Geography To Study: Core & Urban Environments (Option G) Core: 1. Populations in transition a. Population change: i.

Explain population trends and patterns in births (crude birth rate), natural increase and mortality (Crude Death Rate, infant and child mortality rates), fertility and life expectancy in contrasting regions of the world. - Background info Worlds population - approx. 7 billion 3 billion youth entering reproductive age = 1960 world population 50 million abortions yearly 1/4 of pregnancies in developing countries = abortion Ehrlich - population bomb ~ world cannot sustain increasing numbers Death rate = portion of the population that dies each year Infant Mortality rate = 1year < of life Average life expectancy = is number of years that a child born into a particular country in a certain year can expect to live Birth rate = # of live births per year per 1000 people Population Trends in contrasting regions Death rate since 1820 has globally decrease = globally increasing population 90% of future population growth will come from developing countries Greatest in Asia European populations on a decline (Japan as well) 16% of global population in developed nations by 2020 74 countries in developing parts of the world will double their populations in the next 30 years - Fertility rates Another way to look at population trends Generally higher birthrates = developing countries, and lower birthrates = developed countries Change according to status of females in society

 Higher level of income = lower fertility rates

High fertility rate (even with it decreasing)= possible double in population size (Bangladesh 6.7 -> 3.1) More than 50 countries today with below-replacement fertility rates (fewer in total generational population than the last - leads to retirement issues, who will support the ageing majority?) - Mortality Crude Death Rate (CDR) = (total no. of deaths/total population) x 1000 per year Infant mortality = (total # of child deaths <1 year old/total # of live births per year) x 1000 Child mortality = (total # of dead children 1-5 years/total # of children 1-5 years) x 1000 MEDCs = better nutrition, healthcare & environmental conditions = death rate of 9% , life expectancy = 75 + years LEDCs = high death rates & low life expectancies (much more variations that MEDCs) trend was positive over last few decades - been reversed as AIDS consequence Causes of death: LEDCs = infectious diseases, MEDCs = degenerative conditions Mortality rates effected by: Age structure (large young population = lower death rate ex. Mexico: 34% of population under 15, CDR = 5%), social class (poorer = higher death rate, reflected in racial groups), Occupation (some jobs are hazardous, minig, oil production, farming etc), Place of residence (urban areas = higher mortality rates - overcrowding, pollution, high population densities, and stress)

- Child & Infant Mortality

- Demographic Transition Model Stage 1: high birth & death rates (isolated areas: Himalayas, central africa and interior South America) - High Birth rate: Infant mortality high so families have a lot of children, children = economical assets, children provide security for parents - Death rate high: medical care & sanitation poor, disease spreads Stage 2: Falling death rate but same birth rate (Kenya, Paraguay, Afghanistan, Nepal) - Death rate falling: medical & sanitation advances - Birth rate same: cultural factors and knowledge same as before Stage 3: Stabilizing death & falling birth rates (Malaysia, Israel, China & Chile) - Birth rate falling: family planning, information, family income & female education (county is progressing developmentally) - Lower death rate: same as before Stage 4: both birth and death rates low (Europe, Canada, USA)

ii. Analyze population pyramids. Only for measurable characteristics of populations: age, sex, ethnicity, language, etc Wide base + narrow top = high birth rate, high proportion of young people, rapidly growing population Steep vertical sides = ageing population with low birth rate, excess of elderly females of males LEDCs tend to = wide base: large proportion of population below 15 years of age

(future population boom) MEDCs tend to = narrow bases: fewer children to reach reproductive age so population remains stable, also narrow base = ageing & declining population

iii. Explain population momentum and its impact on population projections. Measuring Growth Rates Growth rate: This is used for calculating the long term growth rate of a country or region. The formula for calculating growth rate is below.

Doubling time: The length of time it takes for a population to double in size. It is calculated by dividing 70 by the growth rate (r).

Population momentum: The continued growth of a population after fertility rate is equal or actually below the replacement rate. This is happens if there is a large concentration of people in the reproductive age range. Population projections: A prediction of future population changes based on current trends of mortality, fertility and migration. The UN uses a number of assumptions when making these predictions (see the summary on the document below). The UN make population projections for a number of reasons, including: To be able to better allocate and distribute resources To be able to target family planning and medical care more effectively To be to predict population crises e.g. famine, refugee problems To advise government and NGOs (Non-governmental organisations (Charities))

b. Response to high and low fertility: i. Explain dependency and ageing ratios. Dependency ration: tries to measure what happens to a country that has a declining population (places in Europe) - Found these countries experience great strains on social security and pension funds - Because and increasing proportion of the population has become depended on the wealth produced by a declining work force - Economically active/working population = 15-65 - Dependent population = <15 & 65<

- Number of dependent people x100 Number of people of working age ii.Examine the impacts of youthful and ageing populations. Youthful populations: - Pressure on housing - Pressure on schooling - Pressure on food supplies - Pressure on health services Ageing populations - Health care - Pensions aka financial support Both kinds of population fall into the dependent part of the population being in the majority, with youthful populations an increase in population is to be expected but they also need a lot of resources that are not readily available to them because of a lack of a working population. Ageing populations also need a big enough working population because they need financial support and care.

iii.Evaluate examples of a pro-natalist policy and an anti-natalist policy. Pro-natalist policies = government/nation trying to increase population size through birth rates - Incentives: prize money to families have more children/support for said families - Singapore: originally had an anti-natalist approach, then population fell below replacement levels. Currently: government encourages eugenic attitudes carriers should not be placed above having families, married now the next step, encourages university graduates to have children - Have Three or More (if you can afford it) in 1987, in which the government continued its efforts to better the quality and quantity of the population while discouraging low-income families from having children. The Social Development Unit (SDU) was also established in 1984 to promote marriage and romance between educated individuals. Anti-natalist policies = government/nation trying to control population growth/size through birth rates - Regulatory policy approaches: government imposes regulations and restrictions that control the number of births

- Incentives: prize money to families that limit number of children - Demographic model approach: higher living standards = lower birth rate, government tries to raise living standards - Chinas One Child policy: - 1940s government tried to increase international power through larger population - 1950s government underestimated population size - food crisis - 1980 marriage law adopted - introduced-rewards and benefits, health care subsidies also, priority health care, housing, education provision, extra land for private farming and extra food rations. Also financial bonuses. - Fines: include financial loss, lose of government benefits, demotion or dismissal from employment. - 1993 - sex selection through ultra sounds was banned (people kept choosing boys for cultural reasons) c. Movement responses - migration : Migration = movement of people, can be permanent or temporary and if temporary can be both long and short term Circular migration = when migrants return home periodically, common with seasonal farmers or rural-urban migration Internal Migration = migration within a country International Migration = emigration from one country and immigration to another i. Discuss the causes of migrations, both forced and voluntary.

People migrate mainly for economic reasons (Ravenstein) Most migrants are single and in the 20-35 age bracket Migration increases as towns, industries and transport link develop Many migrants are unable to find work when they arrive and eventually return to their place of origin
Pull A perception that many jobs are available in the city A wish to get a better education Easy access to the city along roads or railways Better health facilities in the cities Better entertainment in the city Restraining Desire to stay with family Security of being supported by family The cost of moving to the city People in the city may speak a different language Cost of living is higher Disease spreads more easily in cities

Push Not enough land farming due to rising population Boredom with rural farming life Forced off the land by land lords Low standards of living in a rural village Risk of famine if the crops fail Work on the farm is too hard

ii. Evaluate internal (national) and international migrations in terms of their geographic (socio-economic, political and environmental) impacts at their origins and destinations. To Germany from Turkey Effect of employment/unemployment levels - German employment levels went up - migrants were mostly men at ideal working force age - Turkey: family issues arose (separation) during the temporary migration era - 1/5 of working power in turkey left for Germany in 1960s Supply of Skilled labour - In turkey supply went down due to the majority of migrants being of the working force - Germanys work force largely increased Gains from returning migrants - Returning migrants gained skills & experienced upward mobility abroad - Could return to families - Went from industrial work to other areas of employment, but lost money - Returning for migrants was not thought to be an effective move Remittances - Positive and negative impacts - 1960s-1980s Turkey received 1.5 - 2 billion dollars in annual remittances, essential to financing imports and the balance of payments in turkey - large amounts of migrant savings resided in foreign bans (negative for turkey) - Migrants increased consumption levels for luxury goods in their communities due to personal spending habits, resulted in increased trade deficit and stronger pressure on the government to better distribute remittances (negative) - boomerang effect = increase of goods from host country to turkey due to immigration into country, ends up giving the remittances back to the original country (negative for turkey) - Increase in residency resulted in a decrease of remittances, money became focused on German goods and consumption (Penninx 1982) - Turkish governments efforts to maximize potential benefits - Turkey needed external income to support development efforts - Turkish government adopted encouraging policies (special exchange rates, shorter compulsory military service through paying in a foreign currency)

- Government wanted to encourage investments in employmentgenerating activities: foreign currency in Turkish banks = better/ broader loans d. Gender and Change - Examine gender inequalities in culture, status, education, birth ratios, health, employment, empowerment, life expectancy, family size, migration, legal rights and land tenure (women) often work twice as many hours as men, earn only one tenth of the income of men, consume less of the food than men and own only one hundredth the property of men (Aid Abroad) MEDC - gender problem = women trying to get into men exclusive feilds - especially those involving physical labor (construction, mining, etc) LEDC - gender problem = women have vigorous physical labour, culturally expected to do more manual labour & care for children (possibly) Fewer women in law, academia or engineering type jobs. One reason is that there is a less investment return in professional development. Men are argued to work constant from 20 to 60/65 while women spend these years outside having children and raising families. - Gender and Population Growth High population growths often associated with the low status of women in society refer to page # 1 - Gender and Social Role most common roles for women in the development process i. Biological reproduction ii. Social reproduction iii.economic reproduction Above three roles = phsyical & psychological stress ex. sub-saharan Africa Up to 1/3 of women pregnant or breastfeeding at any time Women over 50 - 70% of workforce Women grow over 80% of food eaten and contribute half of regions cash crops

 Gender equality = important goal for many countries (evidence that gender equality = better development) Life Expectancy: better for woman than men

Migration: women account for almost 50% of immigrants around the world. Women increasingly likley to move for economic opportunities rather than to just join family (as was done in the past). Some countries have higher female immigration because of differential demands for labour (70% of Filipino labour = women) Tenure: rights & restrictions & responsibilites that people have with respect to the land they hold. few african countries have legislation in place to assure womens access to land and property (those that do: South Africa, Tanzania, Rwanada, Uganda etc) formal law, traditional legal systems, customary and religious laws all often deny women the right to acquire and inherit property, particularly in countries where shariah law applies shariah law = islamic law The Gender-related Development index (GDI) is calculated by averaging these three measures : Longevity; as measured by the female and male life expectancy at birth Knowledge; as measure by (1) female and male literacy rates, and (2) female and male combined school enrolment ratios Income; per capita, in Purchasing Power Parity Us dollars, based on female and male earned income shares. The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is a measure of the extent to which females as well as males participate in the decision making processes of a country.

