Contribution for BRT Design in Developing-Nation Cities

Jorge Rodolfo Espinoza Landvar

Dissertation to obtain the degree of Master in

Complex Transport Infrastructure Systems

Jury:
President: Prof. Dr. Jos Manuel Viegas Advisor: Prof. Jorge Manuel Pinho de Sousa Co-Advisor: Prof. Dr. Maria do Rosrio Macrio

November, 2010

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AKCNOWLEDGEMENTS To my Creator who has given me spiritual force throughout my life and during my stay in this welcoming foreign country and to my parents who gave me life and who continually support my decisions. To my Professor and Advisor, Professor. Jorge Pinho de Sousa, I am particularly appreciative of his patience and willingness to share his extensive knowledge with me throughout my research and for his time spent while reading this thesis. To Professor Jos Manuel Viegas who allowed me to turn hope into reality by accepting me into the MIT Portugal Program. To all of my colleagues in the CTIS Master Course for sharing with me the diversity of their cultures, long days of comradeship, and for pushing me to be my best. To Professor Luis Picado-Santos and Professor Rosrio Macrio, for their time and understanding with my thesis, and listening to me when most needed. To my classroom professors for offering me their leadership and knowledge throughout the course. To Mauro for his valuable time and hints at the precise moment; to Vasco for amazingly good vibes whenever we talked; to Camila and Thiago and all of you in the bolseiros rooms and to Teresa who has always been an invaluable help, to each of you, OBRIGADO, I wish I could speak Portuguese more fluently. To Engenheiro Carlos Sousa Gaivoto for his valuable time and help; to Arquitecto Edmundo Farah and Arquitecta Yrene Parada for graciously and willingly supplying me with data from the Municipality of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia. To Pedro for his friendship, to all of my Portuguese friends who helped make my stay in this country, a beautiful experience, and to my two sisters for their unconditional love. To each and every transport professional, who helped me in different aspects of my research, for their time and supporting material. To all the special people in Bolivia who had to listen to me nearly everyday.
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ABSTRACT This research will study different approaches in the optimization of bus transportation systems in South America by introducing a creative solution for massive transit, known as Bus Rapid Transit (BRT). We will study BRT design objectives, and analyze the primary design problems and ways they can be solved. By presenting the different approaches used in the main cities of South America, we will point out the positive and negative aspects of implementing these systems, and will conclude with a clear idea of what should be done and what should not be done, to optimize the user experience in the implementation of this urban transit solution. We will then focus on one of the main problems that BRT implementation has, which is the route design, we will present a mathematical model and then a heuristic developed to solve a single problem in our case study. To understand how the heuristic will work, an example problem will be presented, and then we will apply the heuristic to the city in the case study for illustration purposes. To obtain a feasible solution, we will take into account data on cultural and travelling behavior, O/D matrixes. (a matrix that comprehends every flow between nodes of a given transportation system), peak time schedules, fleet size, etc. We conclude that the heuristic gave us a feasible solution in an efficient way for the problem here presented, nevertheless, it can be improved by considering some additional aspects, which we did not take into account in this research, because it would have turned the scenario into a substantially more complex study, given the fact that as the variables increase also does the possible outcomes and its development would have taken more time than we are allowed in this research.

Keywords: BRT, Network, Route Design, Massive Transit, Developing-nation cities.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Context and relevance of the research ................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Objectives of the work ........................................................................................................................ 4 1.3 Contents and methodology of the dissertation .................................................................................... 5 2. BUS RAPID TRANSIT DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT ................................................................. 7 2.1The BRT concept ................................................................................................................................. 7 2.1.1 Design objectives ......................................................................................................................... 7 2.1.2 Main Characteristics .................................................................................................................... 8 2.3 Main design problems ....................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Corridor Selection ...................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.2 Station location .......................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.3 Fare collection ............................................................................................................................ 19 2.3.4 Intermodality .............................................................................................................................. 20 2.3.5 Coordinated services .................................................................................................................. 21 2.3.6 Phasing ....................................................................................................................................... 22 2.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 22 3. BRT SYSTEMS IN SOUTH AMERICA (CASE STUDIES) ............................................................ 25 3.1 TransMilenio (Bogot, Colombia) ................................................................................................ 25 3.2 Trol (Quito, Ecuador) .................................................................................................................. 29 3.3 Transantiago (Santiago, Chile) ..................................................................................................... 32 3.4 Metropolitano ( Lima, Per) ......................................................................................................... 37 3.5 RIT (Curitiba, Brazil) .................................................................................................................... 41 3.6 Other systems not implemented yet .............................................................................................. 44 3.7 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 46 4. SOME CONTRIBUTIONS FOR BRT DESIGN ............................................................................... 51 4.1 Problem description .......................................................................................................................... 51 4.2 Network Model of the BRT Route Design Problem ......................................................................... 52 v

4.4 Constructive heuristic ....................................................................................................................... 56 4.3 Example scenario .............................................................................................................................. 59 4.5 Application of the heuristic ............................................................................................................... 61 4.6 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................... 65 5. CASE STUDY .................................................................................................................................... 67 5.1 Case study definition......................................................................................................................... 68 5.2 Data collection .................................................................................................................................. 72 5.3 Data analysis and management ......................................................................................................... 72 5.4 Application of the developed approach ............................................................................................ 74 5.5 Discussion of the approach ............................................................................................................... 81 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS ...................................................................... 83

Appendixes ................................................................................................................................... 86 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 100 Videography................................................................................................................................ 102

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INDEX OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Corridor Selection in order to avoid congestion and reduce CO2 emissions .............................. 18 Figure 2. Station Location ........................................................................................................................... 19 Figure 3. Different types of fare collection ................................................................................................. 20 Figure 4. Intermodality connecting different types of modes .................................................................... 21 Figure 5. Coordinating services avoid long waiting times at stations ......................................................... 21 Figure 6. Phasing through evolution of a system........................................................................................ 22 Figure 7. Main Design Problems ................................................................................................................. 24 Figure 8. Transmilenio's buses .................................................................................................................... 25 Figure 9. Transmilenio's BRT system map .................................................................................................. 28 Figure 10. Trol's Logo ................................................................................................................................ 29 Figure 11. Trol's BRT system map ............................................................................................................. 30 Figure 12. Trol buses and stations ............................................................................................................ 30 Figure 13. Transantiago's logo .................................................................................................................... 32 Figure 14. Bip card for Transantiago's fare payment .................................................................................. 34 Figure 15. Transantiagos Buses.................................................................................................................. 35 Figure 16. Santiago de Chile's metro over congested................................................................................. 36 Figure 17. Metropolitano de Lima's Logo ................................................................................................... 37 Figure 18. Lima's BRT system map .............................................................................................................. 39 Figure 19. Card for Metropolitano's fare payment ..................................................................................... 40 Figure 20. Curitiba's BRT system map ......................................................................................................... 41 Figure 21. Different types of buses and colors according to type service .................................................. 42 Figure 22. Different types of buses according to type of service ............................................................... 43 Figure 23. Different types of buses according to type of service ............................................................... 43 Figure 24. Transbarca's Logo....................................................................................................................... 44 Figure 25. Planning of STM in Montevideo, Uruguay ................................................................................. 44 Figure 26. Planning of BRT in Buenos Aires,Argentina ............................................................................... 45 Figure 27.Example of a four station BRT system (reproduced from Riao et al. 2008) ............................. 54 Figure 28. Solution proposed ...................................................................................................................... 61 Figure 29. Obtained solution ...................................................................................................................... 64 Figure 30. Santa Cruz de la sierra - Bolivia .................................................................................................. 67 Figure 31. Case study solution proposed .................................................................................................... 76 Figure 32. Solution Obtained ...................................................................................................................... 78 Figure 33. Highest ridership corridors in red, chosen corridor in blue with feeders in green ................... 80 Figure 34. Influence areas for demand analysis ......................................................................................... 90

