut united church and state, but voting was not limited to church members. 8. England fell into a religious civil war between royalists and Parliamentary forces, and thousands of English Puritans joined the revolt, demanding greater authority for Parliament and reform of the established church. 9. After four years of civil war, Parliamentary forces led by Oliver Cromwell were victorious, but the Puritan triumph was short lived. 10. With the failure of the English Revolution, Puritans looked to create a permanent society in America based on their faith and ideals. C. The Puritan Imagination and Witchcraft 1. Puritans thought that the physical world was full of supernatural forces; their respect for spiritual forces perpetuated certain pagan superstitions shared by nearly everyone. 2. Between 1647 and 1662, Puritan civil authorities in Massachusetts and Connecticut hanged fourteen people for witchcraft. 3. In 1692 in Salem, Massachusetts, 175 people were arrested and 20 were hanged for witchcraft. 4. Popular revulsion against the executions dealt a blow to the dominance of religion in public life; there were no more legal prosecutions for witchcraft after 1692. 5. The European Enlightenment helped promote a more rational view of the world. D. A Yeoman Society, 16301700 1. Puritans instituted a fee simple land distribution policy that encouraged the development of self-governing communities.

4. 5. 6.

All landowners had a voice in the town meeting. Consequently, ordinary New England farmers enjoyed far more political power than their European or Chesapeake counterparts. 2. Puritans believed in a social and economical hierarchy: the largest plots of land were given to men of high social status. 3. As all male heads of families received some land, a society of independent yeomen farmers emerged. 4. Town meetings chose selectmen, levied taxes, and enacted ordinances and regulations; as the number of towns increased, so did their power, enhancing local control. 5. As one generation gave way to the next, the farming communities of New England became more socially divided, yet nearly all New Englanders had an opportunity to acquire property. IV. The Indians New World A. Puritans and Pequots 1. Seeing themselves as Gods chosen people, Puritans tried to justify taking Indian lands on religious grounds. 2. In 1636, Pequot warriors attacked English farmers who had intruded on their lands. 3. Puritan militiamen and their Indian allies massacred about 500 Pequots, and many of the Pequot survivors were sold into slavery. 4. English Puritans viewed the Indians as savages who did not deserve civilized treatment. 5. Disease, military force, and Christianization eventually subdued the Indians of New England. 6. By 1670,New England settlers were, at least temporarily, guaranteed safety. B. Metacoms Rebellion 1. By the 1670s, whites in New England numbered 55,000, while Indians numbered 16,000. 2. Seeking to stop the European advance, the Wampanoag leader Metacom forged an alliance with the Narragansett and Nipmuck peoples in 1675. 3. The group attacked white settlements throughout New England, and the fighting continued until Metacoms death in 1676. 4. Losses were high on both sides, but the Indians losses were worse: 25 percent of the Indians already diminished population died from war or disease. 5. Many survivors were sold into slavery in the Caribbean, including Metacoms family. 6. The defeated Algonquian peoples lost their land as well as the integrity of their traditional cultures. C. The Fur Trade and the Inland Peoples 1. The greatest threat to Indian cultures came from wars and epidemics brought by the fur trade. Nonetheless, the Iroquois fought to gain control of the fur trade with the French and the Dutch. 2. The Iroquois waged a series of successful wars against other tribes, and these triumphs gave the Iroquois control of the fur trade with the French and the Dutch. 3. The Iroquois adopted non-Iroquois captives from these victories in order to replenish the Iroquois populations that had been diminished by epidemics and wartime losses. 4. Cultural diversity within Iroquoia further increased as the Five Nations made peace with the French and allowed a number of Jesuit missionaries to live among them. 5. In 1680 the Iroquois repudiated their peace treaty with the French and again had to battle for control of the fur trade. 6. Disease, sickness from liquor, and neglected artisan skills were the fur trades legacy. 7. Constant warfare shifted tribal power from cautious Indian elders to headstrong young warriors. 8. The fur trade profoundly altered the natural environment by severely depleting the animal population. Chapter 3 The British Empire in America, 1660 - 1750 Objectives 1. How and why did Europeans bring Africans to American colonies as slaves? 2. How did African American communities in America respond to and resist their condition? 3. What was the structure of colonial government? How did it operate? Why did Englishmen and colonial citizens view the role of assemblies differently? 4. What was the role of the colonies within the British mercantilist system? How did economic considerations affect political decision making in both England and North America? I. A. The Politics of Empire, 16601713 The Restoration Colonies 1. Charles II gave the Carolinas to his aristocratic friends and gave his brother James, the Duke of York, the land between the Delaware and Connecticut Rivers. 2. James took possession of New Netherland and named it New York; the adjacent land was established as New Jersey. 3. The proprietors of the new colonies sought to create a traditional social order with a gentry class and an established Church of England. 4. The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (1669) prescribed a manorial system with nobility and serfs. 5. Poor families in North Carolina refused to work on large manors and chose to live on modest farms. 6. South Carolinians imposed their own design of government and attacked Indian settlements to acquire slaves for trade. 7. South Carolina remained an ill-governed and violence-ridden frontier settlement until the 1720s. 8. Pennsylvania, designed as a refuge for Quakers persecuted in England, developed a pacifistic policy toward the Native Americans and became prosperous.