 Political participation, as measured by the percentage of seats held by women in national parliament Economic Participation, as measured by as measured by the percentage of women among legislators, senior officials and managers, as well as in professional and technical fields Power over economic resources, as measured by the income earned by females compared with mens incomes. 2. Disparities in wealth and development a. Measurements of regional and global disparities: i. Define indices of infant mortality, education, nutrition, income, marginalization and Human Development Index (HDI).
Infant Mortality Education Social indicator: Birth rates: The number of births per 1000 of population per year. Education can be measured in countless ways including; adult literacy, student teacher ratio, school enrollment, number of school years completed and number of university graduates.Social indicator: Adult literacy: The percentage of adults who can read and write. School enrollment: The percentage of people that enroll in primary school or complete primary/secondary school. University graduates: The percentage of people who start university or the percentage of people who complete university courses. Social Indicator: Calorific Intake: The average number of calories consumed by different age groups. Malnutrition rate: The percentage of children underweight or under height for their age. The average income of countries: Gross domestic product (GDP): The total value of all goods and services produced domestically (inside a country) by a nation during a year. Gross national product (GNP): The total market value of all goods and services produced by a nation in a year. It also includes the value of goods and services produced overseas. Gross national income (GNI): The total value of good and services produced within a country together with the balance of income and payments from or to other countries. GNI is increasingly become the preferred monetary indicator. Usually economically: dont have access to same resources and opportunities for some reason (indigenous people, US blacks) When a group of people become separated from society. poverty and education rates - fringe groups

Nutrition

Income

Marginalization

HDI

Infant Mortality: The number of deaths before the age of one per 1000 live births per year. Reducing infant mortality is a Millennium Development Goal. Despite this there are still huge differences in the rates of infant mortality around the world. Measuring infant mortality accurately can be problematic because in many LEDCs birth certificates and death certificates are not always given. Infant mortality rates can be high for a number of reasons including: The health of the mother Natal care Education levels Diet Disease Conflict Access to healthcare and medication Education

Nourishment

ii. Explain the value of the indices in measuring disparities across the globe Considered the most reliable and comprehensive measure of human development To be able to analyze what is happening with global economic patterns trade barriers, changing patterns, a lot of reason, to see where aid money should go etc b. Origin of disparities - Explain disparities and inequalities that occur within countries resulting from ethnicity, residence, parental education, income, employment (formal and informal) and land ownership Ethnicity
- Global ~large differences in countries globally, certain ethnic groups do better than others in the same country, stems from colonialism and is often the colonists descendants who are better off. different cultural groups more successful due to empowering woman, others don't so they are less so . - Canada between non-aboriginals and aboriginals of canada ~ die earlier(M=7.4 F=5.2 yrs), increased suicide(x2), diseases(much higher), housing and living conditions(limited resources, reserves in poor conditions, 1/2 off-reserve in poverty, private land ownership Nisga), education levels (70% never complete high school, 27% higher education graduates), unemployment (x2) - US ~ no legal discrimination, but de facto (in fact) income (white = 2/3 higher than black, 40% more than hispanic) education (postsecondary ed. = more white) housing (white owned 3/4 much more than others) - South Africa ~ discrimination btw white & black from colonial times, still present, different neighborhoods etc. 1948 neighborhood separations. equalities activism relatively recent - Germany ~ turkish immigrants vrs native germans, 45% fail highschool, 25% less likely to go to university, cultural values slow progress (woman stay at home, unemployment rate higher) Residence - Global ~ governments tend to focus on urban areas ~ cities = opportunity : rural = poverty -> move to cities, high densities. there are the richer districts, and the poorer ones - Canada ~ certain districts areas groups into subcultures (west van, gas town, china town, cambie), aboriginals on reserves, off reserves = high poverty rates, 12% must boil water, double housing density for aboriginals. canada dropped down in best place to live list because of housing conditions for first nations. - Germany ~ 60% turks in urban areas, less than a quarter in small towns. - Mexico ~ high density cities, urban centers flocked too, environmental + health issues arise, clear class distinctions in residency areas. Parental Education - those with no post-secondary education have significantly lower incomes and life expectancies. - lack of education -> low income -> housing issues -> problematic support for children -> vicious cycle

Residence

Parental education

Income

Income - Global ~ more men have cash income in developing countries, many married have no say in cash flow, single moms poorer than single dads, more female poor elderly than male in devel. countries, gender wage gaps persist in all regions - Mexico ~ high poverty rates, less income = more working = less opportunity, children, woman, men all work. - US ~ white households = 2/3 higher income than blacks, 40% higher than hispanic. 3 times more blacks than whites live under poverty line

Employmen Employment (formal/informal) - Global ~ both sexist & nonsexist occupational segregation, only 13 t
out of 500 most powerful countries are headed by woman, world average six women as cabinet ministers per cabinet, woman twice as much time on house work, women heavily depend on informal often - Germany ~ high unemployment for turkish immigrants (surviving on welfare), - Mexico ~ urban concentrations, cities = opportunity, rural = less opportunity. false hopes leads to population density rise, environmental issues, health issues, etc. - Canada ~ current unemployment rate = 7.3 % - US - economic crisis led to increase in unemployment, current 9.3% unemployment rate. Land Ownership - Global ~existing statutory and customary law limit womens access to land and other types of property in most countries in africa and about half the countries in Asia - Canada ~ richer, middle class owning land, advancing, giving to children, aboriginals on reserves in need, lower classes unable to afford -> incur more dept. - US ~ 3/4 whites owned homes, 46% blacks own homes 48% latinos owned homes, lower asian home ownership rates than whites.

Land Ownership

c. Disparities and change: i. Identify and explain the changing patterns and trends of regional and global disparities of life expectancy, education and income.
Income Twin Peaks - two poles that contribute to world income inequality - One pole = 2.4 billion people with < $ 1000 per year income, includes those living in: India, Indonesia, and rural China. 42% of the worlds population receives 9% of world PPP income - Other pole = group of 500 million people whose annual income exceeds $11,500. This group includes: USA, Japan, Germany, France, and the UK. combined these countries have 13% of world population, but 45% of world PPP income Changes ~ last 25 years: - Continued rapid economic growth of rich countries compared to the rest of the world - Decline in real income of sub-Saharan Africa and eastern Europe - Modest gains in Latin America and the Arab states - Lack of decent work available and low incomes = most important factor of income global disparities - Most countries: babies are surviving infancy and childhood - Rich countries: last half of 20th century = growth in 20 years - 1950s = rise in female life expectancy, no MEDCs = women outlive men - Increases in life expectancy are not uniform for all people living within a country. Indigenous populations living in rich countries have population pyramids that are more typical of developing countries. For example, American Indian, Inuit and Aleut populations have an age structure more like Morocco than the USA; and the Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders of Australia have a population pattern that is roughly the same as that of Ethiopia. (examples of Marginalization) - In MEDCs, not only do more people survive to old age, but those who do can expect to live longer than their predecessors. - Some LEDCs life expectancy is falling due to AIDS - refer to graph below table - inequality of education between countries and in countries = huge social loss from the underdevelopment and underutliziation of human capital - Korea - 1960s 2/3 of educational spending into basic education, 1990s subsidies to primary students 2-3x those for college - China - before 1978 HD higher than other countries, but continued progress has led to regional disparities widening. education = 2.4-2.8% of GDP - urban bias

Life expectancy

Education

ii. Examine the progress made in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in poverty reduction, education and health.

Progress has been made in all areas, but has not been completely successful

Successes Poverty Education (universal primary) 4.2 million to 5.4 million enrollment between 2004 - 2005 in sub-Saharan Africa 28 million more children are able to attend school since 1999 More than 90% of children in developing countries are enrolled in primary schools and 54% attend secondary school. Global distribution of bed nets increased from 1.35 million in 2004 to 18 million in 2006.

Failures In 2005, 1.4 billion people lived on US $1.25 or less a day. But 75 million still miss out on education-34 million boys and 41 million girls. Not 100% yet gender equality still has a way to go

Health

In 2007, 33.2 million people were living with HIV Malaria kills a child every 30 seconds. It infects 350-500 million people each year, killing 1 million.

