HYBRID CARS PESIT

1. INTRODUCTION
Honda Insight hybrid electric car

Have you pulled your car up to the gas pump lately and been shocked by
the high price of petrol or diesel, maybe you thought about the vehicle
that gets better mileage. Or maybe you're worried that your car is
contributing to the greenhouse effect. Or maybe you just want to have
the coolest car on the block.

The auto industry now has the technology that might answer all of these
needs. It's the hybrid car, and a few manufacturers are selling their
versions in the United States. You're probably aware of hybrid cars
because they've been in the news a lot. In fact, most automobile
manufacturers have announced plans to manufacture their own versions
-- you can even expect some hybrid cars to hit the streets this year.

How does a hybrid automobile work? What goes on under the hood to
give you 20 or 30 more miles per gallon than the standard automobile?
And does it pollute less just because it gets better gas mileage? In this
report, we'll understand how this amazing technology works. We'll see
what is going on in the Toyota and Honda hybrids.

Toyota’s mission has always been in search of the ultimate eco-car.

Toyota has also developed and has been marketing electric vehicles
(EV) that use motors for the driving source; hybrid vehicles (HV) that
combine an engine and a motor, fusing the advantages of these two
power sources.

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2. HYBRID STRUCTURE

2.1 What Makes it a "Hybrid"?

Any vehicle is a hybrid when it combines two or more sources of power. In
fact, many people have probably owned a hybrid vehicle at some point.
For example, a mo-ped (a motorized pedal bike) is a type of hybrid
because it combines the power of a gasoline engine with the pedal power
of its rider.

Hybrid vehicles are all around us. Most of the locomotives we see pulling
trains are diesel-electric hybrids. Cities like Seattle have diesel-electric
buses -- these can draw electric power from overhead wires or run on
diesel when they are away from the wires. Giant mining trucks are often
diesel-electric hybrids. Submarines are also hybrid vehicles -- some are
nuclear-electric and some are diesel-electric. Any vehicle that
combines two or more sources of power that can directly or indirectly
provide propulsion power is a hybrid.

2.2 What is a Hybrid System?

Fusion between an internal combustion engine and electric motor—

achieving different functions through different power combinations
Automobile hybrid systems combine two motive power sources, such as
an internal combustion engine and an electric motor, to take advantage of
the benefits provided by these power sources while compensating for each
other’s shortcomings, resulting in highly efficient driving performance.
Although hybrid systems use an electric motor, they do not require
external charging, as do electric vehicles.

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2.3 Types of Hybrid Systems

1.SERIES HYBRID SYSTEM

The engine drives a

generator, and an electric
motor uses this generated
electricity to drive the
wheels. This is called a series
hybrid system because the
power flows to the wheels in
series, i.e., the engine power
and the motor power are in
series. A series hybrid
system can run a small-
output engine in the efficient operating region relatively steadily, generate
and supply electricity to the electric motor and efficiently charge the
battery. It has two motors—a generator (which has the same structure as
an electric motor) and an electric motor.

2. PARALLEL HYBRID SYSTEM

In a parallel hybrid system,

both the engine and the
electric motor drive the
wheels, and the drive power
from these two sources can
be utilized according to the
prevailing conditions. This is
called a parallel hybrid
system because the power

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flows to the wheels in parallel. In this system, the battery is charged by

switching the electric motor to act as a generator, and the electricity from
the battery is used to drive the wheels. Although it has a simple structure,
the parallel hybrid system cannot drive the wheels from the electric motor
while simultaneously charging the battery since the system has only one
motor.