9.

B.

C.

D.

Quakers believed that people were imbued by God with an inner light of grace and understanding that opened salvation to everyone. 10. Penns Frame of Government (1681) guaranteed religious freedom for all Christians and allowed all property-owning men to vote and hold office. 11. Ethnic diversity, pacifism, and freedom of conscience made Pennsylvania the most open and democratic of the Restoration colonies. From Mercantilism to Dominion 1. In the 1650s the English government imposed mercantilism, via the Navigation Acts, which regulated colonial commerce and manufacturing. 2. The Revenue Act of 1673 imposed a plantation duty on sugar and tobacco exports and created a staff of customs officials to collect it. 3. In commercial wars between 1652 and 1674, the English ended Dutch supremacy in the West African slave trade. The English also dominated Atlantic commerce. 4. Many Americans resisted the mercantilist laws as burdensome and intrusive. To enforce the laws, the Lords of Trade pursued a punitive legal strategy: in 1679, they denied the claim of Massachusetts to New Hampshires territory, instead creating New Hampshire as a separate colony. In 1684, they annulled Massachusettss charter. 5. When James II succeeded to the throne, his insistence on the divine right of kings prompted English officials to create a centralized imperial system in America. 6. In 1686 the Connecticut and Rhode Island colonies were merged with those of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth to form the Dominion of New England, a royal province. 7. Two years later, New York and New Jersey were added to the Dominion. 8. Sir Edmund Andros, governor of the Dominion, was empowered to abolish existing legislative assemblies and rule by decree. 9. Andros advocated worship in the Church of England, banned town meetings, and challenged land titles. 10. The Puritans protested to the king regarding Andros demands, but their protests went unheeded. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 1. In 1688, Jamess Catholic wife gave birth to a son, raising the prospect of a Catholic heir to the throne. 2. Fearing political persecution, Protestant Parliamentary leaders carried out a bloodless coup known as the Glorious Revolution. 3. Mary, Jamess Protestant daughter by his first wife, and her husband William of Orange were enthroned. 4. Queen Mary II and William III accepted a Bill of Rights that limited royal prerogatives and increased personal liberties and parliamentary powers. 5. Parliamentary leaders relied upon John Lockes Two Treatises on Government (1690) to justify their coup. Locke rejected divine right theories of monarchical rule. 6. Lockes celebration of individual rights and representative government had a lasting influence in America. 7. The Glorious Revolution sparked colonial rebellions against royal governments in Massachusetts, Maryland, and New York. 8. In 1689, Andros was shipped back to England, and the new monarchs broke up the Dominion of New England. 9. The monarchs did not restore Puritan dominated government; instead they created a new royal colony of Massachusetts whose new charter granted religious freedom to members of the Church of England and gave the vote to all male property owners instead of Puritans only. 10. The uprising in Maryland had both political and religious causes; Protestants resented rising taxes and high fees imposed by wealthy Catholic proprietary officials. 11. In New York the rebellion against the Dominion of New England began a decade of violence and political conflict. 12. The uprisings in Boston and New York toppled the authoritarian Dominion of New England and won the restoration of internal self government. 13. In England the new constitutional monarchs promoted an empire based on commerce; salutary neglect gave free reign to merchants and financiers who developed American colonies as a source of trade. 14. Colonies that were of minor economic or political importance (Connecticut and Rhode Island) retained their corporate governments or proprietary institutions (Pennsylvania, Maryland, the Carolinas),while royal governors ruled the lucrative staple-producing settlements in the West Indies and Virginia. Imperial Wars and Native Peoples 1. Between 1689 and 1815, Britain and France fought wars for dominance of Western Europe. 2. These wars involved a number of Native American warriors armed with European weapons. 3. The War of the Spanish Succession (1702 1713) pitted Britain against France and Spain. 4. So that they might help to protect their English settlement, whites in the Carolinas armed the Creek peoples to fend off French and Spanish attacks. 5. The Creeks took this opportunity to become the dominant tribe in the region. 6. Native Americans also played a central role in the fighting in the Northeast; aided by the French, the Abnakis and Mohawks took revenge on the Puritans attacking settlements in Maine and Massachusetts.

