INFRARED AUTO SWITCH

CLARA RICKY BALA 51110209102 ALYA HAZIYAH BINTI MUSTAPAH 51110209345

Report submitted to Fullfill the Partial Requirements for the Diploma of Engineering Technology in Electrical & Electronics University Kuala Lumpur

NOVEMBER 2011 1

We declare that this report entitle Infra red Auto switch is the results of our own research excepts as cited in the references. The report has not been accepted for any diploma and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other diploma.

Signature Name Date

: : :

Signature Name Date

: : :

APPROVAL

We have examined this report and verify that it meets the program and University requirements for the Diploma of Engineering Technology in Electrical and Electronics.

Date:

Signature: .. Supervisors Name: ... Official Stamp

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In preparing this project, I was in contact with many people, academicians, engineers, and practitioners. They have contributed towards my understanding and thoughts. I therefore would like to express my appreciation to my main project supervisor Miss Nurul Fazlin Binti Roslan for encouragement guidance, critics, advices and motivation within the completion of this project. I am also very grateful and thankful to the technicians of UniKL BMI for their supports and guidance in completing this project. Without their continued support and motivation, this final report would not be the same as presented here.

Special thanks dedicated to Librarias at UniKL BMI for their assistance in supplying the relevant literatures and complete information. My sincere appreciation and gratitude also extends to all my colleagues and others who have contributed assistance at various occasions. Their views and tips are useful indeed. Unfortunately, it is not possible to list all of them in this limited space. I am grateful to all my family members for spending their valuable service and time for helping in completing this project report.

ABSTRACT

The Infra Red Auto switch described here will, no doubt has many applications, but it was designed initially to switch on the concealed lighting around a set of kitchen units. Simply waving your hand near the unit will cause the lights to switch on for timed period. Also, if you stay in the area the unit will remain triggered. The system is triggered when your hand is about 30cm from the unit. The prototype is concealed underneath a kitchen cupboard, the distance between the unit and work surface being too large to cause false triggering. The sensor employed here is similar to the auto switches used in up market public wash hand basins and hand driers, where the water or air is switched on when your hand is in place. This project was designed for maximum ease of assembly and fitting, with all components including the transformer being housed on the printed circuit board (p.c.b). The only connections required are the mains supply input and lightning output. The infra red system is based on the inexpensive but intelligent IS471F infra red sensor i.c. that provides a signal, which may be used to directly drive one or two infra red LEDs. A coded signal is applied to the IR LEDs and having transmitted the beam, the i.c. waits for the signal to be reflected and that signal will be detected by a window built into the i.c. and when the signal is received, the output switches positive to zero volts.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE DECLARATION APPROVAL

TITLE

PAGE i ii iii iv v vi ix x xii xiii

ACKNOWLEDGRMENTS ABSTRACT TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF SYMBOL LIST OF APPENDICES

INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Aims Objectives Benefits Problem Statement Scope of Project Summary of Chapter

1 2 2 3 5 6 6

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Introduction Advantages of Infrared Sensor Disadvantages of Infrared Sensor Summary of Chapter 6

7 7 10 10 10

METHODOLOGY 3.1 3.2 Introduction Block Diagram 3.2.1. 3.3 Operation of Block Diagram

11 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 27 27 31 32 33 34 37 40 41 42 45 46 49

Circuit Diagram 3.3.1. 3.3.2. Operation of Circuit Diagram Output Driver

3.4

Printed Circuit Diagram 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 Power Supply Regulation Time Out

3.5

Full Size Copper Master Pattern 3.5.1 3.5.2 Construction Testing

3.6

Operation of Each Component 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 3.6.7 3.6.8 3.6.9 3.6.10 3.6.11 Resistors Capacitors IC 78L12 +12 Voltage Regulator Transformer 230V ac W005 1.5A 50V Bridge Rectifier Relay 44.62 12V dc Neon Indicator IS471F Infrared Sensor TIP npn Darlington Transistor IC 4001 Quad 2 input NOR sensor Rectifier Diode 1N4001 1A

3.1

Summary of Chapter

RESULT AND ANALYSIS 7

50

4.1

Introduction 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 PCB Development PCB Assembly Problems Occured During The Project Development 4.1.4 The Solution

50 50 51 51 52 54 54 54

4.2 4.3

Description of The Results Summary

CONCLUSION 5.1 Summary

55 56

REFERENCES APPENDICES A - D

57 58

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. 3.1 3.2 4.1 Resistors Colour Code Tolerance Colours

TITLE

PAGE 29 30 53

Result of Infrared Auto switch

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 4.1 Block Diagram Circuit Diagram Printed Circuit Diagram

TITLE

PAGE 12 14 18 23 27 28 29 31 31 32 33 34 35 35 37 40 41 43 45 45 46 47 48 53

Full Size Copper Master Pattern Resistors Symbol in Circuit Fixed Value Resistors Bands on Resistor Capacitor 1000uF and nF Capacitors Symbol in Circuit Voltage Regulator Transformer 230V ac W005 1.5A 50V Bridge Rectifier Bridge Rectifier RC Filter Bridge Rectifier LC Filter Circuit Symbol For Relay Neon Indicator IS471F Infrared Sensor TIP 122 npn Darlington Transistor IC 4001 Quad 2 input NOR Sensor Pin out Diagram Rectifier Diode 1N4001 1A Half Wave Rectifications Graetz Bridge Rectifier using 4 diodes Infrared Auto switch 10

LIST OF SYMBOL

V R C P M IC LP D RLA PCB REC L.E.D e.m.f. secs/s mA m TB a.c. d.c.