3) SERIES/PARALLEL HYBRID
SYSTEM
This system combines the series hybrid system with the parallel hybrid
system in order to maximize
the benefits of both systems.
It has two motors, and
depending on the driving
conditions, uses only the
electric motor or the driving
power from both the electric
motor and the engine, in
order to achieve the highest
efficiency level.
Furthermore, when necessary, the system drives the wheels while
simultaneously generating electricity using a generator. This is the system
used in the Prius and the Estima Hybrid.
Engine and Motor Operation in each system
The chart below shows how
the ratio of use between
engine and motor differs
depending on the hybrid
system. Since a series
hybrid uses its engine to
generate electricity for the

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motor to drive the wheels, the engine and motor parallel hybrid uses the
engine as the main power source, with the motor used only to provide
assistance during acceleration. Therefore, the engine does about the same
amount of work is used much more than the motor. In a series/parallel
hybrid (THS in the Prius), a power split device divides to the generator is
continuously variable. Since the motor can run on this electric power as it
is generated, the motor is used more than in a parallel system.
2.4 Characteristics of Hybrid Systems
Hybrid systems possess the following four characteristics:
1) ENERGY-LOSS REDUCTION
The system automatically stops the idling of the engine (idling stop), thus
reducing the energy that would normally be wasted.
2) ENERGY RECOVERY AND REUSE
The energy that would normally be wasted as heat during deceleration
and braking is recovered as electrical energy, which is then used to power
the starter and the electric motor.
3) MOTOR ASSIST
The electric motor assists the engine during acceleration.
4) HIGH-EFFICIENCY OPERATION CONTROL
The system maximizes the vehicle’s overall efficiency by using the electric
motor to run the vehicle under operating conditions in which the engine’s
efficiency is low and by generating electricity under operating conditions
in which the engine’s efficiency’s high.
The series/parallel hybrid system has fuel efficiency and driving
performance. All of these characteristics and therefore provides both
superior
2.5 Evolution of the Hybrid
The hybrid is a compromise. It attempts to significantly increase the
mileage and reduce the emissions of a gas-powered car while overcoming
the shortcomings of an electric car.

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The Problem with Gas-powered Cars

To be useful to you or me, a car must meet certain minimum
requirements. The car should be able to:

• Drive at least 300 miles (482 km) between re-fueling

• Be refueled quickly and easily
• Keep up with the other traffic on the road

A gasoline car meets these requirements but produces a relatively large

amount of pollution and generally gets poor gas mileage. An electric car,
on the other hand, produces almost no pollution, but it can only go 50 to
100 miles between charges. And the problem has been that it is very slow
and inconvenient to recharge.

A driver's desire for quick acceleration causes our cars to be much less
efficient than they could be. You may have noticed that a car with a less
powerful engine gets better gas mileage than an identical car with a more
powerful engine.

The amazing thing is that most of what we require a car to do uses only a
small percentage of its horsepower!When you are driving along the
freeway at 60 mph (96.6 kph), your car engine has to provide the power
to do three things:

• Overcome the aerodynamic drag caused by pushing the car through the air
• Overcome all of the friction in the car's components such as the tires,
transmission, axles and brakes
• Provide power for accessories like air conditioning, power steering and headlights

For most cars, doing all this requires less than 20 horsepower! So, why do
you need a car with 200 horsepower? So you can "floor it," which is the
only time you use all that power. The rest of the time, you use
considerably less power than you have available.

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2.6 Hybrid Performance

The key to a hybrid car is that the gasoline engine can be much smaller
than the one in a conventional car and therefore more efficient. But how
can this smaller engine provide the power your car needs to keep up with
the more powerful cars on the road?

Let's compare a car like the Chevy Camaro, with its big V-8 engine, to our
hybrid car with its small gas engine and electric motor. The engine in the
Camaro has more than enough power to handle any driving situation. The
engine in the hybrid car is powerful enough to move the car along on the
freeway, but when it needs to get the car moving in a hurry, or go up a
steep hill, it needs help. That "help" comes from the electric motor and
battery -- this system steps in to provide the necessary extra power.

The gas engine on a conventional car is sized for the peak power
requirement (those few times when you floor the accelerator pedal). In
fact, most drivers use the peak power of their engines less than one
percent of the time. The hybrid car uses a much smaller engine, one that
is sized closer to the average power requirement than to the peak power.

2.7 Hybrid Efficiency

Besides a smaller, more efficient engine, today's hybrids use many other
tricks to increase fuel efficiency. Some of those tricks will help any type of
car get better mileage, and some only apply to a hybrid. To squeeze every
last mile out of a gallon of gasoline, a hybrid car can:

• Recover energy and store it in the battery - Whenever you step

on the brake pedal in your car, you are removing energy from the
car. The faster a car is going, the more kinetic energy it has. The
brakes of a car remove this energy and dissipate it in the form of
heat. A hybrid car can capture some of this energy and store it in
the battery to use later. It does this by using "regenerative braking."