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INDEX OF TABLES
Table 1. S x S Matrix passengers and times ............................................................................................... 60 Table 2. Results for the algorithm............................................................................................................... 63 Table 3. Case study O/D Matrix passengers and travelling times .............................................................. 76 Table 4. Results for algorithm in case study ............................................................................................... 78 Table 5. Fleet In Santa Cruz De La Sierra, Bolivia , as to October 27, 2009 ............................................. 87 Table 6. Factor Analysis of Time Distribution ........................................................................................... 88 Table 7. Analysis of a few lines proposed .................................................................................................. 89 Table 8. Fleet sizing of the lines proposed.................................................................................................. 89 Table 9. Demand estimation ....................................................................................................................... 91 Table 10. Summary (General) (a) veh. qty. Peak hours and tariffs............................................................. 92 Table 11. Analysis for radial's circulation Summary ............................................................................... 94 Table 12. Summary of rapid transit in radials until 3rd circle with stops only at the circles (for vehicles of 25 pax) ........................................................................................................................................................ 97 Table 13. Pax using public transportation on circles and radials ................................................................ 97 Table 14. Demand Estimation Summary ................................................................................................. 99 Table 15. Qty. of trips done by user type .................................................................................................... 99

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS BHLS BUS OF HIGH LEVEL OF SERVICE BRT BUS RAPID TRANSIT WCTR WORLD CONFERENCE ON TRANSPORT RESEARCH RIT REDE INTEGRADA DE TRANSPORTES LRT LIGHT RAIL TRANSIT HRT HEAVY RAIL TRANSIT CARBON DIOXIDE O/D ORIGINS/DESTINATIONS KPH KILOMETERS PER HOUR GPS GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONING SYSTEM RCN RADIO CADENA DE NOTICIAS RAI RADIO TELEVISIONE ITALIANA TRB TRANSPORT RESEARCH BOARD EUR EURO USD UNITED STATES DOLLAR EMSAT EMPRESA METROPOLITANA DE SERVICIOS Y ADMINISTRACIN DEL TRANSPORTE TVN TELEVISION NACIONAL GSM GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS GPRS GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE

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"You cannot solve a problem with the same thinking that created it" Albert Einstein
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1. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we will briefly introduce and explain what a BRT system is all about, what our expectations are concerning this research, and cite various interviews with experts who attended the WCTR 10 conference. Their points of view are important to better understand what BRT is and provides a platform for developing the objectives pursued with this thesis, The expectations and the contents of this research are summarized with a brief description of each chapter. 1.1 Context and relevance of the research Bus rapid transit (BRT) takes its name from rail rapid transit, which describes a highcapacity, urban, public-transit system with its own right-of-way, having multiple-car trains at short headways and with greater spacing between stops than is the case with traditional streetcars and buses. BRT, however, uses buses on a wide variety of right-of-ways including mixed traffic, dedicated lanes on surface streets, and busways that are completely separated from other modes of traffic (BRT Guide 2007). The present research was undertaken to seek ways to improve and ease the planning process in order to expedite BRT Network projects, and have them working in the shortest time possible, taking into account different social and political interests in the cities where BRT Networks will be implemented. This dissertation will look over the many aspects to be considered in a BRT Network such as selecting the corridor(s) in the city and the location of stations. By tackling some of the barriers we will be able to define an expedited process to facilitate the development of a feasible project proposal for the planning team to execute. We will show the advantages of replicating the TransMilenio system in multiple South American cities, taking into account the local cultures in each city. TransMilenio has been categorized as a Full BRT, being an improved version of the RIT in Brazil. TransMilenio demonstrates the substantially lower cost of implementing BRT compared to LRT (Light Rail Transit) or HRT (Heavy Rail Transit). This system has been a success and it continues to expand

its network throughout the city of Bogot. The Colombian government is now implementing this transportation solution in other cities across the country. As an example of a disastrous BRT implementation we cite Transantiago, which is a BRT system that was implemented without the proper notice to the regular users of the earlier bus system. Users were unable to understand the benefits to be gained from the new system, creating confusion for the user from the beginning. This confusion led to users changing transport mode, primarily electing to use the subway, which already exceeds its capacity. According to the promoter of the Big Bang proposal, (Coeymans 2010) the system should either be applied following all the specifications or not applied at all. If the system is poorly implemented and users do not understand how to use it, it is a lost investment and not cost-effective. Typically this is followed by a vicious circle of loss of passengers along with increasing fares as is happening at the moment with Transantiago (Transantiago 2010). That is why we emphasize the need for socializing the system, involving different stakeholders who must play key roles in the successful development of this new system. Many BRT systems use low-floor buses (or high-level platforms with high-floor buses) to speed passenger boarding and to enhance accessibility. Another very important aspect for the performance of such systems is the driver's psychological state of mind, which in some way also affects the traffic flow and lead to the formation of congestion. We can deduce that the longer the driver is behind the wheel, the slower his reactions. Thus a driver who feels tired seeks to protect his safety and will go slower, and in extreme cases he may completely stop the vehicle. Drivers should not be allowed to drive more than 8 hours a day for the safety of both, the passengers and the driver (Krblek 2010). As we get more involved in the subject, we begin to understand that these are not the only aspects of importance when speaking of a BRT system. Likewise the economical feasibility and the marketing of the proposal are key elements that will influence the decisions to be taken during the project development and implementation and also the successful outcome of the project