Volt Resistor Capacitor Pad

- Mega Integrated Circuit Neon Indicator Diode

- Relay Printed Circuit Diode Rectifier Light Emitting Diode Electrical Magnetic Force seconds milliampere Micrometers Terminal Block Alternating Current Direct Current

11

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPPENDIX A B C D E Brochure Slide Show Pictures Poster Datasheets

TITLE

PAGE 58 59 61 64 65

12

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Our Final Year Project is known as Infrared Auto switch. The Infra Red Auto switch described here will, no doubt has many applications, but it was designed initially to switch on the concealed lighting around a set of kitchen units. In this chapter the reasons on why this project has been selected is discussed in details. Some theoretical background about infrared auto switch such as on how the system will operate has been highlighted. The main components that we had implemented in the construction of infrared auto switch will also be provided in the next chapter. This project can be applied in public area as well as in office. The infra red system is based on the inexpensive but intelligent IS471F infra red sensor i.c. The motivation to recreate and build an infrared auto switch is to make an innovation and to appreciate the technology because by using this system, it can make our life at ease without the need of switching on and off the light whenever we want to used them. The sensor employed here is similar to the auto switches used in up market public wash hand basins and hand driers, where the water or air is switched on when your hand is in place.

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1.1

AIMS

The aim of this project is to produce a prototype of infrared auto switch system. To achieve the aim, there are several objectives that need to be considered.

1.2

OBJECTIVES

The objectives are: To study on the overall system requirements To study on the Infrared Auto switch system To design, build, test, and assemble the prototype To generate high quality students that have self-confidence, good personality and very co-operative To expose on a manufacturing and to improve problem solving skills To improve our technical knowledge and skills .

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1.3

BENEFITS

1.3.1

Reduce time and cost

Since this project is specially designed for concealed lighting around set of kitchen units, this project helps to reduce time to switch on the light whenever entering the area. Apart from that, the cost of constructing this project is not too expensive but affordable.

1.3.2

Fewer requirements for in-house information technology (IT) resources

Using the Infrared Auto switch application does not require additional hardware. Plus, no software is being used in constructing this project. This will reduce the requirement for IT resources since the installation, upgrading, configuration and maintenance of hardware is not required.

15

1.3.3

Conserve the energy

Applying this project can also help in reducing the amount of energy used. If one does not go to the specific are installed with this system, the light will remain switch off. Only if someone stays near the area, it will remain trigger.

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1.4

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Nowadays people love automatic appliances in their life. Many applications had been created according to their need in life. Not only in the offices, schools and markets employ the automatic applications but also houses. There are many kind of appliances had been invented to fullfill the requirement of life.

Hence, an Infrared Auto switch system is designed specially to switch on the concealed lighting around a set of kitchen units. This project can also be applied anywhere. But here it is stressed on the kitchen units. Kitchen is a place where people do not usually enter it every time; only when hunger attacks.

Here, this project employed the infrared sensor known as IS471F. This i.c. is not that expensive and affordable to buy. The sensor employed is similar to the auto switches used in up market public wash hand basins and hand driers, where the water or air is switched on when your hand is in place. The function of this project is to switch on the light when hands are triggered at certain distance and will remains on for time period.

The Infrared Auto switch is a valuable system to be used in Malaysia because this project does not require high maintenance cost and also it can helps to conserve the energy and consumes very little power. This project can also be benefited to the schools and offices.

17

1.5

SCOPE OF PROJECT

The main scope of this project is to reduce the time to switch on the light. Besides that, it can reduce the cost of designing this project. This project not only helps in reducing the time and cost but also helps to conserve the energy.

This project was designed initially to switch on the concealed lighting around a set of kitchen units. The infra red system employed here is based on the inexpensive but intelligent IS471F infra red sensor i.c.

1.6

SUMMARY

In this chapter, the background of the project, the problem statement, objectives and scope of project/limitation was briefly discussed. The aim and objectives are the most important part to show the main purpose of the project and the scope of limitation has been discussed to know the main field of application for this project. The project background that has been stated, highlighting the utilization and the applications for this project. The problem statement of this project has included the stages of this project, on how this project will be developed.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

INTRODUCTION

H.N Rutt in his journal titled Infrared Physics and Technology stated that Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength longer than that of visible light, measured from the nominal edge of visible red light at 0.74 micrometers ( m), and extending conventionally to 300 m. These wavelengths correspond to a frequency range of approximately 1 to 400 THz, and include most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature. Microscopically, IR light is typically emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotationalvibration movements.

Light Absorption sensors are becoming more affordable and more reliable. They are used for optically absorbing gases that fall in the infrared (IR), visible, or ultraviolet (UV) spectral ranges. Some gases reliably detected by optical sensors are: carbon dioxide, methanol, hydrogen cyanide, chlorine, refrigerant gases and naphthalene.

19

Principle of Operation; the essential components of an IR system are a source of IR radiation, a detector capable of seeing the IR radiation, and a path between the detector and the source open to the gas to be detected. The detector electronics measures the difference between the dark (no light hitting the detector) and light (full energy hitting the detector). When gas in the path absorbs energy from the source the detector receives less radiation than it normally would. This reduction in radiation is used to measure the gas concentration.