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• Sometimes shut off the engine - A hybrid car does not need to
rely on the gasoline engine all of the time because it has an
alternate power source -- the electric motor and batteries. So the
hybrid car can sometimes turn off the gasoline engine, for example
when the vehicle is stopped at a red light.
• Use advanced aerodynamics to reduce
drag - When you are driving on the
freeway, most of the work your engine
does goes into pushing the car through
the air. This force is known as
aerodynamic drag. This drag force can The frontal area profile of a small
be reduced in a variety of ways. One sure and large car
way is to reduce the frontal area of the car (Figure 5). Think of how
a big SUV has to push a much greater area through the air than a
tiny sports car.

• Use low-rolling resistance tires - The tires on most cars are

optimized to give a smooth ride, minimize noise, and provide good
traction in a variety of weather conditions. But they are rarely
optimized for efficiency. In fact, the tires cause a surprising amount
of drag while you are driving. Hybrid cars use special tires that are
both stiffer and inflated to a higher pressure than conventional tires.
The result is that they cause about half the drag of regular tires.

• Use lightweight materials - Reducing the overall weight of a car

is one easy way to increase the mileage. A lighter vehicle uses less
energy each time you accelerate or drive up a hill. Composite
materials like carbon fiber or lightweight metals like aluminum and
magnesium can be used to reduce weight.
2.8 What's Available Now?
The two hybrid cars available now in market are

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Honda Insight and Toyota Prius

The Honda Insight

The Toyota Prius

The Honda Insight price starts around $19,570, and the Toyota Prius
starts around $20,510. Both cars have a gasoline engine, an electric
motor and batteries, but that is where the similarities end.

The Honda Insight, which was introduced in early 2000 in the United
States, is designed to get the best possible mileage. Honda used every
trick in the book to make the car as efficient as it can be. The Insight is a
small, lightweight two-seater with a tiny, high-efficiency gas engine.

The Toyota Prius, which came out in Japan at the end of 1997, is
designed to reduce emissions in urban areas. It meets California's super
ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV) standard. It is a four-door sedan that
seats five, and the powertrain is capable of accelerating the vehicle to
speeds up to 15 mph (24 kph) on electric power alone. The Prius was
honored as the 2004 North American Car of the Year.

3. TOYOTA HYBRID SYSTEM (THS)

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3.1 THS COMPONENTS

High - voltage systems — motor and generator
Greater motor output through increased voltage
High-voltage Power Supply System
HIGH-VOLTAGE POWER CIRCUIT
The high-voltage power circuit is a new technology that supports the new
THS II system. By providing a newly developed high-voltage power circuit
inside the power control unit, the voltage of the motor and the generator
has been increased from 274V in THS to a maximum of 500V in THS II.
As a result, electrical power can be supplied to the motor using a smaller
current, thus contributing to an increase in efficiency.
POWER (P) = VOLTAGE (V) X CURRENT (I)
Power, which expresses the work performed by electricity within a given
amount of time, is calculated by multiplying voltage by current. If the
power necessary for driving the motor is held constant, the above formula
indicates that doubling the voltage reduces the current by 1/2. Next, by
following Joule’s Law (Calorie = Current 2 x Resistance), the power loss in
terms of calories is reduced to 1/4 (1/2 Current x 1/2 Current) if the
resistance is held constant. The high-voltage power circuit in THS II
increases power by increasing the voltage while keeping the current
constant. Furthermore, for the same power level, increasing the voltage
and reducing the current reduces energy loss, resulting in higher
efficiency.