II. A.

B.

C.

D.

New Englanders responded by joining British forces in attacks on French strongholds in Nova Scotia and Quebec. The New York frontier remained quiet due to the fur trade and the Iroquois policy of aggressive neutrality : trading with the British and the French but refusing to fight for either side. 8. Britain used victories in Europe to win territorial and commercial concessions in the Americas in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), solidifying Britains supremacy and bringing peace to North America. The Imperial Slave Economy The South Atlantic System 1. The South Atlantic system was composed of land seized from the Indians, slave labor from Africa, and investment capital from Europe. 2. To provide labor for the sugar plantations, the British and French developed African-run slave-catching systems that extended far into the interior of Africa. They transported about 10,000 Africans per year to the Americas. 3. The Portuguese and Dutch developed sugar plantations in Brazil, and the English and French carried the industry into the subtropical islands of the West Indies; sugar was the most profitable crop in Europe and America. 4. Due to the Navigation Acts, by 1750 re-exports of American sugar and tobacco accounted for half of all British exports. 5. The South Atlantic system brought wealth to the European economy, but it brought economic decline, political change, and human tragedy to West Africa and parts of East Africa. 6. The slave trade changed West African society by promoting centralized states and military conquest by kingdoms such as Barsally, Dahomey, and Asante. 7. Some African people of noble birth enslaved and sold those of lesser status; however, slaving remained an act of choice for Africans, not a necessity. Benin, for example, opposed the trade in male slaves for over a century. 8. Due to slave taking, the resulting imbalance of the sexes allowed some African men to take several wives, changing the nature of marriage. 9. The Atlantic trade prompted harsher forms of slavery in Africa, eroding the dignity of human life. 10. African slaves who were forced to endure the Middle Passage suffered the bleakest fate; many were literally worked to death on the sugar plantations, since it was cheaper to replace a dead slave than to keep him alive. Slavery in the Chesapeake and South Carolina 1. After 1700, planters in Virginia and Maryland imported thousands of slaves and created a slave society. 2. Slavery was increasingly defined in racial terms; in Virginia virtually all resident Africans were declared slaves. 3. Living and working conditions in Maryland and Virginia allowed slaves to live relatively long lives. 4. Some tobacco planters tried to increase their workforce through reproduction, purchasing a high proportion of females and encouraging large families. 5. By the middle of the 1700s, American-born slaves formed a majority among Chesapeake blacks. 6. The slave population in South Carolina suffered many deaths and had few births; therefore, the importation of new slaves re-Africanized the black population. 7. South Carolina slaves were much more oppressed. Growing rice required work amidst pools of putrid water, and mosquito-borne epidemic diseases took thousands of African lives. African American Community and Resistance 1. Slaves initially did not regard one another as Africans or blacks but as members of a specific family, clan, or people. 2. The acquisition of a common language and a more equal gender ratio were prerequisites for the creation of an African American community. 3. As enslaved blacks forged a new identity in America, their lives continued to be shaped by their African past, influencing decorative motifs, housing design, and religious patterns. 4. African creativity was limited because slaves were denied education and had few material goods. 5. Slaves who resisted their rigorous work routine were punished with beatings, whippings, and mutilation, including amputation. 6. The extent of violence toward slaves depended on the size and the density of the slave population; a smaller slave population usually meant less violence, while predominantly African populated colonies suffered more violence. 7. The Stono Rebellion (1739) in South Carolina was the largest slave uprising of the eighteenth century. 8. White militiamen killed many of the Stono rebels and dispersed the rest, preventing a general uprising. The Southern Gentry 1. As the southern colonies became slave societies, life changed for whites as well as blacks. 2. As men lived longer, patriarchy within the family reappeared. 3. The planter elite exercised authority over yeomen and black slaves the American equivalent of oppressed peasants and serfs. 4. To prevent rebellion, the southern gentry paid attention to the concerns of middling and poor whites. 5. By 1770 the majority of English Chesapeake families owned a slave, giving them a stake in the exploitative labor system. 7.