Infrared radiation is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum between microwaves and visible light. In infrared communication an LED transmits the infrared signal as bursts of non-visible light. At the receiving end a photodiode or photoreceptor detects and captures the light pulses, which are then processed to retrieve the information they contain. Some common applications of infrared technology are listed follows: 1. Augmentative communication devices 2. Car locking systems 3. Computers a. Mouse b. Keyboards c. Floppy disk drives d. Printers 4. Emergency response systems 5. Environmental control systems a. Windows b. Doors c. Lights d. Curtains e. Beds f. Radios 6. Headphones 7. Home security systems 8. Navigation systems 9. Signage 20

10. Telephones 11. TVs, VCRs, CD players, stereos 12. Toys Infrared technology offers several important advantages as a form of wireless communication. Advantages and disadvantages of IR are first presented, followed by a comparative listing of radio frequency (RF) advantages and disadvantages.

21

2.2

ADVANTAGES OF INFRARED SENSORS

They can be made specific to a particular gas, they require less calibration compared to the other sensors, there is no contact with the gas, no minimum level of oxygen is necessary and they are relatively maintenance free.

2.3

DISADVANTAGES OF INFRARED SENSOR

They cannot monitor all gases (only nonlinear molecules), they can be affected by humidity and water, they can be expensive and dust and dirt can coat the optics and impair response.

2.4

SUMMARY

The literature review has been highlighted and appraised recent work on the circuit. The review helps us to gain a better understanding to proceed with the work progress. The review also highlighted the operation and application of the IS471F infrared sensor.

22

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter will review on the process of development of the infrared auto switch system. The review on the process involved is very important to make sure the project will successfully functioned. The processes are under constant changes due to unexpected problems occurred. The flow of the development of the project required only the hardware. The hardware consisted of the prototype itself and the construction circuit referring to the block and circuit diagram provided here. In this project, as mentioned earlier, the IS471F infrared sensor played important role to live up the project successfully.

23

3.2

BLOCK DIAGRAM

IR LED

R E L A Y

IS471F IR BEAM

MONO STABLE

POWER SUPPLY

DARLINGTON DRIVER

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram

24

3.2.1

OPERATION OF THE BLOCK DIAGRAM

The infrared system is based on the inexpensive but intelligent IS471F infrared sensor i.c. This i.c. provides a signal, which may be used to directly drive one or two LEDs, and having transmitted the beam, the i.c. waits for the signal to be reflected. The reflected signal is detected by a window built into the i.c., and when the signal is received the output switches from positive to zero volts. The IS471F is a 4 pin device; pin 1 and 3 will be connected to power supply, which should be between 4.5 to 16V. Pin 4 acts as a sink to provide the coded signal for the IR LEDs and pin 2 is the output.

When a reflected signal is detected, the output at pin 2 switches from positive to 0V. This is used to trigger a monostable (timer). The monostable switches on a transistor and relay, which in turn switches on the lights or any other device.

25

3.3

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure 3.2 Circuit Diagram

26

3.3.1

OPERATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The full circuit diagram for the Infrared Auto Switch is shown in figure 3.2. The IS471F infrared sensor (IC1) is connected to a pair of infrared LEDs D1 and D2 as shown. No series resistor is required since the current is regulated by the IC. Two LED provided a longer detection range than one, but three made no difference. If a shorter range is required a single LED could be employed, it is also possible to reduce the range by adding a resistor in series with the LEDs. The monostable is based around the well tried and tested CMOS 4001B chip, which houses 4 NOR gates. Gates IC2b and IC2c are configured as a monostable and a positive signal is required at pin 5 of gate IC2b to trigger the time period. As stated, IC1 provides an output which switches to 0V when an object is detected. So, to invert this signal gate IC2a whose inputs (pin 1 and pin 2) are connected together thus making it behaves as a NOT gate or inverter.

When an object is detected, pin 2 of IC1 switches to 0V, and this causes output pin 3 of IC2a to switch to positive (high). This signal is fed to input pin 5 of IC2b and IC2c. When triggered, pin 4 of IC2b switches to 0V, and this sudden change of voltage is transferred to the other side of capacitor C1, so reducing the voltage at pin 8 and pin 9 to 0V. Hence, output pin 10 of IC2c switches to positive, and this is fed back to input pin 6 of IC2b, so latching the monostable into its new state.

The monostable is not stable in its new state, since there is a voltage difference across resistor R2. Current therefore flows through R2, slowly charging up capacitor C1. So the voltage rises at IC2c pin 8 and pin 9 and as it crosses the half way point, gate IC2c changes state and completes the time period. The change of logic level is fed back to IC2b pin 6 which causes IC2b output pin 4 to switch back 27

to positive. This change of voltage is transferred across capacitor C1, so reinforcing the change already taking place. All this happens quickly so producing a clean change of state to 0V at pin 10 of IC2c.

Once the monostable is triggered, further triggering has no effect, and the time period is fixed from the first moment that triggering occurred. This can be irritating in this application, since the lights will switch off even if your hand is still near the sensor. Although they will be re triggered immediately, this is not ideal, especially since kitchen units are generally fitted with fluorescent lights which flicker as they switch on. Hence resistor R1 and diode D3 were added so that every time output pin 2 of IC1 switches to 0V, object detected, and capacitor C1 is discharged.

With this addition, timing is from the last time that an object was detected. So, if standing near the sensor, the lights will remain on. Diode D3 prevents current flowing towards capacitor C1 when IC1 pin 2 is positive, and resistor R1 is needed to reduce the surge of current that might damage IC1.