Motor

The motor has been developed based on the technologies that Toyota has
nurtured while working on electric vehicles. THS II uses an AC
synchronous-type motor, which is a high-efficiency DC brushless motor
with AC current. Neodymium magnets (Permanent magnets) and a rotor
made of stacked electromagnetic steel plates form a high-performance
motor. Furthermore, by arranging the permanent magnets in an optimum

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V-shape, the drive torque is improved and the output is increased. This,
combined with a larger power supply chieved by an increase in the power
supply voltage, has increased power output by approximately 1.5 times
from THS, i.e., to 50 KW from 33 kW, even with a motor of the same size,
iroducing the
highest output
per unit of
weight and
volume in the
world. For motor
control, a newly
developed over-
modulation
control system
has been added
to the medium-speed range, in addition to the existing low- and high-
speed control methods. By improving the pulse width modification
method, the output in the medium-speed range has been increased by a
maximum of approximately 30%.

Generator
Like the motor, the generator is also an AC synchronous type. In order to
supply sufficient power to the high-output motor, the generator is rotated
at high speeds, increasing its output. Measures such as rotor strength
enhancement have increased the rpm range for the maximum possible
output from 6,500 (in the conventional type) to 10,000 rpm. This high
rpm has significantly increased the power supply up to the medium-speed
range, improving the acceleration performance in the low/medium-speed.
As a result, an optimum combination of a high-output motor and an
engine has been achieved.
Semiconductor Switching Device (IGBT)

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This semiconductor switching device (IGBT: Insulated Gate Bipolar

Transistor) boosts the voltage from the battery and converts the boosted
DC power into AC power for driving the motor. Since the current that must
be switched is large, minimizing heat generation is important. Therefore,
Toyota has developed a unique transistor finely tuned down to the crystal
level
Power Control Unit, Battery and Regenerative Braking System
The world’s highest output density
Power Control Unit
The power control unit
contains an inverter that
converts the DC from the
battery into an AC for
driving the motor and a
DC/DC converter for
conversion to 12V. In THS
II, a high-voltage power
circuit that can increase
the voltage from the power supply to 500V has been added. Based on the
relationship of Power = Voltage x Current, increasing the voltage makes it
possible to reduce the current, which in turn makes it possible to reduce
the size of the inverter. Also, because the control circuits have been
integrated, the size of
the power control unit
itself has remained
almost the same as
before.
Hybrid Battery
In THS II, further
enhancements have been made to the compact, high-performance nickel-
metal hydride battery developed for THS. Having reduced the battery’s
internal resistance by improving the electrode material and by using an

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entirely new connection structure between (battery) cells, the new

battery’s input/output density is 35% better than the battery used in THS,
achieving the highest output density (output per unit of weight) in the
world. To maintain a constant charge, the new battery is discharged or
receives charging energy from the generator and the motor.
Regenerative Braking System
A regenerative braking system is used which, during engine braking and
braking using the foot brake, operates the electric motor as a generator,
converting the vehicle’s kinetic energy into electrical energy, which is used
to charge the battery. The system is particularly effective in recovering
energy during city driving, where driving patterns of repeated acceleration
and deceleration are common. When the footbrake is being used, the
system controls the coordination between the hydraulic brake of the ECB
and the regenerative brake and preferentially uses the regenerative
brake, thereby recovering energy even at lower vehicle speeds.
Furthermore, by improving the battery input performance, more energy is
recovered. Additionally, by reducing the friction loss in the drive system,
such as in the transmission, the energy that used to be lost as driving
system loss during deceleration is now recovered, significantly increasing
the total amount of recovered energy.
The "Power Split Device"
The power split device is the heart of the Toyota Prius. This is a clever
gearbox that hooks the gasoline engine, generator and electric motor
together. It allows the car to operate like a parallel hybrid -- the electric
motor can power the car by itself, the gas engine can power the car by
itself or they can power the car together.

The power split device is a planetary gear set The electric motor is
connected to the ring gear of the gear set. It is also directly connected to
the differential which drives the wheels. So, whatever speed the electric
motor and ring gear spin at determines the speed of the car.

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The generator is connected to the sun gear of the gear set, and the
engine is connected to the planet carrier. The speed of the ring gear
depends on all three components, so they all have to work together at all
times to control the output speed.