Income America - north America: developed world hit hard by economic crisis, affected progression, average high income, majority over poverty line, support systems in place - south america: 32% employed with unstable income (ownaccount, family work, etc), only 60% of population officially employed

Life Expectancy (Health) - 2000 range = 59 - 79 - 2009 range = 61 - 81 *north america above 77 Increase due: - improvements in medical field Lacking: - economical crisis - south america: nourishment goals unreached

Education - general increase on all levels of education for gender equality, completely met goals. - south america: girl:boy ration MDG met and surpassed, 95% primary enrollment

Europe & Central Asia

- developed world hit hard by economic crisis, affected progression - central asia = very large deficit in decent work (2010) poverty goals unreached, but low poverty

- 2000 range = 64 - 80 - 2009 range - 65 - 82 Increase due to: - decrease in child mortality - europe = low poverty, low hunger, high amount of job decency. low mortality Lacking: - europe = didn't halve population living without sanitation - 2000 range = 59 - 77 - 2009 range = 63 - 81 *majority above 70 Increase due to: northern africa = success in MDG goals on a whole, generally lowest mortality rates, low hunger, Lacking: - middle east = large proportion of slum dwellers - 2000 range = 42 - 64 - 2009 range = 46 - 77 *majority below 60 increase due to: - increase in insect bite prevention (bed net use) - child mortality down average 20% - 27 % of children underweight (2009) Lacking: - no progress or digression has been made in maternal mortality (2010 report) - 26% of population undernourished, around 50% above MDG

- largely developed countries, so goals already met, but central asia has improved, europe female equality mostly attained - central asia = moderate enrollment, close to parity for girl:boy elementary school enrollment - Northern africa = high primary enrollment - middle east = moderate primary enrollment. - girl:boy ration close to parity for both

Middle East & North Africa

- norther africa = very large deficit in productive/decent employment (2010), but low poverty levels - middle east = Goal 1 unmet, low poverty/ moderate hunger, but none have met goals. High deficit in decent work. Large proportion of slum dwellers

SubSahara Africa * region has issues with accurate data collection

- highest poverty rates in employed, 64% of population - very large deficit in decent work (2010) - 65% of population employed (2009) - 77% of population with unreliable income (2009)

- largest percentage of improvement from 1999 to 2008 on elementary enrollment (18% jump) - one of which highest amounts of children are out of school - one of the lowest percentage of girls in tertiary education

South Asia

- average 50% of people employed below poverty level - average 77% of population depends on unreliable income (own-account, contributing family workers) - average of only 55% officially employed

- 2000 range = 42 - 71 - 2009 range = 44 - 74 * majority above 64 Increase due to: - moderate success in access to reproductive health (2010) - moderate mortality due to tuberculosis - close to MDG in sage drinking water Lacking: - remains with high hunger, identified as large issue (2010 report) - undernourished population percentage still average 50 % over goal - high child mortality rates(2010) - 2000 range = 56 - 81 - 2009 range = 61 - 83 * majority above 70 (China) Increase due to: - achieved MDG target of halving underweight prevalence in children Lacking: - high percentage of rural children underweight

- general increase, secondary & tertiary largely below MDG - almost equal in girl:boy ratio elementary enrollment - moderate elementary enrollment (2010 report) close to MDG goals - one of which largest amount of children are out of school - one of the lowest percentage of girls in tertiary education

East Asia & Pacific

- east asia = fastest & sharpest decline in poverty rates, estimates total of - largely reduced poverty for employed from 1999 to 2009 - east asia = MDG met for: reduced poverty (still high) & decent employment, also close to reduce hunger by half goal

- parity in girl:boy elementary enrollment. high primary enrollment (2010) - MDG all met for female educational enrollment

Refer to Chile project for specific country example

d. Reducing disparities: i. Discuss the different ways in which disparities can be reduced with an emphasis on trade and market access, debt relief, aid and remittances. LEDCs see industrialization as key to economic development LEDCs = large cheap labour supply & capital is scarce MEDCs = endowment of resources: Labour is scarce & capital is plentiful - Trade & Market Access Unfair trading patterns are one of the causes of the development gap MEDCs = 75% of world exports & over 80% of manufactured exports Pattern complicated by flows of foreign direct investment (FDI) & internal trade within TNCs or MNCs

 Trading Blocs: Regulatory bodies (in place to try and help with the disparities) International Monetary Fund World Trade Organization European union national governments Criticism exists that regulatory bodies have limited power and bend for powerful MEDCs or TNCs - Remittances (transfer of money and/or goods by foreign workers to their home countries) Global remittances 2007 - $318 billion Most money goes to LEDCs, more than double foreign aid India, China & Mexico = 1/3 global remittances Since 2002 Europe & central Asia are seeing the fastest increases in remittances

ii. Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies designed to reduce disparities. - Fair or Ethical Trade Trade that attempts to be socially, economically and environmentally responsible Companies are meant to take responsibility for the wider impact of their business An attempt to address the failings of the global trading system Conflicts: banning of pesticides or banning of child labour, but LEDCs children helping out is normal and no pesticides means reduced crop yeild - Trading Blocs Arrangement among a group of nations to allow free trade between member countries but to impose tariffs (charges) on other countries who may wish to trade with them.

 EU: established after WWII important to be a member of a trading bloc because it allows greater market access - EU = 470 million wealthy consumers Criticism: trading blocs are unfair, deny access to non-members (developing countries), which makes it harder for them to trade and develop. World Trade Organization thus promotes Free Trade - allows for equal access to all producers to all markets - Export processing Zones: (look at handout) labour-intensive manufacturing centres that involve the import of raw materials and the export of factory products Popular amongst LEDCs because = easy path to industrialization Short term solution, long term = unsustainable & major economic issues When a developing country becomes more expensive/has better laws MNCs will pull out - Free Trade Zones: zones in which manufacturing does not have to take place in order for trading privileges to be gained and, hence, such zones have become more characterized by retailing

Trade & market access - gap is large in terms of who benefits more, LEDCs benefit a little but MEDCs benefit much more - quite tilted in MEDC favor ~ subsidies = give money to farmers, producers, to lower cost of selling price, to compete with other markets, LEDC don't have subsidies so cant compete on larger market - large subsidies in agricultural ~ US cotton exported at 35 to 47 % of the production cost, an LEDC would have to export at full production cost. ~ standards = LEDCs cant export goods that don't meet MEDC standards that are impossibilities for them to meet

- cash crops = MEDCs pay more money for specialized crops, cash crops become center of LEDC producers and results in LEDCs having to import what they need to sustain themselves. cash crops only work for certain countries (environment) reliance results in problem if there is a bad harvest year - coffee beans = 1 farmer 100 pounds 42 dollars, higher quality = 100 p. for 115 dollars, interviewed coffee workers said improved working conditions, larger corporations improved cooperate image because of helping LEDCs - pros - technology trade = cant obtain otherwise - infrastructure improvement = ports ~ helps those in area

- Aid & Debt Relief

Millennium goals with no aid? - african countries need alternative financial resources, not overseas aid (UN millennium campaign official) - paradigm shift to not depend on donors - foreign aid = strings attached - kenya = 6% foreign aid in resources ~ good move - Uganda = 32.6% foreign aid in resources ~ not progressive

- governments use money inefficiently - uganda ~ 90% population works in agriculture, only 4% of countries budget spent in area, money goes to defense ministry for luxury vehicles i.e. corruption is prevalent Tied Aid - against trade liberalization and dismantling of investment barriers (financial independence) - stunts local industries, development partnerships, & capacity building strategies - Increases: - procurement costs 15 to 30 percents - complexity of administrative control on development programs - constraint on greater donor coordination - pressure on government ~ leads to unproductively - supporters say: - countries receive positive some positive domestic economic impact ~ help build political constituencies i favor of foreign aid. - promotes positive view + interest - worried that help wont be returned, giving unfair advantage to developing businesses in aid countries - Canadian Policy: - food aid ~ purchases in emergencies not exceeding 10% of yearly food budget - non-food aid ~ policy varies for aid channel - The OECD-DAC agreement: - commits doors to untie aid on scene categories of aid to least-developed countries. not applicable to food aid, technical cooperation, & management services arrangements - Canadian policy changes because: - of OECD-DAC agreement - untied can = financial support opportunity competed for by many countries - administering Canada's bilateral aid defines untied as: aid that didn't result in the purchase of canadian goods/services - aid effectiveness improvement ~ build capacity in developing countries to ensure that development is sustainable The Principles of Effective Development - form development consensus then key principles - Principles: - local ownership: effective means countries develop it, is with countries priorities - improved donor coordination: responsibility of recipient countries - Stronger partnerships: identifying responsibilities by all parties through development of compacts - a result-based approach: improved monitoring/evaluation of program - greater coherence: looking at investing countries non-aid policies - ensure effectiveness:

- Good governance: sound policy environment + effective government = most important determinant of aid effectiveness - Building capacity: capacity of aided country most improve, pure resource transfers = failure - Engaging civil society: participation from civil society is key, helps meet needs of the poorest + most marginalized people. International aid - increasing the quantity, improving the quality - aid should = investment remittances - people sending back money - reduces poverty, but... - does not work in development because cannot be properly invested - costs to transfer money home - helps rural areas but turns into dependence - remittances remain high even with troubled economy

aid for trade = research, give money but boss around, fix what i want you to fix before i give you more money Debt relief - some think relieves all debt, but only small (15%) little more than interest in the first place, paying original debt in end - pros: - more money for infrastructure ~ school - SAP - structural addressment program, world bank controlled spending so program failed - PRSP - poverty reduction strategy program - most successful, world bank cant control, gives guidelines but country chooses where money goes. - countries have to be inspected - no debt relief given to those that don't pass, those that pass still might not use money effectively. - MEDC only give to countries that will later benefit them through trade etc. similar to tied aid.