When the circuit is being tested, a time period of more than five minutes can be tedious. So, resistor R3 was included together with solder pads P1 and P2. Terminal pins or a wire link may be soldered to these pads so that at the testing stage the time period can be reduced to just a few seconds. When the system is working, the link can be cut, so reverting to the full time period.

To have a variable time period, then resistor R2 may be omitted and a variable resistor (potentiometer) can be connected across pads P1 and P2. At value of 1 mega ohm will provide a sufficient range of times.

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3.3.2

OUTPUT DRIVER

Little current is available from the output of a CMOS gate, and so transistor TR1 is employed to amplify the current available. In fact, Darlington resistor cost a little bit more than the normal ones, and so a Darlington transistor was used in the prototype. The massive gain and power rating of Darlington transistor allows the use of almost any type of low voltage relay, and allows the value of resistor R4 to sufficiently high not to adversely affect the logic level at the output.

A relay with 12V coil voltage should be employed for the output, and its contacts must be rated at 230V a.c., 5A or more. Many relays provided in market rated at 120V. These are likely to burn out or fuse together in a short time. It is much easier and safer to house relay directly on the PCB and checked so that the type obtained will fit in. There seem to be slightly different pin spacing in common use, and the PCB has been designed to accommodate either. Diode D4 removes any back e.m.f. produced by the relay.

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3.4

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD DIAGRAM

TO MAINS ON NEON LP1

MAINS INPUT

MAINS OUTPUT

P2

P1

Figure 3.3 Printed Circuit Board Diagram

30

3.4.1

POWER SUPPLY

A regulated mains supply is included in the block diagram in figure 3.1 and is made up of the components to the right of relay RLA1 contacts. The supply was included in to simplify the installation of the system. The main components are the mains transformer T1, bridge rectifier REC1, smoothing capacitor C3 and the +12V voltage regulator IC3.

The auto switch circuit consumes very little power and so a full encapsulated PCB mounting mains transformer was employed. The specified transformer supplies a limited current and its secondary can be short circuited without the transformer being damaged. There are two separate secondary windings and these are connected in parallel to double the current available. The transformer is selected with care so that its pins fit the PCB. When the a.c. supply from transformer T1 secondaries is full wave rectified by REC1 and smoothed by capacitor C3, the resulting d.c. voltage is increased by a factor of about 1.4 times, though this is subject to a voltage drop caused by the bridge diodes. The current available is reduced by the same percentage.

So a transformer rated at 9V 28mA per secondary winding was employed, the two coils being connected in parallel to achieve 9V 56mA. After rectification and smoothing the voltage available is around 12V and the current around 40mA.

31

3.4.2

REGULATION

The original prototype design used this unregulated supply to drive the circuit. However, the actual voltage produced by the transformer depends on the current flowing and when the circuit is in standby mode, the current is very small and so the voltage rises well above its nominal value. Small transformers of the type employed here are particularly bad in this respect.

The i.c.s in the circuit can tolerate up to 16V but there was a danger that the voltage may rise beyond this when in standby mode. So a +12V voltage regulator, IC3 was added. This limits the supply to 12V regardless of whether the circuit is in standby mode or activated.

The current required by the relay coil when activated will make the regulated supply dip a little below 12V, but this should not be a problem since a 12V relay should be capable of operating on 9V or less. Capacitor C2 is needed to remove any spikes from the supply line.

No fuse was included though it is assumed that the circuit is driven from a fused supply. If this is not the case, then a fuse must be added in series with the Live connection on the mains input side; terminal block TB1. Neon indicator with integral resistor LP1 is included on the mains input side to provide a warning that the system is live.

32

3.4.3

TIME OUT

The period for which the output of the monostable (IC2b/IC2c) is positive is set by resistor R2 and capacitor C1. The formula applied here is:

Time (secs) = R (ohms) x C (farads) x 0.7

The numbers can be simplified by taking R in mega ohms and C in microfarads. Hence by using the values in the circuit diagram Figure 3.2;

Time = 0.68 x 1000 x 0.7 = almost 8 minutes

This is the time for which the switch remains on, after the last time it was triggered. If the pads P1 and P2 are joined with a wire link, then resistor R3 reduces the time period considerably. Resistor R3 is so much lower than R2 that R2 can be ignored in the calculation, so the time will be:

Time = 0.01 x 1000 x 0.7 = 7 secs

All these times are approximate as they depend upon the accuracy of the components used, particularly the capacitor. Some electrolytic capacitors may have tolerance (error) of as much as 50 % though most modern ones can do better.

As stated earlier, if precise time is required, a potentiometer; variable resistor could be employed so that the exact time can be set. The variable resistor should be connected to PCB pads P1 and P2 so that it is in series with resistor R3; this ensures

33

that if the variable resistor is reduced to zero, there is not a direct link to the positive supply.

The value of resistor R3 could be reduced to 1k if shorter times are required. The maximum resistance permitted is 1M, beyond that timing may be unstable. If very long timing is required the value of capacitor C1 could be increased, though be cautious, as large value electrolytic can be very leaky and capacitor C1 never charges sufficiently to complete the timing cycle.

34

3.5

FULL SIZE COPPER MASTER PATTERN

1.85 Inc (47mm)

3.74 Inc (95mm)

Figure 3.4 Full Size Copper Master Pattern

35

3.5.1

CONSTRUCTION

Apart from the neon indicator LP1, all the components for the infrared auto switch is mounted on a small single PCB. The topside component layout and full size copper foil master pattern in figure 3.4.