One demonstrated way to attract passengers in different BRT's in the world, has been the use of bike parking at stations, and the implementation of priority bicycle lanes along the BRT lane leading into terminals or intermediate stations Another concept of BRT, the BHLS (Bus of high level of service) (Rabuel 2010) is found in France and other European countries. Given the national trends at this time, and considering the sustainability that this service could offer, it is of interest that they have not marketed their system as a solution for reducing , emissions. The units use alternative types of fuel, which has led to lower emissions. Also this system uses stations built along both sides of the road because the units have doors only on one side. A way to minimize this problem would be to use the same buses travelling in opposite direction to the usual traffic flow, only in the BRT lanes, this would produce savings in the construction of stations Concerning the distance between stations, which is standard based as in other BRT systems, having statistically proven the willingness of users to walk 400 meters to reach or leave their station, these should be distanced 800 meters. from each other. Two common concerns among BRT planners are to reduce congestion along the corridors implemented, and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The BRT's indirectly promote change in land use along its corridors as, for example, shopping areas of low density tend to become major business centers, affecting the O/D matrixes. For this reason land use policies must include some sort of regulations concerning land use in the areas surrounding the BRT corridors. The fleet size and the type of vehicles used are important elements High/low capacity capability is the principal design question as inappropriately large vehicles will either operate with few passengers or result in infrequent service. The capacity, speed and service frequency of BRT systems, are defining features that set them apart from conventional bus services. To cope with the demand and reduce the operational costs, larger vehicles can be used at peak hours and smaller vehicles in low demand hours. However the change of vehicle type may not be helpful to the image of the system, confusing the user, who wont be able to identify the system exclusively among other types of bus services. . This can become detrimental for ridership. It has been noted that there is an additional cost related to travelling time for the user when entering the system through a feeder. The cost of being in a feeder bus going to the terminal
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refers to the cost of the time the user spends waiting to get to his destination. TransMilenio has mitigated this cost by making the feeder segment available for free. Acknowledging that there must be coordination between feeder and trunk buses arriving at terminals implies that there is also a time cost at terminals or intermediate stations (Sivakumaran 2010). Significantly, the value of time to users is proportional to the distance travelled, with a relationship between the waiting time and the distance to be travelled. The willingness to wait is greater for longer distances than for shorter distances. Long waits for short trips are unacceptable and the system will certainly lose passengers. One option for reducing the burn for passengers is to link the various transport modes with a single ticketing option. Using the same ticket when making connections throughout a trip is advantageous to the user. In simulation models there is a risk in assuming that the headways between the trunk buses will be constant, when in actuality there are increases during peak hours. Assuming constant headways eludes the problem of bunching at the stations. 1.2 Objectives of the work The objective of the present research is to represent a feasible prospective of a corridor and locations of the stations along it, using mathematical modeling and by developing an algorithm inspired by the model. Data is simulated to improve the model to gradually optimize the results, taking into consideration whether travel times for users is reduced or not. These results will be gradually applied and attuned to a South American city, until we reach a satisfactory solution for a set of routes that will minimize the travelling times in our solution when compared to the solution proposed before applying the algorithm to our case study. Data available from the city will be used along with relevant information on the local culture. Understanding that a BRT project is more than just the corridors and the stations, we will assume other conditions to be explained later in the context of this dissertation, in order to globally capture the concept of the project in the case study. We will have then created a step-bystep resource that will guide us when replicating the same process in other South American cities. Thus we will contribute to BRT planning by providing a tool for planning teams, who must deal with these design problems.
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1.3 Contents and methodology of the dissertation In this work we study different BRT systems from across South America by presenting and understanding the facts that preceded the decision to implement the system and by studying the implementation results. We will be able to differentiate among successful and disastrous results, after which we will focus on our interest in designing the routes for a selected corridor. After evaluating the first results an algorithm will be elaborated and further optimized. We will finally apply this to our case study, which is Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia. Santa Cruz has a similar urban sprawl as Bogot, Colombia, and half of the size of Santiago, Chile. Santa Cruz is in high need for the implementation of a BRT system given its high traffic congestion during peak and non-peak hours. We will use different supporting materials such as videos and papers presented at different conferences. Once we have studied different points of views on implementation of the various systems in use, and after coming to understand the cultural and travelling behavior of the different cities to be studied, we will have an understanding of both the positive and negative aspects that must be taken into account in order to improve the user experience. In the first chapter, we give a brief description of what a BRT is. We will mention different issues presented at the WCTR 2010 in Lisbon, Portugal and cite the views from experts gained during brief interviews after presentations were made. We will then set forth our objectives for the present research. On the second chapter, we elaborate the BRT concept, the main design objectives of the system and explaining briefly the main characteristics of the different parts of the system. We then state the main design problems of interest that are related to our research. The various systems from across South American that are being studied will be introduced and their strengths and their weakness demonstrated where the user interface is concerned. In the third chapter, we will try to be as objective as possible in giving details on every BRT system studied in the main cities of the different countries in South America. For each countrys system we will present the history, outline the specifications, and demonstrate how in some cases social conditions and problems were not addressed during the planning process; e.g.

explaining to the people the benefits to be derived from the system implemented and how problems in the area will be solved. In the fourth chapter we will then take the data acquired from the municipality in the case study city and will optimize the results obtained when applying the algorithm, seeking to get the best results for efficiency and quality of service to be delivered to the user. In the fifth chapter we study the main concerns related to congestion in the main arteries of the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia. We will then apply the algorithm obtained in the previous chapter and we will work to obtain a feasible solution for the city to illustrate the approach. Finally in the sixth chapter we will conclude this research by doing some recommendations on what to do for improving this research as the time allotted for this research was very short and an extremely thorough and profound study could be done.

2. BUS RAPID TRANSIT DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

In this chapter, we will observe the general objectives for the design of a BRT network and explain in detail the main characteristics of the system. This will include improvements that every public bus service needs in order to deliver a better service to their users. We will note how to make this work and demonstrate how to make gains in travelling time by improving boarding and alighting; suggest improvements for stations and show the gains in matters of reduction of pollution. Finally we present a series of tables and graphics that will describe the main design problems and how they affect the quality of the service. 2.1The BRT concept Public transport is a critical means by which citizens can effectively access goods and services across the expanse of todays cities. Bus rapid Transit (BRT) has been found to be one of the most cost-effective mechanisms for cities to quickly develop a public transport system that can achieve a full transportation network as well as deliver a rapid and high-quality service. While still in its early years of application, the BRT concept offers the potential to revolutionize the manner of urban transport (BRT Guide 2007). BRT is a term applied to a variety of public transportation systems using buses to provide a faster and more efficient service than an ordinary bus line. Often, this is achieved by making improvements to existing infrastructure, vehicles and scheduling. The goal of these systems is, to approach the service quality of rail transit, while still enjoying the cost savings and flexibility of bus transit (BRT Guide 2007). 2.1.1 Design objectives We acknowledge three general objectives: Meet current and projected passenger demand Achieve average vehicle speeds of 25 kph or higher Minimize door to door travelling times for customers