6. Taxes were gradually reduced for poorer whites, and poor yeomen and some tenants were allowed to vote. 7. In return, the planter elite expected the yeomen and tenants to elect them to office and defer to their power. 8. By the 1720s the gentry took on the trappings of wealth, modeling themselves after the English aristocracy. 9. The profits of the South Atlantic system helped to form an increasingly well-educated, refined, and stable ruling class. E. The Northern Maritime Economy 1. The South Atlantic system tied the whole British Empire together economically. 2. West Indian trade created the first American merchant fortunes and the first urban industries in particular, shipbuilding and the distilling of rum from West Indies sugar. 3. In the eighteenth century the expansion of Atlantic commerce in lumber and shipbuilding fueled rapid growth in the North American interior as well as in seaport cities and coastal towns. 4. A small group of wealthy landowners and merchants formed the top rank of the seaport society. 5. Artisan and shopkeeper families formed the middle ranks of seaport society, and laboring men, women, and children formed the lowest ranks. 6. Between 1660 and 1750, involvement in the South Atlantic system brought economic uncertainty as well as jobs to northern workers and farmers. III. The New Politics of Empire, 17131750 A. The Rise of Colonial Assemblies 1. The triumph of the South Atlantic system changed the politics of empire; the British were content to rule the colonies with a gentle hand, and the colonists were in a position to challenge the rules of the mercantilist system. 2. In England, a Declaration of Rights in 1689 strengthened the powers of the Commons at the expense of the crown. 3. American representative assemblies also wished to limit the powers of the crown and maintain their authority over taxes. 4. The colonial legislatures gradually won partial control of the budget and the appointment of local officials. 5. The rising power of the colonial assemblies created an elitist rather than a democratic political system. 6. Neither elitist assemblies nor wealthy property owners could impose unpopular edicts on the people. 7. Crowd actions were a regular part of political life in America and were used to enforce community values. 8. By the 1750s, most colonies had representative political institutions that were responsive to popular pressure and increasingly immune to British control. B. Salutary Neglect 1. Salutary neglect, more relaxed royal supervision of internal colonial affairs, was a byproduct of the political system developed by Sir Robert Walpole, a British Whig. 2. Radical Whigs argued that Walpole used patronage and bribery to create a strong Crown Party. 3. Landed gentlemen argued that Walpoles high taxes and bloated, incompetent royal bureaucracy threatened the liberties of the British people. 4. Colonists, maintaining that royal governors likewise abused their patronage powers, tried to enhance the powers of provincial representative assemblies. C. Protecting the Mercantile System of Trade 1. Walpoles main concern was to protect British commercial interests in America from the Spanish and the French. 2. Walpole arranged for Parliament to subsidize Georgia in order to protect the valuable rice colony of South Carolina. 3. Resisting British expansion into Georgia and growing trade with Mesoamerica, Spanish naval forces sparked the War of Jenkins Ear in 1739. 4. Walpole used this provocation to launch a predatory war against Spains American Empire. 5. The War of Jenkins Ear became a part of the War of Austrian Succession (17401749), bringing a new threat from France. 6. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) returned the French naval fortress of Louisbourg to France after its capture by New England militiamen, but the treaty also reaffirmed British military superiority over Spain, effectively giving Georgia to the British. 7. Colonial merchants took advantage of a loophole in the Navigation Acts that allowed Americans to own ships and transport goods. The loophole allowed colonists to cut dramatically into commerce in the Atlantic. 8. The Molasses Act of 1733 placed a high tariff on imports of cheap French molasses to make British molasses competitive, but sugar prices rose in the late 1730s, so the act was not enforced. 9. The Currency Act (1751) prevented colonies from establishing new land banks and prohibited the use of public currency to pay private debts. This was in response to abuse of the land bank system by some colonial assemblies who issued too much paper currency and then required merchants to accept the worthless paper as legal tender. 10. In the 1740s, British officials vowed to replace salutary neglect with rigorous imperial control. Chapter 4 Growth and Crisis in Colonial Society, 1720 1765 Objectives 1. Analyze regional differences in settlement patterns, labor conditions, and religious identity between freehold society in New England and the diverse communities of the Middle Atlantic. 2. How did the Enlightenment affect the emerging intellectual life of American society? 3. What were the consequences of the Great Awakening, and how would you assess these consequences? 4. How and why did the Great War for Empire change the balance of imperial power in North America?