Begin the construction by soldering in position the 14 - pin i.c. socket followed by the resistors and diodes D3 and D4, checking that the diodes are fitted the correct way round. Now the larger components including bridge rectifier REC1 and the capacitors are fitted onto the PCB. Again, all must be fitted in the correct way round, except for the capacitor C2 which may be either way. Fit transistor TR1 with its metal tab away from the edge of the board, and regulator IC3 with the flat side shown.

Fit solder terminal pins into copper pads P1 and P2, or use a wire link (which will later be cut) to join these two pads together. This will help with testing as explained later. The infrared LEDs D1 and D2 must be fitted the correct way round and must stand proud of the board so that they may be bent over the edge later. Their wires were left as long as possible.

The IR LEDs used in the prototype were supplied with their longer leads indicates cathode (k). This is very unusual, normally long indicates anode (a). So, the orientation of the LEDs must be taken care of. Round LEDs have a flat mark on the base of the plastic, and this also indicates cathode (k). If shorter range is required (use only single LED) then a wire link fitted in place of the LED not required.

The infrared sensor IC1 must also be fitted correctly. The bump on the surface of the i.c. indicates the rear (non sensing) side. Hence, it should be fitted with the smooth flat side towards the edge of PCB. 36

An earthed surface such as the case of a metal appliance which is plugged into the mains is touched in order to remove any static electricity in our body before handling the IC1. The sensor is fitted in to allow it to stand proud of the PCB so that it can be folded over the edge later.

The relay is then fitted to the PCB noting that double holes are provided for some of the relay tags, since annoyingly relays do not always conform to a standard layout. Similarly the transformer should be soldered into place. Neither the specified transformer nor relay will fit the wrong way round. If relay and transformer are employed not following the design of the PCB, then insulated wires must be used to make appropriate connections. However, using the components specified will be easier and safer. The mains and lighting cables are connected via 3 way terminal blocks, TB1 and TB2. These are soldered to the PCB and provide a convenient way of connecting leads at a later stage. Likewise a 2 way block TB3 can be used to connect the neon indicator LP1. Alternatively, the main neon may be soldered directly to the appropriate PCB pads but before fitting the neon, the way it passes through the case. Finally fit in the IC2 into its socket, checking the notch (dot) is at the correct end and taking the same anti static precautions as described earlier. Unfortunately, due to some problems we encountered here, we replaced the neon indicator with Philips bulb.

3.5.2

TESTING

It is strongly recommended that the circuit board should first be tested on a separate 9V or 12V battery supply before connecting it to the mains, otherwise house the circuit in its case first and return to testing later.

37

A separate battery supply is connected by clipping a pair of leads to the appropriate tracks on the circuit board. The correct polarity is observed. The track at the top, leading to IR diode D1 is the positive supply and the track at the very bottom of the PCB is negative (0V) supply line. If terminal pins have been fitted to the pads P1 and P2, then both are joined together for testing.

When switched on, the relay should click on. By assuming the circuit did not connected to main supply, the relay can be verified if working by connecting a multimeter set to resistance to the terminals marked L on TB1 and L on TB2. When the terminal contacts close, the meter should give a reading of about zero or bleep.

When power is applied to the board, the relay should switch on. Assuming the pads P1 and P2 are joined together, the relay should remain on for about 7 seconds. If the relay remains on for longer, it may be because the IR receiver IC1 is being triggered by the IR LEDs. The sensor is then shielded with thick paper or card. If all well, disconnect the multimeter and temporary low voltage supply. For safety precautions, do not connect to the main supply until the PCB is safely housed and secured into its case.

38

3.6 OPERATION OF EACH COMPONENT

3.6.1. RESISTORS

Resistor is known as an electrical circuit component with specified resistance. Resistor limits size of current flowing. Most electronic circuits require resistors to make them work properly and it is obviously important to find out something about the different types of resistor available, and to be able to choose the correct resistor value, in , k, or M, for a particular application. The symbol used in circuit diagram is shown below:

Figure 3.5 Resistors Symbol in Circuit

Resistors are used with transducers to make sensor subsystems. Transducers are electronic components which convert energy from one form into another, where one of the forms of energy is electrical. A light dependent resistor, or LDR, is an example of an input transducer. Changes in the brightness of the light shining onto the surface of the LDR result in changes in its resistance. An input transducer is most often connected along with a resistor to make a circuit called a potential divider. In this case, the output of the potential divider will be a voltage signal which reflects changes in illumination. Microphones and switches are input transducers. Output transducers include loudspeakers, filament lamps and LEDs.

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3.6.1.1 Fixed Value Resistor

Figure 3.6 Fixed Value Resistors During manufacture, a thin film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiralled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between the two ends of the rod is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added; the resistor is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with coloured bands to indicate the resistor value.

Carbon film resistors are cheap and easily available, with values within 10% or 5% of their marked or 'nominal' value. Metal film and metal oxide resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more accurately to within 2% or 1% of their nominal value. There are some differences in performance between these resistor types, but none which affect their use in simple circuits.

Wire wound resistors are made by winding thin wire onto a ceramic rod. They can be made extremely accurately for use in multimeters, oscilloscopes and other measuring equipment. Some types of wire wound resistors can pass large currents without overheating and are used in power supplies and other high current circuits.