3. Patterns in environmental quality and sustainability a. Atmosphere and change: i. Describe the functioning of the atmospheric system in terms of the energy balance between solar and longwave radiation. Insulation = incoming solar radiation. Hot bodies (such as the sun) emit short wave radiation Energy received at the earths surface is radiated back as long wave (infrared radiation. This is more easily absorb by the atmosphere, particularly by water vapour and CO2 so most heating of the atmosphere is due to long wave radiation Structure of the atmosphere. Note: a) Different gases absorbs radiation of different wavelengths leading to different temperature gradients b) Ozone layer: (i) Absorbs much harmful UV radiation (ii)Contributes to heating of the mesosphere c) Stratosphere: The temperature inversion (warmer temp w/increased height) discouraged vertical air movement (convection)

Global budget/distribution horizontal distribution results from: (a) global wind patterns (including jet-stream) (b) latent heat of evaporation: released when water vapor condenses as clouds/rain (c) ocean currents

Latent Heat evaporation: water => water vapor => energy absorbed moves to cooler areas, condensation = > release heat. ii. Explain the changes in this balance due to external forces (changes in solar radiation, changes in the albedo of the atmosphere and changes in the longwave radiation returned to space). (aka: Is climate change a natural event?) - natural changes in climate exist, but doesn't explain current changes Changes in Solar Radiation: - Milankovitch cycles ( Radiation) 1. Eccentricity (shape of orbit) a. Circuit = approx 95 thousand years to transition

2. Precession (wobble) b. 21, 000 years 3. Axial tilt max 24.5 degrees - > greater seasonal variation min 21.5 degrees This cycle alone is not believed to significantly affect climate
Decreasing tilt = decreasing solar radiation at poles Increasing tilt = increasing season variation

The Earth's axis completes one full cycle of precession approximately every 26,000 years. At the same time the elliptical orbit rotates more slowly. The combined effect of the two precessions leads to a 21,000-year period between the seasons and the orbit. In addition, the angle between Earth's rotational axis and the normal to the plane of its orbit, obliquity, moves from 22.1 degrees to 24.5 degrees and back again on a 41,000-year cycle; currently, this angle is 23.44 degrees and is decreasing Solar variation refers to changes in the amount of total solar radiation. There are periodic components to these variations, the principal one being the 11-year solar cycle (or sunspot cycle). Solar activity has been measured by satellites during recent decades and estimated using 'proxy' variables in prior times. Scientists studying climate change are interested in understanding the effects of variations in the total and spectral solar irradiance on the Earth and its climate Changes in Albedo: Albedo = how reflective a surface is High albedo = more of suns energy reflected Fresh snow = one of the worlds highest albedos (reflects up to 95% of suns energy) Tarmac roads have much lower albedo - reflect 5% suns energy Increased snow & ice melts = more warming & melting spiral Polluting & dirtying snow & ice = lower albedo ~ more warming Deforestation = changes in albedo Dark vegetation - low albedo but still higher than rock or soil Deforestation = more sun energy absorbed ~ warmer

Changes in Longwave radiation: - Atmosphere changes to longwave radiation is absorbed - Cloud formations - Meteors and Volcanoes - Volcanic eruptions can alter the climate of the Earth for both short and long periods of time. For example, average global temperatures dropped about a degree Fahrenheit for about two years after the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, and very cold temperatures caused crop failures and famine in North America and Europe for two years following the eruption of Tambora in 1815. Volcanologists believe that the balance of the Earth's mild climate over periods of millions of years is maintained by ongoing volcanism. Volcanoes affect the climate through the gases and dust particles thrown into the atmosphere during eruptions. The effect of the volcanic gases and dust may warm or cool the earth's surface, depending on how sunlight interacts with the volcanic material. - Meteors can have very similar effects to volcanoes. Large meteor strikes can throw large amounts of ash into the atmosphere altering the amount of incoming radiation. A meteor strike in the Yucatan Peninsula is blamed for the extinction of the dinosaurs. i. Discuss the causes and environmental consequences of global climate change Causes: Carbon dioxide (C02) levels have risen from about 315 parts per million (ppm) in 1950 to 355 ppm and are expected to reach 600 ppm by 2050. The increase is due to human activities - burning fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) and deforestation. Deforestation of the tropical rainforest is a double blow - not only does it increase atmospheric CO2 levels, it removes the trees that convert CO2 into oxygen Methane is the second largest contributor to global warming, and is increasing at a rate of 1% per annum, It is estimated that cattle convert up to 10% of the food they eat into methane, and emit 100 million tonnes of methane into the atmosphere each year, Natural wetland and paddy fields are another important source - paddy fields emit up to 150 million tonnes of methane annually, As global warming increases, bogs trapped in permafrost will melt and release vast quantities of methane, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are synthetic chemicals that destroy ozone, as well as absorb long-wave radiation, CFCs are increasing at a rate of 6% per annum, and are up to 10,000 times more efficient at trapping heat than CO2, Evidence of global climate change - Rapid Arctic sea ice melting > ice 40% thinner than 40 years ago - All major non-polar glacial systems are in rapid retreat, permanent snow (mount kilimanjaro) may disappear within two decades. - Worldwide ice forms on lakes a week late, melts a week early (on average) - Animal egg-laying patterns, flowering, and distributions of both have all shifted - precipitation has increased across the northern hemisphere

- El Nino (caused by ocean warming in the tropical pacific ocean) has become more frequent & stronger since mid 70s - Humans reducing biodiversity & committing large scale deforestation

Consequences Impact of global climate change - Reduced crop yields - Less availability of water in arid regions, higher flooding in temperate ones - Large scale land degradation and loos of soil in flood areas - Rising sea levels flooding low lyings areas/submerging islands & delta countries 200 million people displaced - Exposure to diseases in new/unprepared areas - heat-related deaths will increase (but cold-related might decrease) - High risk of damage for coral reefs (bleaching) - asia-pacific areas may lose up to 13% of mangrove wetlands - More frequent/intense tropical cyclones/typhoons, and hurricanes (powered/caused by warm oceans) > may result in storm surges (coastal erosion, flooding) - Likely to carry serious financial costs (common estimates = US$ 5 trillion) - costs felt more in LEDCs because of less money than MEDCs - Psychological cost - natural disasters = mental stress = psychological issues - Net effect of climate change will be negative for the majority of the world - Extinction of up to 40% of species of wildlife

b. Soil and Change: i. Explain the causes of soil degradation. The Importance of Soil (Humus and the Nitrogen Cycle) Soil = natural body with layers (horizons) of minerals varying in thickness Each layer is different in shape, size, chemical composition and mineral content Soil created through erosion, weathering, and material being transported and deposited Most soils contain humus - made from biological matter Fertility of soil = depth, mineral content, humus, drainage, structure, and pH (6.0 - 6.8) Humus = The fertile layer of soil usually found near surface - made from biological material (deforestation - farming = size and quality reduction of humus) Nitrogen Cycle: Essential to plant life but found in gaseous state (78% of atmosphere) Nitrogen needs to present in soil for plants to absorb Nitrogen from atmosphere is converted to ammonia in soil through the process of nitrogen fixation Bacteria in soil convert ammonia through nitrification into nitrates which plants can absorb Nitrogen already in plants and animals will be recycled by decomposer Deforestation = recycling of nitrogen in ground stops, soil losses fertility

 Soil Degradation: viewed as any change or disturbance to the soil perceived to be deleterious or undesirable, including erosion, alteration of structure, and loss of fertility. Includes: Erosion by wind and water Biological degradation (the loss of humus and plant/animal life) Physical degradation (loss of structure, changes in permeability) Chemical degradation (acidification, declining fertility, changes in pH, salinization and chemical toxicity).

Water and wind erosion account for more than 80% of the 20 million km2 of degraded land worldwide. Salt-affected soils are typically found in marine-derived sediments, coastal locations and hot arid areas, where capillary action brings salts to the upper part of the soil. Soil salinity has been a major problem in Australia following the removal of vegetation in dryland farming. Soil Erodibility: estimation of ability to resist erosion - Gradient and length: - Steeper slope = more erosion by water - Longer = more accumulation by runoff, so more erosion - Vegetation: - Erosion potential increase with little vegetation cover - Can leave humus (leftover crop) to prevent - Vegetation cover slows down raindrop speed, so more water can infiltrate the soil - Some crops are harvested in the spring, when theres most rainfall, so the soil is very easily eroded during that time with no vegetation cover

Effects: - Sheet erosion: movement from raindrop splash resulting in the breakdown of soil surface structure and surface runoff, erasing the topsoil - Gully erosion: surface runoff causing gull formation or enlarging existing gulls

Water: - Rain intensity and runoff: impact of raindrops break down soil aggregates - Lighter aggregates are easier to break down - Most noticeable during short and heavy rain, but slow and over time can take away a lot of soil as well - Runoff occurs when excess water cannot be absorbed by the soil fast enough - Caused by soil compaction, crusting or freezing Wind: - Erodibility of soil: how easily particles can be picked up by wind - Soil surface roughness: smooth soil are easier to erode - Climate: speed and duration of wind, soil moisture levels - Unsheltered distance: lack of windbreaks - Vegetation cover: loose, dry soil is susceptible - Effect: - Adverse conditions in crop fields - Yield reductions, poor crop growth, reseeding Biological degradation - Loss of humus due to vegetation being removed and anything disturbing its existence. It is usually quite a thin layer so any form of erosion (but especially vegetation loss) means that humus is lost - Plant/animal life die and are effected when things like pesticides and other inorganic pollutants are put into the soil or the area - it kills microorganisms which damages/ degrades soil fertility Physical degradation - Involves a decline in soil structure, leading to reduction in infiltration, increase in rainfall runoff, and exacerbation in erosion by water and wind (Lal 2001) - Chemical fertilizers and pesticides contributes to reducing soil capillarity (runoff) as well as its consistency - Farming equipment also contributes to soil compaction especially when it weighs more than 5 tons. Chemical degradation - Acidification: acid rain caused by pollution can also cause soil degradation. - Declining fertility: when plant/animal life is killed of in and on the soil fertility declines - Changes in pH: due to chemical uses/fertilizers - Salinization: usually caused by irrigation - high water use leads to evaporation in hotter climates which leaves mineral deposits - salinity increases - Chemical toxicity: also due to human pollutants/chemicals