Average bus speeds in BRT systems are approximately 27 kph. A high capacity, high speed BRT does not guarantee that door to door travelling times are minimized. To achieve higher speeds stations must be located far from each other, trying to simulate a metro system. However, door to door travelling times will not always be minimized as customers are forced to walk further to the stations. If stations are placed without considerations of important O/D matrixes, the costs will rise and the system will suffer from reduced speed overall. This typically has the negative effect of requiring subsidies, which is the first thing we try to avoid. 2.1.2 Main Characteristics In this section we will give a brief description of each characteristic of the BRT system that we found present to one degree or another in the systems analyzed in this research. These are the main characteristics that every BRT should at least try to achieve and implement from the beginning of the service. 2.1.2.1 LOW-COST INFRASTRUCTURE (BRT Guide 2007) Low-cost infrastructure elements such as bus turnouts are needed to give priority to buses to be able to easily turn around to go in the opposite direction in order to increase the frequency of use. Boarding islands increase the safety among users providing them with a specific place to wait for the bus and board or alight as they please. Curb realignments may be required for buses to have the space needed at stops. Two lanes in each station provide the ability for buses to pass stopped buses in intermediate stations. These are small investments that offer higher reliability in the system. Along with improved travelling times and safety matters, we acknowledge that these low cost infrastructures can increase the overall speed and reliability of bus services. A BRT network with comprehensive coverage can serve a diverse market (all income ranges) by moving large numbers of people between locations throughout the day. By making these small investments in infrastructure gains can be seen in trip frequencies and improved travel time and hence increased ridership, which will increase the revenues and help to run the system without subsidies. This also increases the appeal for investors (private operators, loan institutions and politicians). Creativity must be used to gain public acceptance in matters of
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attracting new users and to encourage mixed traffic users to change their mode of transportation. By achieving this, a clear reduction of gas emissions will be readily noticed and will improve the quality of air as well as the living status in the areas where this system is to be implemented 2.1.2.2 OFF-BUS FARE COLLECTION (BRT Guide 2007) Off-bus fare collection is a payment method used in many BRT systems around the world. It offers the user the easiest way to board the buses by removing the disadvantage of waiting in line in order to pay the fare to the driver. Overall it takes less time to board the bus and decreases travelling times by reducing the length of time the bus remains at each stop. This payment method also adds to safety in the system, by giving the driver one and only one task, to focus on while driving through the corridor. The driver doesnt have to play the role of regulating who pays or not given the fact that the user pays his fare upon entering an enclosed bus station or shelter area prior to bus arrivals (similar to fare collection at a kiosk prior to entering a subway system). This creates a faster and more reliable service, one of the main goals for any BRT system. Problems that this payment method may experience are due to the lack of information about the technology being used and unclear instructions on how to properly use the payment kiosk. This can increase confusion and distrust among the users who occasionally pay more than required or suffer due to card rejection because of improper handling. Guidance and public awareness about this type of payment method must be readily available. One option is to create commercials that clearly show the steps to take for payment using the kiosks. These can be disseminated through local media channels. Conventional on-board fare collection slows the boarding process. The bus driver must pay attention to giving change, dealing with ticket fraud, managing long lines of users waiting to enter the bus along with the primary task of driving. This is particularly complicated when different fares are collected for different destinations and/or classes of passengers and is always a problem that may make occasional passengers avoid using the service in subsequent opportunities.
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Another type of on board fare collection is the on board ticket machine. In this scenario the operator must trust the user to properly pay the fare. Often users will avoid paying the fare and the operator suffers revenue losses often leading to the removal of the equipment. Another problem is the technology itself, which in many cases is obsolete and may over charge the user due to lack of maintenance or lack of guidance on the proper use of this type of fare collector. It has been observed that even when systems use either off-bus or on-board fare collection, there will always be users who will find the way to avoid the payment. This is why the presence of security personnel or even police officers is needed in order to eliminate or palliate this problem. 2.1.2.3 STATIONS (BRT Guide 2007) High-quality BRT systems often feature significant investment in enclosed stations which may incorporate attractive sliding glass doors in order to allow users to enter as soon as the bus gets to the station to minimize the time lost and in some way forcing the users to hasten their boarding. Other options that improve the BRT station include providing information booths to receive complaints, suggestions or to answer questions users may have while in the station; provision of vending machines that deliver the quantity of tickets desires or the charge desired for the pass; staffed ticket booths for users to purchase monthly or annual passes providing the opportunity for the user to economize in their total transportation costs and indirectly assuring ridership; provision of a prepaid ticketing system where the user purchases his/her ticket prior to boarding the bus. In most of the American BRTs open platform stops are more frequently used due to the fact that the ridership is not as high as in Latin American countries. 2.1.2.4 OPEN VS CLOSED SYSTEM (BRT Guide 2007) From the literature referenced we acknowledge that the corridor can be open or closed to mixed traffic, vehicles such as trash collecting trucks, ambulances or government official vehicles are permitted in some closed BRT systems already working in various cities
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(TransMilenio, Colombia and Trol, Ecuador). The allowance of mixed traffic in the BRT corridor (taxis, private cars, bikes) typically minimizes the impression of a professional service and the priority that is expected by the user (Kunming, China and Taipei, Taiwan). This also increases the risk of having the priority lane invaded by both light traffic (deliveries by motorcycle or bicycle) and street vendors. The impact on operations is primarily observed on average vehicle speeds and customer travelling times Emergency vehicles are generally permitted access on BRT systems. They travel faster than the buses inside the BRT lane so do not affect the system as much as the other vehicles mentioned above. Bicycle riders endanger their lives when entering the busway given the priority for buses. The speed buses travel does not allow them to elude riders quickly to avoid accidents as has happened in the outstanding system TransMilenio in Bogot where speeds are 25kph or higher on their closed systems. Systems that limit access to prescribed operators are known as closed systems and systems that have implemented a busway system without any sector reform or any exclusivity are known as open systems. In order to determine whether to provide a closed or open system the local transport policies have to be taken into account. If needed they should be changed to allow BRT lanes to have priority over mixed traffic and to reduce uncertainties for the common driver by providing special signaling for the BRT. Vertical and horizontal road signals can be used along with painting the lanes to indicate different right of way from the other lanes. Systems that are closed apply physical restraints along the lane to impede mixed traffic from entering. (In Pune, India motorcyclist will invade the busway either way.) However, if an emergency happens in the closed lane safety to riders is more difficult to ensure as buses cannot easily leave the designated close lane. This is also why when a demonstration takes place in Bogot the first thing they do is to block the BRT lanes. Removing a lane from existing roads to create BRT lanes and restrain mixed traffic may be a desirable consideration, taking one lane from existing roads will create a lot of difficulties politically and socially. The marketing team of the BRT system has the responsibility to take this into account and overcome it by socializing the benefits from having a dedicated lane for buses.

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The development of the route map is a fundamental part of the BRT public relations campaign and needs to demonstrate the friendliness of the system by joining the user and the system in a mutual interest. This way the user knows where the stations will be located, how far they will be located from their destination, where to get off or make a transfer. This is important for the system to increase ridership along the corridor and to improve boarding and alighting times. For the present research we will assume a closed system is being developed where the buses have the priority over mixed traffic in their lanes, emergency vehicles will be allowed to enter the busway in case of emergency, and physical restraints will be created to prevent vehicles from entering the busway (a two-sided physical restraint that is sharp in the outer side and blunt in the inner side). As stated above not only the physical constraints are necessary, but also a change in the transport policy, if one exists, concerning the dimensions of the zone of service to be restricted as well as whether to allow regular buses to operate along the corridor. This situation may be a detriment to the user in the sense that he will be confused about which bus to take, and will not help ease traffic congestion along the arteries of the corridor being created. 2.1.2.5 TRUNK-FEEDER VS DIRECT SERVICES (BRT Guide 2007) There are three options to supply the trunk corridor with passengers: Trunk-feeder services Direct services Mix of trunk-feeder services and direct services The trunk-feeder services utilize smaller vehicles in lower density areas and utilize larger vehicles along higher density corridors. There are feeders that change their function and enter the corridor as trunk buses if they are full enough to elude having to transfer all passengers from a full feeder to a trunk corridor bus. The primary disadvantage would be the impact on changed

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schedules on buses entering the feeder. In some stations it would create user confusion to see another type of bus in the trunk corridor. The feeders belong to the areas surrounding the trunk corridor. They take the passengers that live at distances from the stations along the corridor to an intermediate terminal or to a final terminal. Feeders are buses that re-create the common bus service known prior to the implementation of the BRT system. An interesting strategy is the one in Bogota that offers the feeder line free of charge, and in the end has increased passengers ridership throughout the system. These buses, even though not as fast as the ones in the trunk corridor, must also comply to scheduled times, a special concern at peak hours given the fact that they lack priority or right of way in their corridors. Regular taxis or shared cars that drop passengers at bus stations can also be called feeders as long as they enter the BRT. For distances beyond 500 meters from a trunk-line station, many customers will likely prefer a feeder service - depending also on footpath conditions. The physical shape of a feeder route will depend upon local street configurations and demand profiles. In general feeder routes tend to take on one of these types of forms: Loop route Straight roundtrip corridor Combination of single corridor and loop route Single corridor connecting two trunk corridors The lack of feeder services has created outcomes such as: Mixed first impression of BRT Insufficient demand for a financially-viable BRT system Increase in overall congestion levels A trunk-feeder service is effective when the main corridors have relatively high demand. When choosing the route for this service consideration must be given to the fact that the most densely developed areas are to be served by the feeder buses. Equity across users must also be considered given that population density differs between different areas of the city. Feeder buses
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assure ridership to the trunk corridors and deliver potential passengers from one side of the city to another and to the terminals. When distances between the city centre and the feeder areas are relatively far, e.g. over 10 kilometers in distance, the feeder buses have plenty of potential passengers to move from distant zones to terminal areas. By this it is possible to understand that the trunk corridor will have ridership assured if the corridor is selected correctly in both the trunk and feeder services. The advantages of providing feeder service is the operational efficiency it delivers, and with that comes service quality given the fact that as soon as the passengers enter the feeder they are inside the system and can enjoy from the aesthetics of the stations or the buses. Disadvantages appear when passengers suffer loss of time due to transfers and changing lines, which adds to the total distance travelled by passengers to reach the terminal stations for the feeder buses. The infrastructure costs of building final terminals and intermediate terminals when using the feeder services are a disadvantage to the project managers. The direct services will have less need for feeder vehicles by moving passengers directly from their origin trough a main corridor to the their final destination without the need for a transfer gaining in time savings because of this. Infrastructure costs will be reduced given that transfers at terminals and intermediate transfer stations are not needed. The main disadvantages of these direct services are the operational efficiencies given the service to be delivered. The operator has to define a vehicle size for the whole route and many times the vehicle is oversized in some areas and lacks capacity in others. Often this vehicle which is larger than the feeders but smaller than those in the trunk corridor is not efficient. The fact that there are no transfers allows the bus to gain in travel time. However with the ticketing system used in BRT projects known to use this service, as in Kunming and Sao Paulo also using on-board payment, average speeds and total travelling time are affected. The type of vehicles used in the route requires different specifications for feeders and they must be adapted to existing stations, which increases the expenses for infrastructure as well. (More stations are needed along the corridor in both sides of the corridor, when not using median stations.)