I. A.

Freehold Society in New England Farm Families: Womens Place 1. Men claimed power in the state and authority in the family; women were subordinates. 2. Women in the colonies were raised to be dutiful helpmates to their husbands. 3. The labor of the Puritan women was crucial to rural household economy. 4. More women than men joined the churches so that their children could be baptized. 5. A gradual reduction in farm size prompted couples to have fewer children. 6. With fewer children, women had more time to enhance their families standard of living. 7. Still, most New England women lived according to the conventional view that they should be employed only in the home and only doing womens work. B. Farm Property: Inheritance 1. Men who migrated to the colonies escaped many traditional constraints, including lack of land. 2. When indentures ended for servants, some climbed from laborer to tenant to freeholder. 3. Children in successful farm families received a marriage portion. 4. Parents chose their childrens partners because the familys prosperity depended on it. 5. Brides relinquished ownership of their land and property to their husbands. 6. Fathers had a cultural duty to provide inheritances for their children. 7. Farmers created whole communities composed of independent property owners. C. The Crisis of Freehold Society 1. With each generation the population of New England doubled, mostly from natural increase. 2. Parents had less land to give their children, so they had less control over their childrens lives. 3. By using primitive methods of birth control, many families were able to have fewer children. 4. Families petitioned the government for land grants and hacked new farms out of the forest. 5. Land was used more productively; crops of wheat and barley were replaced with high yielding potatoes and corn. 6. A system of community exchange helped preserve the freeholder ideal. II. The Middle Atlantic: Toward a New Society, 17201765 A. Economic Growth and Social Inequality 1. Fertile lands and long growing seasons attracted migrants to the Middle Atlantic. 2. As freehold land became scarce in New York, manorial lords attracted tenants by granting long leases and the right to sell improvements, such as barns and houses. 3. Inefficient farm implements kept most tenants from saving enough to acquire freehold farmsteads. 4. Rural Pennsylvania and New Jersey were initially marked by relative economic equality. 5. With the rise of the wheat trade and an influx of poor settlers, a class of wealthy agricultural capitalists gradually emerged. 6. Merchants and artisans took advantage of the supply of labor and organized an outwork manufacturing system. 7. As colonies became crowded and socially divided, farm families feared a return to peasant status. B. Cultural Diversity 1. The middle colonies were a patchwork of ethnically and religiously diverse communities. 2. Quakers, the dominant social group in Pennsylvania, were pacifists who dealt peaceably with Native Americans and condemned slavery. 3. The Quaker vision attracted many Germans fleeing war, religious persecution, and poverty. 4. Germans guarded their language and cultural heritage, encouraging their children to marry within the community. 5. Emigrants from Ireland formed the largest group of incoming Europeans. 6. Some of these were Irish Catholic, but most were Presbyterian Scots-Irish who had faced discrimination and economic regulation in Ireland. 7. The Scots-Irish held onto their culture and promoted marriage within the Presbyterian Church. C. Religious Identity and Political Conflict 1. German ministers criticized the separation of church and state in Pennsylvania, believing the church needed legal power to enforce morality. 2. Religious sects in Pennsylvania enforced moral behavior through communal self-discipline. 3. Communal sanctions sustained a self-contained and prosperous Quaker community. 4. In the 1750s the Scots-Irish Presbyterians challenged the Quakers pacifism and demanded a more aggressive Indian policy. 5. Many German migrants opposed the Quakers and wanted laws that respected their inheritance customs and provided proportional representation in the provincial assembly. 6. The Scots-Irish and the Germans found it difficult to unite against the Quakers due to their own conflicts. III. The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, 17401765 A. The Enlightenment in America 1. Most Christians believed that God intervened directly in human affairs to punish sin and reward virtue and that, therefore, events such as diseases and natural disasters were divine punishment for human sin. Many also believed that a persons lot in life was the unalterable will of God. 2. Enlightenment thinkers believed that people could observe, analyze, understand, and improve their world.