HUMAN CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION

PHYSICAL CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION

Overgrazing: Allowing to much livestock to graze on a piece of land Rising Temperatures: As which means all the vegetation is eaten making the ground global temperatures increase susceptible to wind and water erosion. it is becoming increasingly Overcultivation: If you farm land to intensively and don't have hard for vegetation to grow fallow periods then all the nutrients in the soil get used. thus reducing vegetation Deforestation: Cutting down trees which not only means the land cover and increasing the risk will be receiving less nutrients, but it also means it is more vulnerable of wind and water erosion. to erosion because there is no interception and less stability because Falling Rainfall: As the the root systems have been removed. amount of rainfall reduces in Overpopulation: As the world population continues to grow (now some areas like the Sahel, nearly 7 billion) the demand for agricultural products (crops and then it is increasingly hard meat) is increasing causing more l;and to be deforested, for vegetation to grow again overcultivated and overgrazed. making the ground more Fertiliser and Pesticide Use: By using fertilisers and pesticides you vulnerable to wind and water can artificially increase yields of crops. However, the process is erosion. unnatural and prolonged periods of use can all naturally produced Wind: If a region is nutrients to be used and local water sources to become polluted particularly windy then the reducing the ability of land to cultivate crops and therefore making it amount of wind erosion is vulnerable to chemical degradation as well as wind and water likely to increase. erosion. Topography: If land is HYV and GM Crops: Like with fertilisers and pesticides, it is relatively flat then it is much argued that HYV and GM crops have encouraged overcultivation, less vulnerable to water diminishing natural nutrients in the soil. erosion, but maybe Industrial Pollution: Chemicals, metals and other pollutants leaked vulnerable to wind erosion. from industrial processes can chemical degrade soil making it useless Alternatively hilly land is or dangerous for farming. Acid rain caused by pollution can also vulnerable to water erosion, cause soil degradation. but maybe protected more Unsustainable Water Use (aquifer depletion, unsustainable from wind erosion. irrigation): If aquifers or rivers are used unsustainably then areas can become increasingly arid as water resources are used up. A classic example of unsustainable irrigation happened in the Aral Sea (Irrigation and agriculture). Toyotarisation: This is basically the increased use of 4x4s to travel across grasslands, deserts, etc. damaging topsoil and increasing wind and water erosion. Conflict: During times of war biological and chemical weapons can be used which degrade the quality of the soil. During the Vietnam war large quantities of agent orange were used to defoliate forests. Much of the land in Vietnam is still degraded because of this 40 years on.

ii. Discuss the environmental and socio-economic consequences of this process, together with management strategies Consequences: - Desertification: The process of fertile land turning into desert. As the soil becomes more degraded and has less nutrients it can not support vegetation and effectively turns to desert. - Dust Storms: As soil become less stable because of the lack of vegetation it become much more vulnerable to wind erosion which can create large scale dust storms. Northern China is suffering from an increased frequency of dust storms as desertification takes place south of the Gobi Desert. - Topsoil Erosion: The top layer of the soil often referred to as the humus layers is very nutrient rich. If the nutrients in this layer begin to reduce then it can support less vegetation and this layer become vulnerable to erosion starting a downward decline in the quality of the soil and reducing its ability to regenerate. - Reduced crop yields: As the soil becomes less fertile the amount of crops that it can support will reduce. The falling crop yields can lead to famine and starvation.

- Conflict: With increasing soil degradation and reduction in agricultural output and available agricultural land conflict can arise over diminishing resources. - Famine: If the soil become degraded and cops begin to fail or the yields reduce in quantity then famine can happen. Famine is normally caused by a combination of factors, soil degradation, drought and possibly a natural disaster or conflict, so if soil degrades it increases the potential of famine. Management Strategies - Crop rotation and fallow periods: Growing different crops each year, so different nutrients are used and to allow periods of rest (fallow periods) so that soil can regain its fertility. - Terracing & contour ploughing: By ploughing with the contours (shape) of the land rather than against it you not only reduce water erosion, but you also reduce the need to irrigate as much. Terraces work on the same principal, they hold water in place rather than encouraging water erosion. - Shelter Belts: (sometimes called wind breaks) are areas of forest or hedge that is left untouched to protect farmland from the affects of water and wind erosion. Shelter belts will often appear around the outside of fields. - Reforestation and Afforestation: can help return land to its natural state, making it more fertile and stable, thus reducing wind and water erosion and ultimately land degradation. - Fertilizers: Although as we have already learnt fertilizers can cause overcultivation and eventual land degradation, they can also help to add nutrients back into the soil and allow continued cultivation - Irrigation: It is possible to water areas of land that have become arid to try and the productivity of the soil. However, if water is not used sustainably then irrigation can cause water shortages and land degradation elsewhere. - Grazing Quotas: Placing limits on the number and types of animals that can graze on land, reducing the destruction of vegetation and eventual desertification. - Population Control: The main reason we are putting more pressure on the earth's resources (including soil) is because the world's population has nearly reached 7 billion and is still growing rapidly. If we can control population growth then we can limit the amount of agricultural land we need and the intensity of our farming. - Urban Planning: Controlling growth of cities and using more brownfield sites will reduce the need to deforest areas of land. By keeping forest cover in place, the risk of land degradation should be reduced. - GM crops: GM stands for genetically modified. GM crops can be engineered to withstand poor soil and water shortages. By growing some types of vegetation you maybe able to add nutrients back to the soil. However, it might it encourage people to farm on unsuitable land causing even further land degradation. - Organic Farming: Organic farming is farming without the use of chemicals. If you farm organically you are less likely to overcultivate and reduce the soil nutrient levels, but you also not going to degrade the soil chemically.

iii.Water and Change: 1. Identify the ways in which water is utilized at the regional scale. Domestic, agriculture, industrial 6x in last century Sanitation increased 5% in 20th century, while supply by 3% Greatest amount used in agriculture, then domestic, then industrial 1.1 billion people lack access to safe water 2.6 billion without adequate sanitation 4 billion have no waste water treatments - Water Supply: Several factors: rates of rainfall, evaporation, transpiration, and river/ groundwater flows 1% of fresh water available for people to use Annually: 12,000 km3 of water available for human consumption Following current trend by 2024 only 4800 m3 available 3/4 of annual rainfall to less than 1/3 of worlds population 1/4 of annual rainfall to rest of population 20% of annual global runoff in Amazon Basin - only has 10 million people India gets 90% of its rainfall during summer monsoon season - Water use: 3700 km3 water used per year Agriculture largest user - 2/3 of water 60-70% rise in crop irrigation since 1960 20% of available water to industry 10% of water to municipal sector 2025 estimation = 5100 m3 of water per person per year (25% decrease since

2000)

2. Examine the environmental and human factors affecting patterns and trends in

physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity. Water Stress: when per capita water supply is less than 1700m3/year (p.121) Physical water scarcity: where water resource development is approaching or has exceeded unsustainable levels. It relates water availability to demand & implies that arid areas are not necessarily water scarce (that even where water is relatively abundant, demand can create scarcity) Economic Water Scarcity: A condition where economic/institutional/human restraints limit access to water; water is available locally but not available to everyone. Changing Supply and Demand Past century world population x 6 Rivers that used to reach oceans no longer do because all of the water is diverted for human use Colorado River in USA 20% of freshwater species now endangered or extinct Water use set to to increase 50% in next 30 years By 2025 4 billion people will live under sever water stress conditions

Global Water Withdrawal and Consumption - annual local freshwater withdrawal has grown from 3790 km3 (of which consumption accounted for 2070 km3 or 61%) in 1995, to ~ 4 430 km3 *of which consumption accounted for 2304 km3 or 52%) in 2000 - in 2000, about 57% of the worlds freshwater withdrawal, and 70% of its consumption took place in Asia, where the world;s major irrigated lands are located (UNESCO, 1999) - in the future, annual global water withdrawal is expected to grow by about 10-13% every 10 years, reaching approximately 5 240 km3 (or an increase of 1.38 times since 195) by 20025. Water consumption is expected to grow at a slower rate of 1.33 times (UNESCO, 1999) - In the coming decades, the most intensive growth of water withdrawal is expected to occur in Africa and South America (increasing by 1.5-1.6 times), while the smallest growth will take place in Europe and North American (1.2 times) The agricultural sector is by far the biggest user of freshwater - In Africa and Asia, and estimated 85-90% of all the freshwater used is for agriculture (Shiklomanov, 1999) - According to estimates for the year 2000, agricultures accounted for 67% of the worlds total freshwater withdrawal, and 86% of its consumption (UNESCO, 2000) Water availability and Quantity Countries Per-Capita Water availability (Total Renewable Water Resources) (m3/person/year) 2003-2007 average 2, 138 1,719 10, 231

China India United States of America

- some places in china have abundant natural water resources, other regions are naturally arid and water scarce: - large river flows in south, Northern china left dry - china suffers some of the most extreme floods + draughts: - 1930 - 1959 flooding killed approx. 6.2 million people - due to growing overdraft of groundwater disease has increased dramatically - typhoid (27 to 153 per 100,000 from 1995 to 1999) - 200 million children under 14 suffer from roundworm (1992)

- WHO reported 108.4 deaths per 100,000 in china from diarrhea vrs 11/100 000 in vietnam & 5/100 000 in Thailand Recent Floods and Droughts - since 1990s losses from drought equivalent to 1.1 percent of chinas average annual gross domestic products ($41 billion) 2007 - 2007 draught left over a million people short of water in souther china. - 2007 chinas larges freshwater lake Poyang Lake went to its lowest recorded level because of low rainfall and excessive human withdrawals - 2007 floods affected over 180 million people and killed 1, 200 - flood losses = 2% of national GDP vrs USA flood losses = 0.25% of GDP - 2007 floods destroyed 12 million hectares of crops & destroyed over 1 million houses - by 2020 41% of population will be exposed to flood risks - 67% of countrys GDP comes from vulnerable regions Climate Change and Water in China - Climate change = Extreme effects: - altered precipitation patterns - increase in intensity of extreme events - rise in water temperatures - accelerated melting of snow and glaciers - Increased flooding and draught due to climate change (China Daily 2007) - water resources around major rivers dropped by 12% in that last decade (China Daily 2007) - long term water availability to downstream communities affected by retreating glaciers - chinas glaciers feed it as much water as its main river annually, they cover 60, 000 square km and have a total volume of 5, 590 cubic Km (China Daily 2007) - Glacier coverage has shrunk by a third in the past century, climate change will make the retreat irreversible (China Daily 2007) - rivers drying at mouth = climate change - CAS report showed climate change is shrinking Qinghai-Tibetan plateau wetlands (10% in last 40 years)

3. Examine the factors affecting access to safe drinking water. Reasonable Access to Safe Water Safe: - bacteria, chemical & physical characteristics meet WHO guidelines or national standards - measured as the proportion of people using improved source,s which included household connections, public standpipes, bore holes, protected gu well, or protected springs

Access: at least 20L/person/day from an improved source < 1 Km from the users dwelling Drinking water: water used for domestic purposes; drinking, cooking, and personal hygiene 40% of water in countries surface water was fit only for industrial and agricultural use, even after treatment Estimated 20, 000 chemical factories (half along Yangtze river) dump uncontrolled pollutants into chinas rivers. in 2006 nearly half of Chinas major cities did not meet state drinking water quality standards China experienced over 1. 400 environmental pollution accidents in 2005, half water pollution (SEPA) Beijing water safe to drink according to Chinas 106 contaminants standards, but parts of city still indicate local sources of contamination affecting quality OECD estimates that hundreds of millions of chinese are drinking water contaminated with inorganic pollutants such as arsenic and excessive fluoride, as well as toxins from untreated factory wastewater, inorganic agricultural chemical,s and leeching landfill waste (2007) impact on chinese cancer rates - air and water pollution helped make cancer the most lethal disease for urban residents Reports of cancer villages - clusters of cancers being link to the use of heavily polluted water 4.4 bIllion tons of untreated or partially treated wastewater are dumped into the river annually. c. Biodiversity and Change: i. Explain the concept and importance of biodiversity in tropical rainforest. Biodiversity means biological diversity. It is the variety of all forms of life on earth plants, animals and micro-organisms. It refers to species (species diversity), variations within species (genetic diversity), and interdependence within species (ecosystem diversity) and habitat diversity. It is estimated that there are up to 30 million species on earth. However, only 1.4 million species have yet been identified. The tropics are the richest area for biodiversity. Tropical forests contain over 50% of the world's species in just 7% of the world's land. They account for 80% of the world's insects and 90% of primates.