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2.1.2.6 TRANSFERS (BRT Guide 2007) Transfers are often cited as one of the main reasons discretionary riders will not elect to use a system. In particular transfers must be carefully considered for handicapped people who are unable to go up stairs without an elevator or to move easily from one point of the street to another without the respective signaling prioritizing their right of way. There are some mass rapid transit systems that have ignored this issue, but subsequently they lack equal opportunity for all potential riders and handicapped riders are forced to be moved by private cars. Imposing physical hardships on riders at transfers only increases the cost per passenger. What at first may seem to offer a savings in infrastructure cost will actually result in reduced ridership and a loss in revenues, and will be seen to be a market failure. Station transfers are problematic for passengers because they must catch a second bus and they are often uncertain of the schedules or if they are in the right bay. Good signaling and the use of GPS technology to indicate the time of the bus arrival to each station and even to a particular bay would mitigate this problem. There are various types of transfers differentiated by the degree of difficulty for the user to move from one side to another. Level 1, where no transfer is necessary. Level 2, where the user moves from one bay to another to change platforms and to complete his transfer. This is considered to be of high convenience as the user has no streets to cross. Level 3, where the user has to go through a grade separated infrastructure in a closed environment, having the fare integrated but still being less convenient for the user. Level 4, where the user goes through a grade separated infrastructure in an open environment. Even with the fare integrated this is still inconvenient for the user.

15

 Level 5, where the user has a grade separated infrastructure in an open environment where the fare is compatible. This is highly inconvenient and introduces a safety concern to the user. Level 6, where the user has a grade separated infrastructure, and the fare is not compatible. This option is very inconvenient for the user given that he must exit the bus, transfer to another station and pay another fare. Typically riders with a choice will prefer a private car. Level 7, where the user must pass through physical barriers to transfer and also pay the fare separately, demonstrating low customer service and poor planning. 2.1.2.7 LAND USE ALONG THE CORRIDORS (Carey 2010) The majority of the largest cities have grown in a rapid and disorganized way and consequently public transportation has grown in this same undesirable manner. However, when a bus service is delivered to an area the surrounding land value is automatically valorized. This is why construction companies see this as added value. By increasing the exposure to their buildings, they can begin to attract their future customers by advertising the advantages of having public transportation close to their premises. As services expand the route design can become tangled creating great waste of time and costs. The main losers are the users. This also decreases the positive influence that a public transit system should have on influencing land development. Along with the arrival of bus services in neighborhoods comes diversity of users new to the neighborhoods. This is not always advantageous for the safety of the area, and is a factor in why property adjacent to bus stops/stations may be considered to be less desirable. BRT systems must demonstrate to the community that BRT will provide benefits to the area once implemented. Although the BRT concept is new and there are few systems in operation there is a growing body of evidence that suggests that BRT systems can support existing land users and promote higher density residential, office and commercial land use in the area adjacent to the BRT stations.
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Some BRT systems have benefited by initially developing a number of key stations where land use development potential exists. Systems like the Metropolitano de Lima, Per have been able to expand service according to demand. This in turn helps to increase the demand for building construction along the corridor. Land uses that mix residential and commercial development can encourage balanced use of the BRT system. Unfortunately since the advent of the private automobile, transit planning has largely been reactive in this regard. 2.3 Main design problems 2.3.1 Corridor Selection Here we refer to the need to locate the best corridor with the greatest ridership opportunity, where the environmental impact will be positive, in such ways as reducing the among others, and that will improve the life status for people along the corridors. The process itself suggests that the corridor should be implemented where there is an existing problem with public transportation congestion. The process of identifying the actual corridors for the service needs to take into account that by reducing the fleet of buses and introducing higher capacity buses, congestion will be reduced and in turn emissions emitted into the environment will likewise be reduced. One of the main concerns when selecting the corridor is the ridership. This is also why it is important to identify the actual corridors and the existing points of congestion, given the fact that the success of the system results in the solutions to these social problems. The selection of corridors in cities as Delhi, India or Santiago de Chile, Chile were done with little care as the congestion was not reduced and travel times for the users was not reduced, sometimes even increased, corridors with high congestion were avoided thus these corridors lacked ridership. emissions,

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Source: author

Figure 1. Corridor Selection in order to avoid congestion and reduce CO2 emissions

2.3.2 Station location This refers to the need to determine the best geographical location for stations, what type of stations are needed, the size of stations, and if one or more bays will be required for each location. The determination must be made given the space available throughout the length of the corridor. Building stations in the middle of the busway is highly desirable as this reduces the need to build separate stations for each direction, saving considerably in construction costs. Here we are also interested in attracting ridership by delivering pragmatic benefits to users. Thus the distance riders must walk into and out of the stations must be considered. In addition users require well illuminated premises, adequate security systems with security personnel on the premises, and adequate traffic conditions nearby. Station location selection is based on existing conditions, demands along the corridor and the frequency of the service to be delivered. The stations location in cities as Bogot, Colombia and Lima, Per are cost effective as they are in the median of the busway, serving both directions, curbside stations like conventional bus systems, often fail due to traffic congestion and poor enforcement.

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Source: author

Figure 2. Station Location

2.3.3 Fare collection This refers to the need to determine whether to provide a system with prepaid fare collection or other system. Planners will need to consider the economical difference in implementing each system compared to the costs of others while taking into account time savings for the user along with the potential for fraud. Given the main characteristics previously explained, we can observe that off-bus fare collections work better for the system as well as for the user, by reducing travelling time and delivering a faster service overall. Prepaid fare collection is not always the most economical system to install. These systems cannot always deliver the fastest service. Technology is not always well implemented and can create problems for riders, i.e. collecting machine malfunction, incorrectly charging riders, causing them to avoid using for this reason some locations elect to use on board fare collection. Mostly all of the BRT known to be working at this moment use off bus fare collection.

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Source: author

Figure 3. Different types of fare collection

2.3.4 Intermodality When trying to find the way to connect every route with the fewest possible transfers for the user, planners must deliver an appropriate infrastructure with premises that are reliable, safe and easy to navigate for the user. All modes of transport that exist in the city must be taken into account. These must be connected and placed at intermodal stations located close to the corridors. It is favorable to also integrate them with a single fare card or a single intelligent card. Intermodality increases ridership to across the different modes by attracting new ridership when benefits are easily noticeable. If done correctly, there will be fewer cars in the streets, a fast, safe and reliable service will be delivered with improved safety on the streets so accidents will be reduced. Overall consumption of combustibles can see gains in efficiency in the city. The Metrobs in Buenos Aires, Argentina connects the BRT corridor with a Train station at the Terminal station, assuring intermodality for the system, delivering more benefits to the user capturing ridership.

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Source: author

Figure 4. Intermodality connecting different types of modes

2.3.5 Coordinated services It is necessary to find ways to improve coordination among the different lines, to reduce or even eliminate the waiting time in transfers, from line to line or from mode to mode. By using GPS systems in the different modes waiting lines for travelers can be reduced. This is true for those making transfers from line or mode to mode. Signs are post with the expected time of arrival for incoming buses or trains approaching the station. If well planned this feature will help attract ridership; if not it may contribute to lost ridership. The availability for stations to handle many different modes increases the chance to have a better coordination among them.

Source: author

Figure 5. Coordinating services avoid long waiting times at stations

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2.3.6 Phasing New systems must be implemented in phases. The numbers of phases the system required will vary. An example of a failed system that was not implemented in phases is Transantiago. If a system is to be taken seriously it is necessary to define different phases during development and during implementation. Initially a single trunk corridor with few feeders or just direct lines will serve as an example to potential users. As they get to know the new system and the benefits and time savings gained the demand and acceptance of the system will increase. Once accepted on a limited scale it can be expanded to the whole city providing multiple services. If the change is done too fast and with little socializing of the system, the user will be confused and acceptance by the public will drop. The user will begin to look for new means of transportation or may even be forced to buy a private car. This will exacerbate the actual congestion and number of vehicles on the streets, and also increase the costs to the transportation system.