40

3.6.1.2 Color Code

Each color represents a number according to the following scheme: Table 3.1 Resistors Colour Code

The first band on a resistor is interpreted as the FIRST DIGIT of the resistor value. TOLERANCE GOLD

1ST DIGIT YELLOW 2ND DIGIT VIOLET

MULTIPIER RED Figure 3.7 Bands on Resistor

The remaining band is called the TOLERANCE band. This indicates the percentage accuracy of the resistor value. Most carbon film resistors have a gold41

coloured tolerance band, indicating that the actual resistance value is with + or - 5% of the nominal value. Other tolerance colours are: Table 3.2 Tolerance Colours

To calculate the resistance value, use the formula:

3.6.1.3 Resistor in Series and Parallel

In series circuit, current flow at all same points. The formula is:

Parallel circuit always provide alternative pathway for current flow.

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3.6.2

CAPACITORS

Figure 3.8 Capacitor 1000uF and 100nF The job of a capacitor is to store charge onto its plates. The amount of electrical charge that a capacitor can store on its plates is known as its Capacitance value and depends upon three main factors.

The surface area, A of the two conductive plates which make up the capacitor, the larger the area the greater the capacitance.

The distance, d between the two plates, the smaller the distance the greater the capacitance.

The type of material which separates the two plates called the "dielectric", the higher the permittivity of the dielectric the greater the capacitance.

Capacitors also act as filter passing alternative current (AC) and blocking direct current (DC). The symbol used in circuit diagram is:

Figure 3.9 Capacitors Symbol in circuit

The value used for capacitance is farad (F). To read value of capacitor, if the code given is: 43

(103),

The dielectric of a capacitor is a non-conducting insulating material, such as waxed paper, glass, mica different plastics etc, and provides the following advantages.

The dielectric constant is the property of the dielectric material and varies from one material to another increasing the capacitance by a factor of k.

The dielectric provides mechanical support between the two plates allowing the plates to be closer together without touching.

Permittivity of the dielectric increases the capacitance. The dielectric increases the maximum operating voltage compared to air.

All capacitors have a maximum working voltage rating, its WV DC so select a capacitor with a rating at least 50% more than the supply voltage. There are a large variety of capacitor styles and types, each one having its own particular advantage, disadvantage and characteristics.

3.6.3

IC 78L 12 +12 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Figure 3.10 Voltage Regulator 7812 is a famous IC which is being widely used in 12V voltage regulator circuits. Truly speaking it is a complete standalone voltage regulator. We only need to use two capacitors, one on the input and second one on the output of 7812 in order to achieve clean voltage output and even these capacitors are optional to use. 44

To achieve 12V 1A current, 7812 should be mounted on a good heat sink plate. Thanks to the transistor like shape of 7812 which makes it easy to mount on a heat sink plate. 7812 has built in over heat and short circuit protection which makes it a good choice for making power supplies. In electronics markets, 7812 is sold under various names such as 7812a, 7812act, 7812t and lm7812. All of them are almost identical with a little to no differences at all. 7812 input voltage range is 14V to 35V. Exceeding the voltage range may damage the IC. The maximum safe current you can get from one 7812 IC is 1A. If you need more power then there are a few ways to do so. More than one 7812 can be used in parallel in order to achieve more than 1A current but output voltage of each 7812 can slightly vary resulting in unbalanced load on all of them. This can result in load balancing issues and can damage the IC carrying most current. However there is a way to overcome this problem. I have given bellow a schematic diagram in which two 7812 ICs are attached together and both of them are carrying almost equal load. At least the current difference is not too much to damage any IC.

3.6.4

TRANSFORMER 230V ac

Figure 3.11 Transformer 230V ac Transformers are used to: Convert high voltage alternating current (AC) to desired low voltage alternating current (AC). Such transformers are called step down transformers. 45

 Convert low voltage alternating current (AC) to desired high voltage alternating current (AC). Such transformers are called step up transformers. Electrically separate one part of the circuit (or any other electrical system) from the other part, termed as 'electrical isolation'. Such transformers are called isolation transformers.

3.6.5

W005 1.5A 50V BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Figure 3.12 W005 1.5A 50V Bridge Rectifier

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into direct current a (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.

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3.6.5.1 Bridge Rectifier RC and LC Filter

A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

Figure 3.13 Bridge Rectifier RC Filter

Figure 3.14 Bridge Rectifier LC Filter

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3.6.5.2 Current Flow in the Bridge Rectifier

For both positive and negative swings of the transformer, there is a forward path through the diode bridge. Both conduction paths cause current to flow in the same direction through the load resistor, accomplishing full-wave rectification.

While one set of diodes is forward biased, the other set is reverse biased and effectively eliminated from the circuit.

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3.6.6

RELAY 44.62 12V dc

Figure 3.15 Circuit symbol for relay

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw (changeover) switch contacts. Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate from the first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits; the link is magnetic and mechanical. Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets of changeover contacts are readily available. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil. The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this; it is the moving part of the switch. 49

NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off. NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.

Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.

Several features to be considered when choosing a relay: 1. Physical size and pin arrangement If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that its dimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information in the supplier's catalogue. 2. Coil voltage The relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering the relay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltage which is a little lower than their rated value. 3. Coil resistance The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You can use Ohm's law to calculate the current: supply voltage Relay coil current = coil resistance 4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a

current of 30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it is too much for most ICs and they will require a transistor to amplify the current. 5. Switch ratings (voltage and current) The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. You will need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating is usually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC". 6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc) Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single pole

50

changeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further information please see the page on switches.