- Importance: Biodiversity: Although rainforests cover only 7% of the world's land mass, it is estimated that they could contain up to 50% of the world's biodiversity. This is potentially up to 15 million species. Photosynthesis: Tropical rainforests are often referred to as the 'lungs of the earth' and convert large amounts of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide back into oxygen. It is estimated that the Amazon rainforest alone produces about 20% of the earth's oxygen. Flood control (interception, transpiration): Rainforests are an excellent natural measure to reducing flooding. There is leaf cover in rainforests all year so interception continually happens, extending rivers lag time. All vegetation uptakes water and transpires it. Control of soil erosion: The root systems of trees and shrubs hold the very thin soil of rainforest in place. If trees are removed then botherosion of topsoil and landslides are more likely Source of nutrients to humus layer in soil: The topsoil in rainforests is very thin and relies on the nutrients provided by rotting plants and animals. Because of the rainforests climate, there is a constant supply of leaf litter. Medical remedies: Rainforests have been the source of many of today's drugs, including the basic ingredients for the hormone contraceptive pill, quinine (a anti-malaria drug) and curare (a paralysing drug). Cash crops and agricultural products: Yam, coffee, rubber, mango, banana, sugarcane, cocoa and avocado were all first discovered in rainforests. Ecotourism: With people becoming ever more environmentally conscious and looking for increasing adventures, ecotourism to rainforests is increasing. This not only helps protect rainforests, but creates income for locals. Ecotourism is an important income to countries like Costa Rica and Belize. Home to indigenous groups: Although the number of indigenous groups and people have declined rapidly since colonisation in South America, it is estimated that there are still over 200,000 people that consider the Amazon their home. ii. Examine the causes and consequences of reduced biodiversity in this biome Deforestation of the tropical Rainforest: Tropical forests are being destroyed at a rate of over 11 million hectares a year (or 21 ha/minute). Increasingly, tropical rainforests are very scattered and fragmented. The Amazon rainforest is the main exception, although it is imploding.

Causes
Cattle Ranching: As the world's population gets bigger and richer, the demand for meat is increasing. To rear the cattle increasing tracts of the rainforest are being cleared to make pastures for grazing. Subsistence Farming: Because of the large amounts of poor people that still live in tropical areas, subsistence farming is still widespread. Because rainforest soil loses its fertility quickly after deforestation, the most common form of subsistence farming is slash and burn. With growing populations this method of farming can cause widespread deforestation. HEP: Many of the world's great rivers flow through rainforests e.g. the Amazon. These great rivers often have the most HEP potential. Unfortunately when a dam and reservoir are built it causes damage during construction, but also floods large areas. Mining: With an ever increasing demand for the world's natural resources, countries and companies are looking at increasingly isolated locations, places like rainforests and Antarctica. The rainforests are believed to have many resources including metals and fossil fuels beneath their soils. Gold mining can be particular damaging as mercury is used in its extraction and often runs off into rivers. Road building: Building new roads like Trans Amazon highway from Brazil to Bolivia not only causes deforestation itself, but its also opens up new ares to urbanisation, mining and farming causing further deforestation. Urban growth: With the world population increasing as well as rates of urbanisation increasing many cities like Manuas in Brazil are growing rapidly causing deforestation. Population growth: As populations grow, particularly in countries like Brazil, Peru, India and Vietnam that contain rainforests the demand for land increases, both to grow food and to live)

Consequences
Flooding: Flash floods become more common after deforestation because there is less interception and less root uptake and transpiration. As such rainwater reaches the ground quick, saturating it and causing surface run-off and potential flooding. Landslides: By removing trees and vegetation, you are making the soil less stable. Combine this with saturated ground and the likelihood of floods increases. Biodiversity loss: Because all the species that live in the rainforest are not known it is hard to calculate species loss. However, scientists believe that 1 mammal or bird extinction can be extrapolated to approximately 23,000 extinctions. Reduced photosynthesis: AS more and more trees are removed the rate of photosynthesis reduces, releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and contributing to the greenhouse effect. Silting of rivers: With increased flooding and surface run-off moil soils and silt is washed into rivers, this can not only change local ecosystems (water temperature and clarity) but can also reduce the depth of rivers making navigation harder. Silting of seas and oceans: With the increased frequency of flooding and landslides more silt gets washed into the oceans. The increased amount of silts reduces the transparency of the sea reducing the light reefs receive and the temperature of the water. Increased silt can also block important shipping lanes. Breaking of nutrient cycle: The top soil of rainforests is very thin an receives the majority of its nutrients from rotting flora and fauna. Be removing trees you also remove animals and therefore the source of the soils nutrients. With increased erosion the top soil (humus) layer is quickly washed away.

Plantations: Primary products are often seen as an income source for LEDCs, many of who have large areas of rainforest. At the same time with fossil fuels running out, alternative fuels sources are been searched for including biofuels e.g. Palm oil. This has lead to widespread deforestation in countries like Malaysia and Indonesia to plant cops like palm oil. Timber (hardwoods): Hardwoods like mahogany and teak that take hundreds of years to grow are still in high demand to make things like furniture. The extraction of these trees can kills trees around them. Also many countries like China are also demanding large amounts of normal timber that are not always taken from sustainable sources. Hunting: Hunting takes two forms, one form is for bushmeat to feed families and enough the sale of animals either alive e.g. parrots or dead for their skins e.g jaguars.

Sandification/desertification: Because rainforest soil loses its fertility very quickly after deforestation it quickly becomes hard to grow any vegetation on it, leading to sandification and possibly desertification. Loss of indigenous homes: By clearing rainforests you are obviously destroying the homes of indigenous groups. But also moving close to indigenous groups can spread disease and alter local culture and traditions. Reduced rainfall: Deforestation can lead to reduction in local rainfall because less water is intercepted and transpired from vegetation into the atmosphere reducing the formation of clouds and rainfall.

Causes of deforestation in Brazil There are five main causes of deforestation in Brazil: 1. agricultural colonization by landless migrants and speculative developers along highways and agricultural growth areas 2. conversion of the forest to cattle pastures, especially in eastern and south-eastern Para and northern Mato Grosso 3. Mining: the Greater Carajas Project in south-eastern Amazonia, which includes a 900 km railway and extensive deforestation to provide charcoal to smelt the iron ore; another threat from mining comes from the small-scale informal gold mines, garimpeiros, causing localized deforestation and contaminated water supplies 4. Large-scale hydroelectric power schemes such as the Tucurui Dam on the Tocantins River 5. forestry taking place in Para, Amazonas and northern Mato Grosso. Other causes include: 1. Drought (increases risk) 2. Climate change (can cause drought) 3. Timber exploitation (fires are used to overcome laws about clearing timber for sale, or to create a source for damaged and thus cheap timber) 4. Selective logging (can create artificially dry forests by opening up the canopy) lightning (the main natural cause) 5. Land clearing ("slash-and-burn" agriculture during dry and windy conditions can cause major fires).

Trends: It is a recent phenomenon. It has partly been promoted by government policies. There is a wide range of causes of deforestation. Deforestation includes new areas of deforestation as well as the extension of previously deforested areas. Land speculation and the granting of land titles to those who "occupy" parts of the rainforest is a major cause of deforestation .

d. Sustainability and the environment: i. Define the concept of environmental sustainability. Definition: Improvements in the standard of living that do not cause long-term damage to the environment that affects future generations. Includes: Protecting biodiversity Stopping human caused climate change Elimination of acid rain Elimination of damage to ozone layer Reduction of pollution (air, water, noise, etc.) Management of resources e.g. fish, water Sustainability: Meeting the needs of today's population without compromising the needs of future generations. Today sustainable development is usually considered to include environmental, social and economic sustainability (see definitions below). If

development includes social, economic and environmental aspects then it is considered to be sustainable development. ii. Evaluate a management strategy at a local or national scale designed to achieve environmental sustainability. FREMP (Fraser River Estuary Management Program) Why was/is management needed for the Fraser Industry - logging, saw milling, cement, Recreation Urban uses - 1 million people in area in the next 20 years Most important salmon river Estuary necessary for salmons to adapt between fresh water and salt water Marshes, eel grasses, mud flaps 70% habitat lost in the last 100 years What is being done in the various areas? red zones, yellow zones, green zones red = naturally productive, development must not alter habitat, most prominent in the estuary yellow = moderately productive, development allowed with compensation, only an option when all efforts have been taken to not make a harmful impact. buy credits from habitat bank green = low productivity, smallest part of shore lines, must follow similar guidelines as other zones coordinate efforts by different groups, first nations not mentioned (water quality side) fish & wildlife, estuary management plan = maintain & improving, monitoring, protect dredging river in a way that balances natural river sediment built up logs away from natural habitat housing only in places that arnt environmentally sensitive industry not affecting environment as much as possible some industries need access to water, so their development has to be protected view scapes have to be protected protection of parkland/inter connected trails avoid fragmentation Evidence of Success: Water quality improvements: Since 1994; reductions in waste from pulp and paper mills, reduction in fecal coliforms and 80% reduction in suspended solids and biochemical oxygen demand