Source: author

Figure 6. Phasing through evolution of a system

2.4 Conclusions In this chapter we have pointed out some of the main problems we will address further in the next chapter. We also examined the importance of corridor selection for the development of the BRT. In TransMilenio, (Bogot, Colombia) non-regular users were attracted as riders due to
22

good design and adequate information delivered to the user. For the Metrobs (Buenos Aires, Argentina) the stations location is important given the coordinated services they must deliver to achieve a reasonable intermodality at both ends of the corridor. An example of cheap implementation where fare collection and phasing were big problems during its implementation is Transantiago (Santiago de Chile, Chile). These problems are usually seen in many different BRT systems around the world, and the need to improve is required for the user to accept and use the new system. As the demand rises more technology and more creative solutions should be engaged within the system. We believe that these key elements need to be taken into account when designing the routes for the system rather than avoiding them. Steps must be taken to increase the political will and the involvement of all stakeholders. This way the service delivered will increase the publics acceptance of the system.

23

Source: author

Figure 7. Main Design Problems

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3. BRT SYSTEMS IN SOUTH AMERICA (CASE STUDIES)

In this chapter we will review different systems in capital cities in South America, how they perform and what issues they have concerning ridership, land use and acceptance of the service. We will then review what has been done to prevent disastrous implementations, mistakes that have been done, and the reactions of different stakeholders. 3.1 TransMilenio (Bogot, Colombia) (TransMilenio 2010, 2007, 2009, BTI 2004, BRT Guide 2007, Cain et al. 2006, Targa et al. 2004, Diaz et al. 2009, TRB 2007, RCN news channel 2008, 2009, RAI news channel 2008, NY times 2009)

Location: Bogot, Colombia Number of lines: 9 (trunk lines) Number of stations: 139 Daily ridership: 1.6 million Began operation: December 2000 Operator(s): TransMilenio S.A. System length: 84 km (52 miles)

Source: Transmilenio S.A.

Figure 8. Transmilenio's buses

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3.1.1 History Bogota's public transportation system was comprised of many independently operated and uncoordinated mini busses. TransMilenio was started by Mayor Enrique Pealosa and took three years to launch and become operational. TransMilenio is a bus rapid transit system that was implemented in Bogot, Colombia. The system has 9 lines and runs throughout the city. It opened to the public in December 2000 along Av. Caracas and Calle 80. A government company was created in order to build the project and run the system. The system was gradually expanded over the years, and the total length of the system is now 84 kilometers (52 miles) 3.1.2 Description TransMilenio is a system based on the one implemented in Curitiba, Brazil. It uses several interconnecting BRT lines with corridors that have numerous elevated stations in the center of the corridors. The passengers reach the stations through pedestrian bridges. In some areas four lanes in the center of the street are dedicated to bus traffic. It has both express and local buses. The local buses stop in each station. It has reserved lanes built in the stations specifically to allow express buses to bypass buses stopped at a station. Users pay prior entering to the stations using a smart card and passing through a turnstile. These stations are usually 5 meters wide. The bus and station doors open simultaneously. The elevated station platform and the bus floor are at the same height. The buses are diesel-powered, manufactured by different companies and are articulated (split into two sections with an accordion-like rotating middle to allow for sharp turns) they have a capacity of 160 passengers. There are larger buses with capacity for 270 passengers. These buses have three sections with two articulations. The fare is 1500 Colombian pesos for a single trip (about EUR 0.65 or USD 0.83, as of September 2010). This fare is paid through a contactless smart card system, and it is possible to purchase multiple trips using one card.
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An additional set of 410 feeders transport users from certain important stations to many different locations not directly linked to the trunk corridor. Different from the trunk TransMilenio buses, feeder buses operate without dedicated lanes, are not articulated and are green (regular TransMilenio buses are red). The service offered by the feeder buses is free. 3.1.3 Costs, ridership, and impact According to a TRB Report, the construction cost for the first phase of 41 kilometers was US$5.9 million per kilometer. The ridership quickly reached 800,000 passengers/day after the system opened. By 2009 the system reached 1,400,000 passengers/day. The system is regulated by the local government, which awards contracts to private bus companies on a competitive basis. According to TRB private contractors are paid based upon the total number of kilometers that their vehicles operate. 3.1.4 Routes and stations TransMilenios route design has changed dramatically since its expansion in 2006. The lines were originally numbered. Now they use a combination of letters and numbers. The system released an interactive guide to inform the user about the routes, stations, nearby places and route combinations, in a simple to read, efficient form. The system has five types of stations: Simple: Local service stations, located approximately every 500 meters. Transfer: Allow transfer between different lines through a tunnel. No transfer: Do not allow transfer from the north-south line to the south-north line; located along a stretch of the Autopista Norte. Intermediate: Service both feeder and trunk lines. Terminals: Near the entrances to the city. In addition to feeders and articulated buses, intercity buses from the metropolitan area also arrive at these stations.

27

Source: Surumbo.com

Figure 9. Transmilenio's BRT system map

The stations are designed with electronic message boards announcing the approximate arrival time of the next bus through a GPS system installed in each bus. Each station has a map of the routes in the system and an attendant who provides information to all passengers. 3.1.5 System acceptance The publics opinion concerning the service delivered by this system is diverse, but mostly the users rate it good according to statistics shown by the Transmilenios website. Occasional problems with security in the stations, accidents on the road and scheduling irregularity in some stations, resulting in agglomerated buses, gives the occasional user a bad impression. The system has evolved since it started operations, thanks to user feedback and government regulations. In response to the need to involve all stakeholders, and demonstrating an outstanding customer service, the company has carried out many educational fairs and developed user manuals that demonstrate the benefits this system delivers.

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3.2 Trol (Quito, Ecuador)

(Trol 2010, BRT Guide 2007) Location: Quito, Ecuador Number of lines: 5 (trunk lines) 16 Feeders Number of stations: 50 Daily ridership: 246.000 passengers Began operation: December 1995
Source: www.trolebus.gov.ec

Operator(s): Compaa Trolebs Quito, S.A System length: 18.7 km 3.2.1 History

Figure 10. Trol's Logo

The Trol is implemented in Quito, Ecuador, it started operations in 1995, its ridership by 2002 reached 220,000 passengers per day. A municipal agency known as Empresa Metropolitana de Servicios y Administracin del Transporte (EMSAT) manage the system and the Compaa Trolebs Quito, S.A. operates it. The Trol is part of a bigger system named Metrobus-Q operating 24 hours a day. 3.2.2 The route The system is 18.7 km length running through Ecuador Highway 35 (E 35) in the section that runs within Quito. The system has 5 different routes in its trunk corridor, with different stops in the stations along this corridor. The system started with a initial 11.2 km length , in 1996 the system started with a section in northern Quito that reached the centre of the city, it extended operations to the south in 1998 with 2.5 km and on 2000, the line was extended farther south by 5 km, where it connects with a bus station for intercity services, completing this way the full length of 18.7 km.

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Source: www.trolebus.gov.ec

Figure 11. Trol's BRT system map

3.2.3 Operation The Trol has at this moment a fleet of 113 articulated trolleybuses which are electrical powered, serving the corridor with 5 different routes, 95 feeders with 16 feeder routes, 55 regular stations and 5 transfer stations.