The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below: Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors. Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A). Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per second.

Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

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3.6.7

NEON INDICATOR

Figure 3.16 Neon Indicator

This is a 220-240V AC neon indicator (i.e. one you power directly from the On/Off switch instead of the power transformer's 6.3V secondary winding). It has two solder lugs, and comes with a spring washer and hex nut for securing to the front panel.

This neon indicator requires a 10mm diameter hole in the control panel and chassis. If you have a pre-punched chassis with 9.5mm holes, you may be able to screw the neon into the hole using the thread.

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3.6.8

IS471F INFRA-RED SENSOR

Figure 3.17 IS471F Infrared Sensor

The infrared sensor applied in this project is used to provide signal which may be drive to directly drive one or two infra red LEDs.

IR Advantages:
1. Low power requirements: therefore ideal for laptops, telephones, personal digital assistants 2. Low circuitry costs: $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry 3. Simple circuitry: no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be incorporated into the integrated circuit of a product 4. Higher security: directionality of the beam helps ensure that data isn't leaked or spilled to nearby devices as it's transmitted 5. Portable 6. Few international regulatory constraints: IrDA (Infrared Data Association) functional devices will ideally be usable by international travellers, no matter where they may be 7. High noise immunity: not as likely to have interference from signals from other devices

IR Disadvantages:

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1. Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned (i.e. able to see each other) to communicate 2. Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc. can block transmission 3. Short range: performance drops off with longer distances 4. Light, weather sensitive: direct sunlight, rain, fog, dust, pollution can affect transmission 5. Speed: data rate transmission is lower than typical wired transmission

3.6.9

TIP 122npn DARLINGTON TRANSISTOR

3.6.9.1 Introduction

A transistor has three leads, called the base, the collector, and the emitter. The voltage of the base (in relation to the ground) determines whether and how much current flows from the collector to the emitter. An NPN transistor can be off, meaning that there is no (or very little) voltage from the base; partly on, meaning that there is some voltage from the base; or saturated, meaning that it is receiving full voltage from the base.

A saturated transistor allows the current to flow from the collector to the emitter unopposed; a partly on transistor provides some resistance; and a transistor that is off provides full resistance. A PNP transistor is similar to an NPN transistor except it performs the opposite function: when it is saturated, the current is fully resisted; when there is no voltage from the base, the current is not at all resisted; and when it is partly on there is some resistance.

In sum, a transistor controls the flow between the collector and the emitter based upon the voltage of the base. The massive gain and power rating of a 54

Darlington transistor allows the use of almost any type of low voltage relay and allows value of resistor to be sufficiently high not to adversely affect the logic level at the output.

3.6.9.2 TIP 122npn Darlington Resistor

Figure 3.18 TIP 122npn Darlington Resistor

Darlington transistors are circuits that combine two bipolar transistors in a single device. They provide high current gain (hFE) and require less space than configurations that use two discrete transistors. In Darlington pairs, transistor collectors are tied together and the emitter of the first transistor is directly coupled to the base of the second transistor.

The total gain, which is often 1000 or more, is the product of the gain of the individual transistors. Compared to single transistor configurations, Darlington transistor pairs have more phase shift at high frequencies and can become unstable with negative feedback more easily. Darlington transistors also have a higher baseemitter voltage, which is the sum of both base emitter voltages. Sidney Darlington, an engineer at Bell Laboratories in the 1950s, is credited with first combing two transistors on a single chip.

Selecting Darlington transistors requires an analysis of performance specifications. The common emitter current gain (hFE), the ratio of collector current to base current (), characterizes the amplifying ability of bipolar transistors. Collector-to-emitter breakdown voltage (VCEO) is the maximum voltage than can be 55

applied continuously in the reverse direction of the collector junction when the emitter is open. Other important considerations include collector-to-base breakdown voltage (VCEO) and maximum collector current (ICmax). Current gain bandwidth product (fT) is the frequency at which the common emitter current gain is in unit. Power dissipation (PD), which is usually expressed in watts or mill watts, is the total power consumption of the device. Operating temperature (TJ) is the junctions full-required range of ambient operating temperatures. Some Darlington transistors support a specific temperature range and feature mechanical and electrical specifications that are suitable for commercial or industrial applications. Other devices meet screening levels for military specifications (MIL-SPEC).

Darlington transistors vary in terms of polarity, packaging, and packing methods. NPN is a physical bipolar junction transistor (BJT) arrangement in which the emitter and the collector are made of N-type material and the base is made of Ptype material. By contrast, PNP is a BJT arrangement in which the emitter and the collector are made of P-type material and the base is made of N-type material.

In terms of packaging, Darlington transistors are available in small outline (SO), transistor outline (TO), small outline transistor (SOT), discrete packaging (DPAK), and flat pack. Darlington transistors often use either surface mount technology (SMT) or through hole technology (SMT) and vary in terms of the number of leads. Packaging methods for Darlington transistors include tape reels, rails, bulk packs, tubes, and trays.

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3.6.10 IC 4001 QUAD 2 INPUT NOR SENSOR

Figure 3.19 IC 4001 Quad 2 input NOR sensor

The 4001 has four separate 2-input NOR gates which can be used independently The truth table of each individual gate is: Table 3.3 NOR gate truth table input B 0 0 1 1 input A 0 1 0 1 output 1 0 0 0

where '0' represents a LOW voltage, and '1' represents a HIGH voltage.