 Management practices: created a list of management practices to undertake more environmentally sensitive activities Environmental quality: Some reduction in some pollutants since 1970s New habitats protected: created more than 2500 hectares of new parkland for conservation and recreation Habitat improvements: 75 000 m2 of estuarine habitat and 30 000 m2 of riparian habitat enhanced from yellow to red since 1994 Dredging guidelines: assessment of impacts were done, but not much actions taken Log storage guidelines: as a result of these guidelines, 20 hectares of marsh land have seen habitat growth and regrowth Cleanups: cleaned more than 4100 cubic meters of wood debris and garbage 1991 targeted 93 log storage areas to comply with guidelines, all are now complying, stopping wood debris, but long term effects are yet to be observed 1997-2000 63% of total sediment budget removed fish and wildlife habitat gains: 86-2000 net gain of 92 332 square meters of productive habitat over 100 000 square meters gained in marsh times toxic contaminants in the estuary decreasing recreational path increase: 1984 108, 2000 138 number of visitors to parks: increased 670/1000 residents in 1989, 1999 1155/1000 residents marine cargo increase 45% in 1985 - 60% in 2000

4. Patterns in resource consumption a. Patterns of resource consumption: i. Evaluate the ecological footprint as a measure of the relationship between population size and resource consumption. Identify international variations in its size. Ehrlich Population X Technology X Lifestyle

Resource Consumption Taking the top fifteen by population to.... the top fifteen by wheat consumption = 7 correlated top fifteen by coal consumption = 5 correlated the top fifteen by oil consumption = 7 correlated

the top fifteen by rice consumption = 9 correlated the top fifteen in water consumption = 11 correlated

- Isaac Asimov was writing at peak population growth rate, using 2% as population growth rate ~ numbers as thus off - concluding statement incorrect - 2009 growth rate = 1.1% - Warick said its not just about facts, it also includes values and assumptions - threats on values = issue = action - Waricks conclusion = 450 million (1960), now over 1 billion, standard of living is increasing, roughly 230 million people who are undernourished Ecological footprints can be looked at on an individual level, a household level, a city level, a country level or a global level. Calculations are complicated but basically look at carbon footprint and then people's impact on resources and the environment in terms of agriculture, fisheries, energy, forestries and settlements. Some concluding thoughts: Asimov vs Warwick: - are there limits to growth? - have we reached those limits? Near? - past predictions e.g. India Population growth rates are falling: - 2.2% maximum in the early 1960s - Ehrlich asumed 2.0% - currently @ 1% and falling (DT = 70 years) - anticipated max population @ 9.5 billion (2050) (beyond sustainable level?) Total Biologically productive area (land/sea) 2.1 gha/person 2.7 gha = average requirement worldwide (1.3 worlds)

Ecological footprint is more a measure of the impact of technology and lifestyle than the impact of population On a national basis: there is little relationship between the size of population and ecological reserves or deficit overpopulation, underpopulation, optimum population Current planets biological capacity = 1.9 ha/person Current global usage = 2.2 ha/person

The global ecological footprint grew from about 70% of the planet's biological capacity in 1961 to about 120% in 1999. Furthermore, future projections show that humanity's footprint is likely to grow to about 180% or even 220% of the earth's biological capacity by the year 2050. Some facts and figures Overfishing has led to the collapse of many fisheries. One-quarter of global marine fish stocks are currently overexploited or significantly depleted. About 60% of the ecosystem services resources evaluated by the UN's

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (a measure of how ecosystems benefit people) are being degraded or used unsustainably. Between 10% and 30% of mammal, bird and amphibian species face extinction. Global timber production has increased by 60% in the past four decades. This means that roughly 40% of forest area has been lost, and deforestation continues at a rate of 13 million ha per annum. ii. Discuss the two opposing views (neo-Malthusian and anti-Malthusian) of the relationship between population size and resource consumption Malthus: believed that there was a finite optimum population size in relation to food supply, and that any increase in population beyond this point would lead to a decline in the standard of living and to "war, famine and disease". i. In the absence of checks, population would grow at a geometric or exponential rate (1, 2, 4, 8, 16... etc.) and could double every 25 years. ii.Food supply at best only increases at an arithmetic rate (1,2,3,4, 5... etc.) Suggested preventive and positive checks, including: Preventatives - abstinence from marriage, a delay in the time of marriage and abstinence from sex within marriage. Positive checks, such as lack of food, disease and war, directly affected mortality rates. Boserup: Theory = Increasing the carrying capacity: Believed that people have the resources of knowledge and technology to increase food production and that when a need arises someone will find a solution. Boserup suggested that in a pre-industrial society, an increase in population stimulated a change in agricultural techniques so that more food could be produced. Population growth thus enabled agricultural development to occur. Boserup assumed that people knew of the technologies required by more intensive systems and used them when the population grew. If knowledge were not available, then the agricultural system would regulate the population size in a given area. Increased food production There have been many ways since Malthus's time in which people have increased food production These include: 1. Draining marshlands 2. Extensification 3. Intensification 4. Reclaiming land from the sea 5. Cross-breeding of cattle 6. High-yield varieties of plants 7. Terracing on steep slopes 8. Growing crops in greenhouses using more sophisticated irrigation techniques 9. Making new foods such as soy 10. Using artificial fertilizers and pesticides 11. Farming native species of crops and animals 12. Fish farming.

- Neo-Malthusian: This is an idea of thought that follows Malthus's ideas. Paul Ehrlich and the ''Club of Rome" both have neo-Malthusiasn ideas. Paul Ehrlich: In 1968 Paul Ehrlich published his book ''The Population Bomb". He belived that population growth had now outstripped the availabilty of resources and that starting in the 1970's there would be mass famines, killing millions. Club of Rome: The Club of Rome were formed in 1972. They were headed by Dennis Meadows and developed the Limits to Growth Model. They are also believed that the growth in population would lead in worldwide misery. Limits to Growth Model: Developed by the Club of Rome it looked at population, natural resources, agricultural output, industrial production and pollution. They predicted that the limits to growth would be reached in 2070. - Anti-Malthusian: Anti-Malthusian is simply the school of thought that disagrees with Malthus and are more aligned to Boserups theory. Julian Simon: argued that the true measure of scarcity is not the physical quantity of a resource but price. Is something is becoming scarcer, its price will increase. - Over time, the price of every natural resource has decreased, indicating that resourced are becoming less scarce/more abundant

b. Changing patters of energy consumption: i. Examine the global patterns and trends in the production and consumption of oil. peak oil - when? .3% reduction 2008, .6% reduction in 2009 why is it hard to predict peak oil? better technology = current uneconomic areas developed some sources that aren't being used now used later price increases -> development areas open up demand = price = opportunity Pattern Middle East produces 31% Europe & Eurasia (russia) 22% Central South America 12% Africa 12% North America 9% Asia Pacific 9% Refining is shifting as a trend in where its taking place Greater shift towards india and china Refining 2009 non OECD countries for the first time refined more oil than OECDs OECD = MEDC Consumption largest countries by population usually = largest consumers 12/20 largest consumers are also largest countries by population exception - Saudi Arabia (takes a lot of oil to produce oil) per capita, largest consumers = MEDCs US = #1 per capita consumer canada = high per capita consumer 3 largest regions of consumption asia pacific 31% north america 27% Europe & Eurasia 24% Trends in Consumption Oil is declining as a percentage of total energy used China consumption 350% production up by 35% India consumption went up 400 from 1980 - 2006 OPEC: OPEC stands for the organization for petroleum exporting countries. It has 12 members and controls over 40% of the world's oil supply and over 20% of the gas supply. Its headquarters are in Vienna, Austria.

 Monopoly: Any organisation, individual or company who controls enough market share to be able to influence the market place e.g. be able to reduce supply in order to increase prices. Cartel: A formal (explicit) agreement among competing firms. It is a formal organisation of producers and manufacturers that agree to fix prices, marketing, and production Corporate Colonialism: Relates to the involvement of TNCs in the practice of colonialism. TNCs can have significant power over small LEDCs. LEDCs will often fear questioning the role of TNCs because they do not want to lose investment. Brent Crude and Light Sweet Crude: These are two of the biggest classifications of oil and are used to fix prices. Brent crude is traded in London and Light Sweet Crude in New York. - Production: Saudi Arabia produces the most oil; 10.2 million bbl/day 31% in Middle East, 22% Europe and Eurasia, 9% N.A., 9% Asia and Pacific, 12% Central and South America, 12% Africa As of 2009, non OECD countries surpassed OECD countries in oil refinement World oil exports peaked in 2005 Oil production is steadily decreasing; larger decrease in Middle East and Europe Oil refining: Over 80% of oil refining now takes place in Europe, North America and Japan. Oil reserves: Oil reserves are generally found in geological structures such as anticlines, fault traps and salt domes. At present rates of production and consumption, reserves could last for another 40 years. Nearly two-thirds of the world's reserves are found in the Middle East, followed by Latin America (12.5%) and then equally by the developed world, centrally planned economies (C PEs) and developing countries.
- Consumption

US consumes 20million bbl/day (1st in consumption per capita) Imports 10million bbl/day Israel has highest imports per capita (43.5bbl/cap) 95% of energy for transportation comes from oil 42% of our total energy consumption Asia and Pacific uses 31% of total oil, Europe 24%, North America 27% Dropped between 1976 and 1982 by about 5 bil bbl/year Chinas consumption: 0.3 to 2.7 bil bbl/year - 3.5x between 1986 and 2006