Source: www.trolebus.gov.ec

Figure 12. Trol buses and stations

The trolleybuses operates in a closed system over almost its entire length, which means is dedicated for the system only, having priority for traffic lights at most intersections contributing for the decrease of travel times for the users
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The system has 2 end terminals, the northern La Y" and southern El Recreo, within these 2 terminals there are many smaller stations, spaced about 550 meters from each other. The system uses off bus fare collection, meaning users access the enclosed station via turnstiles after validating their ticket or monthly pass, or buying the ticket from a kiosk. This helps to minimize boarding and alighting times decreasing the time the bus stops at each station and reducing travel times for users. The stations have all high-level boarding platforms this way these are vertically aligned with the floors of the trolleybuses, to allow step-free boarding. The buses have bridge plates at each doorway that folds down at stops, in order to eliminate the gap between the platform and the buses. The frequency of the service is very high most of the times; headways can get as short as 60 seconds during peak hours. Transfer terminals are served by various local bus services, more properly called feeders, transfers done at these stations are for free.

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3.3 Transantiago (Santiago, Chile)

(Transantiago 2010, Coeymans 2010, BRT Guide 2007, Hernandez et al. 2010)

Location: Santiago de Chile, Chile Number of lines: 5 (trunk lines) Number of stations: 3 types of stations (Trunk, Transfer and Intermodal) Daily ridership: + 1.6 million Began operation: February 2007 Operator(s): Transantiago S.A. System length: + 300 km 3.3.1 History Transantiago is a BRT implemented in Santiago de Chile, Chile. The system started operations in February 2007. It implemented several trunk corridors and removed the superimposed lines that used to run these corridors, these superposition of lines were common in the old system, which was run by thousands of independent bus operators. The system uses feeders, it has an integrated fare system, allowing the user to transfer from bus-to-bus or bus-to-metro with the same fare. This system uses on board technology with contactless smart card. Transantiago's implementation was chaotic, fleet was insufficient, the user wouldnt know where the routes would run through, and there was a lack of information about the whole system. The primary complaints were the lack of units and their delayed frequency, poor infrastructure implemented , as no segregated corridors or prepaid areas were built, increased number of transfers for longer trips.
Source: www.transantiagoinforma.cl

Figure 13. Transantiago's logo

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Given these circumstances, the users changed their transportation mode and overcrowded the Metro, which was still reliable at that time, but with this amount of supplementary users the system collapsed, the stations were no longer safe in terms of security and healthiness. Transantiago's implementation began on October, 2005, with 10 companies which took control of the bus system, replaced the old buses and introduced close to 1200 new buses. The older buses would be gradually removed from the streets. Transantiago divided bus routes as Trunk and Feeder lines; a new fare structure was implemented, allowing transfers between buses and metro with the same fare, when using the new contactless smartcard. 3.3.2 Objectives Increase ridership, by attracting users with new technologies introduced Remove the street competition among operators and replacing the existing bus fleet. Palliate the city's high air and sound pollution levels, by reducing the fleet and the greenhouse gas emission levels of the buses. Reduce travel times for users. 3.3.3 New lines structure As stated above bus services were divided into two services, one that would complement the metro network, the trunk buses, allowing long trips between different zones of the city, another which corresponds to the feeders, which would allow short trips around the city and feed the metro 3.3.4 New fare structure An integrated fare system was implemented for buses and metro, allowing the user to transfer for free or by paying a small transfer charge. There is a local fare which will allow trips inside a local area, allowing the user free transfers between local services in that area. A main fare that is a little higher allows the user to ride the trunk buses and the metro, with free transfers
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among them. Finally a transfer fare that is paid when moving from a trunk bus (or metro) to a local service. This transfer fare is much smaller than the basic fares. As before, students are allowed to pay reduced fares, at 35% of the normal ones. 3.3.5 Payment system and finance administration The primary payment method for Transantiago is through a contactless smart card called Tarjeta Bip!. This card can be used both in buses and metro as a prepaid card. The only way to get free transfer is using this card, given the fact that the electronic system associated to the card automatically recognizes if the user is starting his/her trip or just making a transfer. It determines whether a basic, transfer or free fare applies. The user that does possibility of reduced transfers. A private company is in charge of the collection of the money from fares. Among its tasks are the distribution and charging of the card, administrating the revenues and paying the operators. 3.3.6 Vehicles Comparing both old buses and new ones, half of the new units have a low floor, and all have a blocking system that does not allow the bus to move when a door is open. After its implementation, the trunk routes are operated with articulated (18 meters long) and normal buses, while the feeders are operated with normal buses and minibuses.
photo:www.tarjetabip.cl

Figure 14. Bip card for Transantiago's fare payment

not have the card may pay in cash in feeder buses, although a higher fare is applied and without

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Source:www.transantiagoinforma.cl

Figure 15. Transantiagos Buses

3.3.7 Problems There are many issues regarding the design and implementation of the system. Bus owners receives no incentive to improve service; they get paid a fixed amount no matter how many passengers they transport. The GPS system controlling the frequency of buses is not working. Ticket fraud is high. Several users consider the service to lack quality of service and are not willing to pay for it. Routes are poorly defined and does not represent the local travel behaviors. Before the implementation, polls showed that the majority of the citizens were in favor for a new transport system, but after its implementation it lacked people's expectations. The first days were chaotic, fleet was not enough to cope with the demand. In fact many agreed that the old bus routes were easier and faster. One consequence of Transantiagos big failure was the overcrowding of the Metro system, which was believed to be a backbone of the system, its usage reached six users per square meter. The increase was reported to have raise from 1,300,000 to 2,200,000 users per day. The government insist the system was necessary for a better transport system, it would improve as people would become more used to it.

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Source:www.plataformaurbana.cl

Figure 16. Santiago de Chile's metro over congested

The most important lesson we learn from this implementation is the need for involvement of all stakeholders, the authorities should not have done such a sudden transition, the phasing was not taken care. Several other Latin American cities, such us Curitiba, Brazil (the pioneering system in the world) and Bogot, Colombia, implemented similar BRT schemes, but gradually, phasing in the scheme in several stages. 3.3.8a Not currently operating Security cameras, Passenger counter, variable info panel, GSM/GPRS system, Panic button 3.3.8b Currently operating Clearing ,Bip! card ,Ticket validator ,GPS ,Fleet management software

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3.4 Metropolitano ( Lima, Per)

(Metropolitano de Lima 2010, Protransporte 2010, Municipalidad metropolitana de Lima 2009, El Comercio newspaper 2010, BRT Guide 2007)

Location: Lima, Per Number of lines: 1 (trunk lines) Number of stations: 38 Daily ridership: +200.000 Began operation: May 2010 Operator(s): 4 System length: 26 km 3.4.1 History The Metropolitano de Lima is a BRT implemented in Lima, Per. Its construction began in 2006 in Luis Castaneda Lossios term, and started operations in May 2010 with a brief testing period in the trunk corridor within the sections comprehending from Central Station to Matellini Station. The overall system is divided into two corridors, such as the South Corridor from Central Station to Matellini Station and the Northern Corridor from Central Station to Naranjal Station. 3.4.2 Project Performed by the Metropolitan Municipality of Lima, had an initial budget of U.S. $ 120 million, but the budget was increasing until in 2008 reached U.S. $ 296 million. In addition, the Municipality of Lima decided to cut the northern section of the project, which initially was planned to end in the district of Comas citing lack of funds.
Source:www.metropolitano.com.pe