John Locke proposed that lives were not fixed by Gods will and could be changed through education and purposeful action. 4. Locke advanced the theory that political authority was not divinely ordained but rather sprang from social compacts people made to preserve their natural rights to life, liberty, and property. 5. European Enlightenment ideas affected influential colonists beliefs about science, religion, and politics. 6. Some influential colonists, including inventor and printer Benjamin Franklin, turned to deism, the belief that God had created the world to run according to natural law without His interference. 7. The Enlightenment added a secular dimension to colonial intellectual life. B. American Pietism and the Great Awakening 1. Less wealthy colonists turned to Pietism, which came to America with German migrants in the 1720s and sparked a religious revival. 2. Pietism emphasized pious behavior, religious emotion, and the striving for a mystical union with God. 3. Beginning in 1739, the compelling George Whitefield, a follower of John Wesleys preaching style, transformed local revivals into a Great Awakening. 4. Hundreds of colonists felt the New Light of Gods grace and were prepared to follow Whitefield. C. Religious Upheaval in the North 1. Conservative, or Old Light, ministers condemned the emotional preaching of traveling New Light ministers for their emotionalism and their allowing women to speak in public. 2. In Connecticut, traveling preachers were prohibited from speaking to established congregations without the ministers consent. 3. Some farmers, women, and artisans condemned the Old Lights as unconverted sinners. 4. The Awakening undermined support of traditional churches and challenged the authority of ministers. 5. The Awakening gave a new sense of religious authority to many colonists in the North and reaffirmed communal ethics as it questioned the pursuit of wealth. 6. One tangible and lasting product of the Awakening was the founding of colleges such as Princeton, Rutgers, Columbia, and Brown to train ministers for various denominations. 7. The true intellectual legacy of the Awakening was not education for the few but a new sense of religiousand ultimately politicalauthority among the many. D. Social and Religious Conflict in the South 1. The social authority of the Virginia gentry was threatened as freeholders left the established church for New Light revivals. 2. Religious pluralism threatened the governments ability to impose taxes to support the established church. 3. Anglicans closed down Presbyterian meeting houses and forcibly broke up Baptist services to prevent the spread of the New Light doctrine. 4. During the 1760s, many poorer Virginians were drawn to enthusiastic Baptist revivals, where even slaves were welcome. 5. The gentry reacted violently to the Baptist threat to their social authority and way of life. 6. Revivals helped to shrink the gulf between blacks and whites and gave blacks a new sense of spiritual identity. IV. The Mid-century Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, 17501765 A. The French and Indian War 1. Indians, who in 1750 still controlled the interior of North America, used their control of the fur trade to bargain with both the British and the French. 2. European governments began to refuse to bargain, and Indian alliances crumbled. 3. The escalating Anglo-American demand for Indian lands met with strong Indian resistance. 4. The Ohio Company obtained a royal grant of 200,000 acres along the upper Ohio River land controlled by Indians. 5. To counter Britains movement into the Ohio Valley, the French set up a series of forts. 6. The French seized George Washington and his men as they tried to support the Ohio Companys claim to the land. 7. Britain dispatched forces to America, where they joined with the militia in attacking French forts. 8. In June 1755, British troops and Puritan militiamen captured Fort Beausjour in France and deported 10,000 French residents from their homes in Nova Scotia (French Acadia) to France, Louisiana, the West Indies, and South Carolina. 9. In July, General Edward Braddock and his British troops were soundly defeated by a small group of French and Indians at Fort Duquesne. B. The Great War for Empire 1. In 1756, Britain and Prussia aligned against France and Austria in the Seven Years War. 2. Britain saw France as its main obstacle to further expansion in profitable overseas trading. 3. William Pitt, a committed expansionist, planned to cripple France by attacking its colonies. 4. The fall of Quebec, the heart of Frances empire, was the turning point of the war. 5. The British in India, West Africa, Cuba, and the Philippines seized French trade and territory. 6. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 granted British sovereignty over half the continent of North America. 7. In 1763 the Ottawa chief Pontiac and his Indian allies captured British garrisons and killed many settlers. 8. The Indian alliance gradually weakened, and they accepted the British as their new political fathers. 9. In return, the British established the Proclamation Line of 1763 barring settlers from going west of the Appalachians. 10. The war for empire gained land for the crown but did not provide the expansionist-minded Americans with the new land