 4x oil consumption in India (1980-2006) Oil consumption within OPEC grew 30% between 2000 and 2009 Predicted to drop to 39% (2025) of our total energy use

ii. Examine the geopolitical and environmental impacts of these changes in patterns and trends. Geopolitics = the connection between geographical space and political power the influence of geography on politics, especially foreign policy of a state OPEC countries supply the US with 41.1% of its oil, very important for the US Geopolitics of Oil: Us and Saudi Arabia 1933-diplomatic relations US embassy open in 1944 share common concerns about regional security, oil exports and imports and sustainable development. consultation develop: international, economic and development issues such as the Middle East peace process and shared interest in the Gulf Saudi Arabia leading source of oil to US, provided more than 1 M barrels a day to US market. US military training, provides training and support in the sue of weapons and other security to SAudi armed forces. US has sold many military weapons, equipment and transport to Saudi. Saudi Arabia's relations with US strained after Sep 11 in 2001, 15 suicide bombers were Saudi citizens. May 2003, terrorist affiliated with al-Qaeda launched a violent campaign in Saudi/ 12th of May, killed 35 people,9 americans. Terroists continued killing americans over the next year. US and Saudi Arabia working on counterterriorism campaigns. US concern for Human rights in Saudi: abuse of prisoners, incommunicado detention, restriction of speech, press, peaceful assembly and association. religion. government. women,.ethnic groups etc

 Canadas supply of oil to US has been gradually increasing, doubling in past 16 years, up to 18.2% of the USs oil supply Jimmy Carter: stats that any attempt to control the Persian Gulf is an assault on the vital interest of the US. US will protect its oil supply, i.e. Libya Geopolitical Case Study - Arctic Oil: Receding arctic ice and improved technology = access to oil reserves 30% of worlds undiscovered gas and 13% of undiscovered oil There is VERY heavy dispute between Russia, US, Canada and Denmark upon who owns the Arctic resources Based on continental shelf, but there are overlaps due to the Lomonosov ridge Countries are submitting claims to the UN UN Convention on the Law of the Seas (INCLOS) Inland Waters The coastal state is free to set laws regulate use, and use any resource. Foreign vessels have no right of passage within internal waters. Territorial Waters (12 ml) The coastal state is free to set laws, regulate use, and use any resource. Vessels given the right of innocent passage. Contiguous Zone (24 ml) The state can enforce laws in four specific areas: pollution. taxation, customs, and immigration Exclusive economic zone (200 ml) The coastal nation has sole exploitation rights over all natural resources. EEZs were introduced to halt the increasingly heated clashes over fishing rights, although oil was becoming important by the 1950s Continental Shelf The continental shelf is defined as the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margins outer edge, or 200 nautical miles from the coastal states baseline, whichever is greater. A states continental shelf may exceed 200 nautical miles until the natural prolongation ends. However, it may never exceed 350 nautical miles from the baseline. Submission of Arctic Claims Countries must submit claims to the UN commission on Limits of the Continental Shelf within 10 years of signing UNCLOS Canada: claims due by 2013 Denmark: 2014 U.S: has not ratified owing to disagreement over UNCLOS provisions regulating extraction of minerals outside the EEZ

Environmental Case Study - Tar Sands: Rise in global demand - China, Taiwan, Italy, UK 125 billon dollars in investment 140 thousand square kilometers affected 38% less energy intensive than 20 years ago Costs 1 barrel of oil to extract 2 Very polluting, and tailing ponds cover 55km2, eliminating all wildlife habitat in surrounding area Tanker transport: Exxon Valdez (March 24, 1989) 260 000 750 000 barrels 2 100 km of coastline, 28 000 km2 of ocean Affected salmon, sea otters, seals, sea bird, and whales 30% less local killer whales Oil drilling: BP spill (April 20 July 15 2010) 4.9 million bbl spilled; capable of heating 13 000 homes for a year 19x larger than Exxon Valdez incident 665 miles of coastline contaminated 12 000 Louisiana residents filed for unemployment that month 400 wildlife species at risk - 1 billion gallons are spilled into the worlds oceans each year (source: union of concerned scientists) iii.Examine the changing importance of other energy source (ii & iii = 6 hours) Alternative Energy Geothermal: Sites near active or geologically young volcanoes. Thermal energy, rather than physical. Geothermal has the capacity to expand immensely with the amount of geologically active sites. Top Production: United States 28.7% Phillippines: 21.6% Mexico: 10.67% Indonesia: 8.92% Italy: 8.65% Increase in last 30 years due to rises in climate change awareness, gas and oil prices and economic benefits North America: 10% being harnessed Asia: 5% being harnessed Global trend in production, step increase from 1900-1930, general increase since then (drop in 1949 WWI) Geothermal Investment: decrease in the last two years global Trend in Capacity:

 North America and Asia Pacific bigger chunkcs, Western Europe and Latin America 1/3 each of North America. 88% of worlds geothermal energy system is used in 8 countries, leaving room for growth How?: pumping underground fluids through pipes, turning high pressure fluids into steam and allowing the pressure to spin a turbine connected to a generator, creating electricity. Residential areas and buildings: During hot weather, underground fluid is cooler, and pumping it through the home captures heat that is then deliverd back underground to cool. During cold weather, the underground fluid is warmer than the outside temperature and moving in through the house warms the building - Benefits: Cost effective Long lasting Year round, 24/7 Quiet operation High efficient 25%-50% or more. Reusable and clean Produces 1.6 of CO2 natural gas fueled power plants No storage, transportation or combustible fuels Every one has last 100 years and is still in production Most efficient renewable system requiring smallest area/MW of electricity. Versatile - Limitations: Cannot be accessed everywhere Slow cost return Requires large amounts of money initially High probability of failure in first year Cost competitive Must have adequate column of hot water or steam that is not impure to use Drilling for geothermal sources is far more expensive than any other kind of drilling Iceland: high concentration of volcanoes 24% of nations power is geothermal 87% of building are heated through geothermal methods Length of cost return issue Solar energy Global Pv Market 2009 Market Size: 7.3 GW Market Growth Y/Y 20% Solar Production 9.35 GW Industry Revenue: $38.5 B Top Market: Germany, Italy, USA

 2009-solar cells production outstripped demand, causing 38% drop in average pricing compared to the prior year. Greatest potential in Canadian Prairies (1300-1400kWh) Production: Japan, Germany, USA and Spain World consumption: 0.04% Solar-most cost intensive How it works: PV (photovoltaic) cells Made of semiconductors-silicon Light strikes cell, certain portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material Energy of absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductors Energy knocks electrons loose-flow freely PV cells have electric field that force freed electrons to flow in a certain direction - current Metal contacts on the top and bottom of the PV cell, draw current off for external use Equator region has more potential Steady increase in installed solar panels. - Benefits: No pollution, apart from manufacturing, transportation and installation Can harness energy in places where no connected to nation power grid Installation in remote areas in more cost effective than laying the high voltage wires Don't need extra land-roof Cost Effective-free energy Sun doesn't die Aesthetically pleasing - Limitations: Initial cost to instal Only able to generate energy during daylight Weather effects efficiency Pollution affects - cities manufacturing of solar panels is harmful, results in lead, cadium and mercury ex. Sarnia Photocoltaic Power Plant, Ontario Canada. world's largest (as of sep 2010) photocoltaic plant with 80 MW covers 950 acres and contains about 966,00 m2, 1.3 M thin film panels Year yeild:120,000MW/h -> prevents 39,000 t of CO2 per year 2010-increase of 70% from 2009 (23GW-40GW) globally Prices have halfed since 2007, at $1.8 a watt, compared to $3.7 three years earlier Wind energy How it works: Rotating generator converts wind energy to electricity Transformer increases voltage for transmission to substation

 Substation increases voltage for transmission over long distance Transmission to the grid How energy is harnessed from the wind: Wind is caused from uneven heating in atmosphere Wind turbines use blades to collect world's kinetic energy The wind flows over the blades, creating lift an effect in airplanes, which makes them turn The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric generator to produce electricity Capacity installed: Asia: 15,442 MW Europe: 10,526 MW NOrth America: 1-,946 MW - Benefits: Power station usually occupy more space than wind turbines leave land underneath to be used Wind industry grow at 28% per year Do not require water or fossil fuels Energy to remote areas Economically viable 200 homes by wind= GHG reduction of 2000T every year=10,000 trees $1.6B added to CA GDP in 2006 Put in areas where are able to produce electricity 70-80% of the time - Limitations Not always reliable Not effective in urban areas Loud, disrupt scenery Affects bird population Need to connect to national electricity grid Hard to find location Expensive to construct turbines ex. Alta Gas Project 34 windmill towers connected to BC Hydro power grib produces 102 Megawatts (38,000 homes) 5. Conservation strategies: a. Discuss the reduction of resource consumption by conservation, waste reduction, recycling and substitution. Reduction: using less energy (turning of lights when not using) Recycling: processing of industrial and household waste so that materials can be reused; saves scarce raw materials and reduces pollution Reuse: multiple use of a product by returning it to the manufacturer or processor; usually more energy and resource efficient than recycling Substitution: using one resource rather than another

b. Evaluate a strategy at a local or national scale aimed at reducing the consumption of one resource. Canada Water stats & info # 2 in per capita water consumption (U.S. = #1) 300 liters/day/person use increased 26% 1980 to 1997 industry is largest user at 68% Agriculture 12% Water rates far below level needed to cover operational, repair & upgrading expenses metered homes use less - half homes metered 40% domestic users pay flat rate flushing = 27% indoor water Metro Vancouver Increase water efficiency by one third by 2020 Education & voluntary conservation

Vancouver water conservation: Rain barrel program More than 340 L water per day in households Double consumption in summer Barrels subsidized by city 50%, 3000 sold Water Saver Kits 12$ Indoor water saver - saves 15 to 20% water use Saves 10 to 15 percent energy Earth massage showerhead Dual setting touch flow kitchen aerator Faucets sink aerators Toilet tank bags packages of leak detection dye tablets

Current: Green building strategy: promotion in buildings (energy) Green Homes Program: proposing building by-law changes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase in building water efficiency (energy) Promoting water wise gardening: resistant plants, grouping plants, sprinkling plans Sewers separation program : reduce stress on wastewater treatment Rain water management