3.2 How the TH System Works

Superb coordination between engine and motor
Actions of the Engine, the Generator and the Motor
1) WHEN THE VEHICLE IS AT REST
The engine, the generator and the motor are stopped.
2) DURING START-UP
The vehicle starts moving using only the motor drive.
3) DURING ACCELERATION FROM START
The generator, which also has the function of an engine starter, rotates
the sun gear and starts the engine. Once the engine has started, the
generator begins generating electricity, which is used for charging the
battery and supplied to the motor for driving the vehicle.
4) DURING NORMAL DRIVING
For the most part, the engine is used for driving. Electricity generation is
basically not necessary.
5) DURING ACCELERATION
During acceleration from the normal driving state, the engine rpm is
increased and, at the same time, the generator begins generating
electricity. Using this electricity and electricity from the battery, the motor
adds its driving power, augmenting the acceleration.

1 Start and low to mid-range speeds

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The engine stops when in an inefficient range, such as at start-up and in

low to mid-range speeds. The vehicle runs on the motor alone. (A)

2 Driving under normal conditions

Engine power is divided by the
power split device. Some of the power
turns the generator, which in turn
drives the motor. (B)
The rest of the power drives the wheels
directly. (C)

3. Sudden acceleration
Extra power is supplied from the
battery (A), while the engine and high-
output motor provide smooth response
(B+C) for improved acceleration
characteristics

4. Deceleration, braking
The high-output motor acts as a
high- output generator, driven by the
vehicle’s wheels. This
regenerative braking system
recovers kinetic energy as
electrical energy, which is stored in the high-performance battery. (D)

5 Battery recharging

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Battery level is managed to maintain sufficient reserves. The engine

drives the generator to recharge the battery when necessary. (E)
6. At rest
The engine stops automatically.

3.3 SYSTEM CONTROL

Precise real-time control — sensing the driver’s intentions

The system control of THS II maintains the vehicle at its maximum

operating efficiency by managing the energy used by the entire vehicle,
which includes the energy for moving the vehicle as well as the energy
used for auxiliary devices, such as the air-conditioner, heaters, headlights
and navigation system. The system control monitors the requirements
and operating states of hybrid system components, such as the engine,
which is the source of energy for the entire hybrid vehicle; the generator,
which acts as the starter for the engine and converts the energy from the
engine into electricity; the motor, which generates the drive power for
running the vehicle using the electrical energy from the battery; and the
battery, which stores the
electrical energy
generated through power
generation by the motor
during deceleration. It
also receives braking
information being sent
via the vehicle’s control
network, as well as
instructions from the
driver, such as the
throttle opening and shift lever position. In other words, the system
control of THS II monitors these various energy consumption statuses of
the vehicle in real time and provides precise and fast integrated control so

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that the vehicle can be operated safely and comfortably at the highest
possible efficiency.
System Start-up and Stop
Like modern jet planes, THS II hybrid vehicles use by-wire control, in
which the driver’s instructions are converted into electrical signals
(through wires) to be used in integrated control. In by-wire control,
system reliability is the highest control priority.
When a smart key sends information indicating that the driver has gotten
inside the vehicle, the system power supply is turned on. First, whether or
not the hybrid computer itself is functioning normally is monitored, and an
operational check is performed before the ignition button is pressed.
When the ignition button is pressed, the system checks whether or not
various sensors, the engine, the motor, the generator and the battery are
functioning normally. Then, the switches for the components in the high-
voltage system, such as the motor, the generator and the battery, are
turned on, making the vehicle ready to run. This is the start-up control
sequence. When the driver presses the ignition button again before
leaving the vehicle, the components in the high-voltage system are
disconnected and, after confirming that such systems are turned off, the
hybrid computer shuts down. Safety checks are also being carried out
while the vehicle is moving, and, based on various types of information
such as changes in driving conditions, the system controls the vehicle so
that it can operate in an emergency mode in the unlikely event of failure
in the hybrid system or lack of fuel.
Engine Power Control
Engine power control is the basic control mechanism of THS II for always
minimizing the energy consumption of the entire vehicle. Based on the
vehicle’s operating state, how far the driver has depressed the
acceleration pedal and the status signals from the battery computer,
energy management control determines whether to stop the engine and
run the vehicle using the electric motor only or to start the engine and run

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the vehicle using engine power. When first started, the vehicle begins to
operate using the motor unless the temperature is low or the battery
charge is low. To run the vehicle using engine power, the engine is first
started by the generator and at the same time, the system calculates the
energy required by the entire vehicle. It then calculates the running
condition that will produce the highest efficiency for producing this energy
and sends an rpm instruction to the engine. The generator then controls
the engine revolution to that rpm. The power from the engine is controlled
by taking into account the direct driving power, the motor driving power
from electrical generation, the power needed by the auxiliary equipment
and the charging requirement of the battery.