Figure 3.20 Pin out Diagram

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3.6.11 RECTIFIER DIODE 1N4001 1A

Figure3.21 Rectifier Diode 1N4001 1A A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, solid-state diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches.

Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of flame.

The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by pulsating voltages and currents (although still unidirectional). Depending upon the type of end-use, this type of DC current may then be further modified into the type of relatively constant voltage DC characteristically produced by such sources as batteries and solar cells.

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A device which performs the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an inverter.

3.6.11.1 Half Wave Rectification

In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform reaches the output, it is very inefficient if used for power transfer. Halfwave rectification can be achieved with a single diode in a one-phase supply, or with three diodes in a three-phase supply. Half wave rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current.

Figure 3.22 Half Wave Rectifications The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following two ideal equations.

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3.6.11.2 Full Wave Rectification

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient. However, in a circuit with a non-center tapped transformer, four diodes are required instead of the one needed for half-wave rectification. Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode bridge or bridge rectifier.

Figure 3.23 Graetz bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

Figure 3.24 Full-wave rectifier using a center tap transformer and 2 diodes.

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3.7

SUMMARY

The methodology is a very important part throughout this project completion. The literature searches that have been carried out earlier are valuable in order to develop the methodology. The understandings on each part of block diagram, as well as the infrared auto switch circuit are important to obtain the expected output. However, the neon indicator is replaced with Philips bulb due to certain problems occurred during the construction of the project which will be explained in next chapter. But still the method carried out in this project remained the same. The objectives to develop the system of the performance and to develop the system of circuit and hardware are achieved by completing this chapter.

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CHAPTER 4

RESULT & ANALYSIS

4.1

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter the results and analysis of infrared auto switch will be described. After constructing the circuit of this project, the infrared auto switch should be able to function well as desired.

The steps that had been taken:

4.1.1: Printed Circuit Board (PCB) development: Blade: Cut the PCB into suitable size. Transparent plastic: Draw the PCB layout on the transparent plastic. PCB developer, etching powder and thinner: to develop track from PCB. 62

4.1.2: PCB assembly:

Mini drill: To drill holes on PCB for the components being fitted in. Pliers: To bend the component legs and place the components onto PCB. Soldering iron: To solder the components onto PCB. Cutter: To cut the component legs and wires. Prospect: To fit in the circuit into a suitable casing.

4.1.3: Problems occurred during project development

Then neon indicator did not light up. Some connections at the PCB are not right The power supply rating is too large for the neon indicator to light up. Some components are damaged due to receiving high voltage.

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4.1.4: The solution

Every connection is checked. The neon indicator rated for 220 V is replaced with Philips bulb rated between 230 V 240 V. Damaged components are replaced with the new one. Some components had polarity. Each component is checked to ensure the components are fitted onto the PCB the correct way round.

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Table 4.1: Result of Infrared Auto switch

Distance between hands and sensor (cm) 10 15 20 25 30 35 ON ON ON ON ON OFF 7 7 7 7 7 0 Light switch ON/OFF Time taken to switch off if no triggering occurred (s)

Figure 4.1 Infrared Auto switch 65

4.2

DESCRIPTION OF THE RESULTS

The results obtained in the table Result of Infrared Auto switch shown that the project is functioning successfully as required. The infrared sensor employed here was able to detect the movement of hands which caused the light to switch on for a timed period.

4.3

SUMMARY

In this chapter, the result and analysis has been observed and jotted down. The objectives of developing the system of the infrared auto switch is achieved and proven by the results obtained.

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

As a conclusion the Infrared Auto switch is successfully functioned to detect the movement of hands near the unit. This project is specially designed to switch on the concealed lighting around a set of kitchen units. This system is also applicable to the auto switches used in up market public hand basins and hand driers where the water or air is switched on when hand is in place. By constructing this project, we gained lots of knowledge and the objectives of designing this system had been achieved. Constructing the project makes us understand better the application of the sensor employed here. Throughout completing this project, we had also improved our technical skills such as in circuit designing and constructing as well as troubleshooting. In addition to that, we learnt to manage our time wisely in order to complete our project on time and become responsible and innovative throughout completing the project in time. This project can be commercialized since it will be benefited the society and can be employed anywhere even in the offices and schools. Hence, the infrared sensor applied here give lots of benefits to the society, safe to use and the installation is quite easy too.

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5.1

SUMMARY

Upon completing this project, few steps are taken to full fill the objectives stated. The background of the project, the problem statement, objectives and scope of project/limitation was briefly discussed to know the main field of application for this project. The review helps us to gain a better understanding to proceed with the work progress. The review also highlighted the operation and application of the IS471F infrared sensor. The understandings on each part of block diagram, as well as the infrared auto switch circuit are important to obtain the expected output. Hence, the results obtained proved the expected output.

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REFERENCES

JOURNAL

1. Infrared Physics and Technology, H.N. Rutt, 1995, Trace R&D Center, University Wisconsin, Madison, WI.

BOOK 2. Magazine EPE 02 07, Max Horsey 3. Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, BL Theraja,Twenty eight Edition 1997, Ram Nagar, New Delhi, India

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: BROCHURE

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APPENDIX B: SLIDE SHOW

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72

APPENDIX C: PICTURES

73

74

75

APPENDIX D: POSTER

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