3.

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E.

they wanted. British Economic Growth and the Consumer Revolution 1. Britain had unprecedented economic resources, and it became the first industrial nation. 2. The new machines and business practices of the Industrial Revolution allowed Britain to sell goods at lower prices, particularly in the mainland colonies. 3. The first consumer revolution raised the living standard of many Americans. 4. Americans paid for British imports by increasing their exports of wheat, rice, and tobacco. 5. The first American spending binge landed many colonists in debt. 6. The loss of military contracts and subsidies made it difficult for Americans to purchase British goods. 7. Americans had become dependent on overseas creditors and international economic conditions. Land Conflicts 1. The growth of the colonial population caused conflicts over land, particularly in Pennsylvania and Connecticut. 2. In the Hudson River Valley, Massachusetts settlers tried to claim manor lands, Wappinger Indians reasserted ownership to lands they had once owned, and tenants asserted ownership over land they leased. 3. British general Thomas Gage and his men joined local sheriffs to suppress these uprisings. 4. English aristocrats in New Jersey and the southern colonies successfully asserted legal claims to land based on outdated charters. 5. Proprietary power increased the resemblance between rural societies in Europe and America. 6. Tenants and freeholders had to search for cheap freehold land in the West. Western Uprisings 1. Movement to the western frontier created new disputes over Indian policy, political representation, and debts. 2. In Pennsylvania, Scotch-Irish demands for the expulsion of Indians and the ensuing massacre led by the Paxton Boys left a legacy of racial hatred and political resentment. 3. In 1763 the North Carolina Regulators, landowning vigilantes, demanded greater political rights, local courts, and lower taxes from the wealthy coastal planters who controlled the government. 4. The Moderators, a rival group, forced the Regulators to accept the authority of the colonial government, but the underlying problems were not addressed. 5. Tobacco prices plummeted after the Great War for Empire, forcing debt-ridden farmers into court. 6. Debtors joined with the Regulators to intimidate judges, close courts, and free their comrades from jail. 7. The royal governor mobilized the eastern militia against the Regulator force, and the result was the defeat of the Regulators and the execution of their leaders. 8. Tied to Britain, yet growing resistant of its control, America had the potential for independent existence.