Driving Control
The driving power of a vehicle with THS II is expressed as the
combination of the direct engine driving power and the motor’s driving
power. The slower the vehicle’s speed, the more the maximum driving
power is derived from the motor’s driving power. By increasing the
generator rpm, THS II has made it possible to use the engine’s maximum
power starting at slower speeds than was possible with the current THS.
It has also made it possible to significantly increase the maximum drive
power by using a high-voltage, high-output motor that successfully
improves power performance. Because the engine has no transmission
and uses a combination of the direct driving power from the engine and
the motor's driving power derived from electrical conversion, it can control
the driving power by seamlessly responding to the driver’s requirements,
all the way from low to high speeds and from cruising with a low power
requirement to full-throttle acceleration. (This is known as torque-on-
demand.) Additionally, the time required to start the engine during
acceleration from motor-only drive has been reduced by 40%, greatly
improving the acceleration response. In order to eliminate shock during
engine start-up, the generator also precisely controls the stopping position

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of the engine’s crank. To ensure that the vehicle’s driving power is not
affected even when a large load is applied.

4 HYBRID MAINTAINENCE
Both the Honda and the Toyota have long warranties on the hybrid
systems. The Insight has an eight-year/80,000-mile warranty on most of
the powertrain, including batteries, and a three-year/36,000-mile
warranty on the rest of the car. The Prius has an eight-year/100,000-mile
warranty on the battery and hybrid systems and a three-year/36,000-mile
warranty on everything else.

The motors and batteries in these cars don't require any maintenance
over the life of the vehicle. And the engine doesn't require any more
maintenance than the one in any other car. And because both hybrids
have regenerative braking, the brake pads may even last a little longer
than those in most cars.

However, if you do have to replace the batteries after the warranty

expires, it will most likely cost you several thousand dollars.

HYBRID MILEAGE TIPS

You can get the best mileage from a hybrid car by using the same kind of
driving habits that give you better mileage in your gasoline-engine car:

• Drive slower - The aerodynamic drag on the car increases dramatically the
faster you drive. For example, the drag force at 70 mph (113 kph) is about double
that at 50 mph (81 kph). So, keeping your speed down can increase your mileage
significantly.
• Maintain a constant speed - Each time you speed up the car you use energy,
some of which is wasted when you slow the car down again. By maintaining a
constant speed, you will make the most efficient use of your fuel.

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• Avoid abrupt stops - When you stop your car, the electric motor in the hybrid
acts like a generator and takes some of the energy out of the car while slowing it
down. If you give the electric motor more time to slow the vehicle, it can recover
more of the energy. If you stop quickly, the brakes on the car will do most of the
work of slowing the car down, and that energy will be wasted.

5 PHOTO GALLERY

The Honda Insight The Toyota Prius

Power control unit Battery

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Regenerative Braking Syastem

Insight Engine Power Split Device

The Controller
The heart of an electric car is the combination of:

• The electric motor

• The motor's controller
• The batteries

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A simple DC controller connected to the batteries and the DC motor. If the driver
floors the accelerator pedal, the controller delivers the full 96 volts from the
batteries to the motor. If the driver take his/her foot off the accelerator, the controller
delivers zero volts to the motor. For any setting in between, the controller "chops"
the 96 volts thousands of times per second to create an average voltage somewhere
between 0 and 96 volts.

Charging System

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Parts Of an Electric Motor

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. OVERDRIVE
February 1999 (vol 1 No 6)

2. www.toyota.com

3. www.overdriveindia.com
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4. www.autocarindia.com

5. www.toyota.co.jp/Irweb/special_rep/thsII

6. Howstuffworks How Hybrid Cars Work.htm

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