Figure 17. Metropolitano de Lima's Logo

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The municipality reported that it could continue the northern section if it they could obtain a loan of U.S. $ 20 million from the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). The cost of over U.S. $ 268 million, is to be paid by the municipality split in two parts: the first one with 172 million cash and the other in concessions to private companies for their implementation for 12 years to cover the remaining 96 million. The project, which initially was well received by the population, ended up creating great unease among neighbors for the extended construction time (construction works shut down the main street of the city for more than three years without any planning, as they built the concrete road in the first year and then left almost abandoned the road without works for an additional year) continued increases in the budget for the development of civil works, for the trimming of the northern section (which reached Comas) by the increase in costs, poor planning and expensive design in the Barranco district (where a viaduct is build, cutting the way for private transport) and, finally, because the cost of infrastructure for this system is high enough to justify building a transport system with higher capacity and safety, such as a metro. 3.4.3 Route and stations The new public transport system will have an extension of 26 kilometers length and comprehends two distinct systems The trunk lines that will connect major stations. The feeders that will have a local tour and will depart from the terminal stations. The Metropolitano has one main underground station, called Central Station Grau. To enter the station there will be two options: drive through four innings (Avenida Grau, Paseo de la Repblica, Avenida Jiron Lampa and Spain) or walk through six innings (Palace of Justice, Italian Art Museum and Park Reserve). In Central Station Grau will also have a two-level shopping area and a dining area and one to promote tourism. The station is located below the Paseo de los Hroes Navales. Apart from the Central Station Grau, there is two other major stations located at each end of the busway: one below the intersections of the Tupac Amaru and Naranjal Avenues called
38

Naranjal North Terminal (in Comas, at north) and another at the intersection of Matellini with the extension of Paseo de la Repblica called South Terminal Matellini (in Chorrillos, at south). 3.4.4 Routes and expansion The corridors are operated by four private operators, each operate: 75 articulated buses of 18 meters. The Southern Zone is operated by the Consortium Lima Vias Express The Northern Zone is divided into three operators: Massive Peru Consortium, Lima International Bus Consortium, Lima Transvial SAC 3.4.5 Stages of Development Construction began for this project in April 2007, with the closing of the central lane of the Via Expresa at the Av. Paseo de la Republica, to increase the number of lanes, building the whereabouts of the future corridor and removing unnecessary bridges. Likewise, also began construction of bicycle paths in the South Corridor. In July began the construction of trunk lines in the same section. On May 1, 2010 operations started from Matellini station to Central station, testing the operation with 20 articulated buses, which picked up only a few passengers, without charging the fee.

Source: www.metropolitano.com.pe

Figure 18. Lima's BRT system map

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3.4.5 Operation The aim of the MTS is to improve the quality of life for users given the following benefits: travel time savings, punctuality and improved services, deliver a safer environment, better quality of public transport and lower pollution. The Municipality invested in infrastructure such as: stations, bus stops, segregated corridors and lease space for sales and advertising in stations, bus stops and inside the buses. Likewise, it will be coordinated with the various municipalities where the Metropolitano will make its way for them to regulate the urban environment and architecture of the stations to make it more accessible, safe, clean and pleasant for users. 3.4.6 Smart Cards The collection operator has invested in equipment to sell, load and validate means of access. The use of smart cards is the most efficient technological method for collection of fees, given the fact that an amount is added by paying in advance and is deducted according to the distance of each trip. This collection system is cutting-edge, simple to use and efficient. The collection operator also has the responsibility of technical support equipment and devices in the system to ensure continuity of service.

Source: www.metropolitano.com.pe

Figure 19. Card for Metropolitano's fare payment

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3.5 RIT (Curitiba, Brazil) (BTI 2004, BRT Guide 2007, RIT 2010)

Location: Curitiba, Brazil Number of lines: 19 (trunk lines) Number of stations: 34 Terminals and 351 stations Daily ridership: 2.39 million Began operation: September 1974 Operator(s): 28 System length: 72 km 3.5.1 History The Rede Integrada de Transportes (RIT) is a BRT implemented in Curitiba, Brazil. The Transportation system of Curitiba is well planned; comprehending priority lanes for BRT on major streets. The trunk buses are long and split into three sections, they stop at designated stations which have handicapped access. The system is used by 85% of Curitiba's population (2.3 Million passengers a day). By 1960s, the population of Curitiba's reached 430,000 inhabitants. In 1964, Mayor Ivo Arzua solicited proposals for urban design. Architect Jaime Lerner, who would later become mayor, suggested a reduction of traffic in downtown area and a convenient and affordable public transit system. This plan, was named Curitibas Master Plan. Lerner closed November 15 St. to vehicle transit, because of the high pedestrian traffic it had. The plan included a road design to minimize traffic: the Trinary Road System. It consists of two one-way streets moving in opposite directions surrounding a smaller, two-lane street where the express buses have their exclusive lane. It was first implemented in 1979.
41
Source: http://www.urbs.curitiba.pr.gov.br/PORTAL/rit/

Figure 20. Curitiba's BRT system map

There are five corridors that converge in the city centre. Land use policies were implemented, and zoned for lower density development the areas farther from these corridors, in order to reduce traffic away from the trunk corridors. The Rede Integrada de Transportes was created in 1980, and allows transit between any point in the city by paying just one fare. 3.5.2 Routes Express: Have priority lanes, high capacity buses and spreads radially in 5 directions from the city centre. They have high speed, capacity and frequency. They are red colored and operates within tubular stations, off bus fare collection is the payment method used for this type of service Inter-neighborhood: These are green colored buses. They are mostly circular lines that surround the city centre; some of them are important connections between some neighborhoods. Direct lines: These are silver colored buses designed to be quickest links between two points, they cover long distances with few stops. They linked with tube stations.

Source: http://www.urbs.curitiba.pr.gov.br/PORTAL/rit/

Figure 21. Different types of buses and colors according to type service

Feeder: These are orange colored buses doing short local trips, they are call feeders because they brings passengers from neighborhoods and feed the express buses and other RIT lines with passengers.

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Source: http://www.urbs.curitiba.pr.gov.br/PORTAL/rit/

Figure 22. Different types of buses according to type of service

"Downtown Circulator": These are white colored buses designed to circle the city centre, and are mostly used by pedestrians as a quick way of getting to the other side of the area. Regular routes (Conventional): These are yellow colored buses operating through the radials from the city centre.

Source: http://www.urbs.curitiba.pr.gov.br/PORTAL/rit/

Figure 23. Different types of buses according to type of service

Interhospitals: These white colored buses circle the town and link the main city hospitals. Tourism line: These colorful buses focus on the city's attractions. 3.5.4 Alternative propulsion The environmental performance of alternative fuels are significant and contribute to improving air quality, especially in large cities of Brazil, where public transport systems are still largely made up of busses. These alternatives also produce social impact, since Brazil is a major producer of soybeans and ethanol, and the increased use of alternative fuels causes the generation of jobs, particularly in the field; such as Biodiesel B-20, Frying Oil B-20, MAD8 (anhydrous ethanol blend with diesel).

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3.6 Other systems not implemented yet In this section we make reference to other system that have not been yet implemented
TransBarca (Barquisimeto, Venezuela) Construction paralyzed due to lack of political will

Location: Barquisimeto, Venezuela Number of lines: 2 (trunk lines) System length: 30.49 km

Source:Transbarca video

Figure 24. Transbarca's Logo

STM (Montevideo,Uruguay) (Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo 2010)

Location: Montevideo,Uruguay Number of lines: 6 (trunk lines) Number of stations: 13 Terminals Operator(s): 5

Source:Plan de Movilidad Urbana de Montevideo

Figure 25. Planning of STM in Montevideo, Uruguay

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Metrobs (Buenos Aires, Argentina) (Fingeret 2010, ITDP 2010) Location: Buenos Aires, Argentina Number of lines: 1 (trunk lines) Number of stations: Daily ridership: 75 000 passengers (expected) Began operation: March 2011 (expected) Operator(s): 1 System length: 12.5 km The project in Argentina started 2 years and a half ago (2008) as a need to decongest one of the main avenues in Buenos Aires, Argentina the path chosen is a very congested avenue which runs from west to east in the city, the corridor has been designed as a closed system, their stations are designed to be on both directions, (having 40 cm of height above ground level in order to have at level access to buses), they are trying to take advantage of old infrastructure, and because of the nature of the vehicles which on a first phase will be the same old vehicles used by private operators. The pavement has been reinforced in the whole corridor, the estimations done according to time savings by the planning team has found a 40% travelling time reduction, they are going to eliminate some lines that are already using this corridor, the space between stations is standardized in 400 to 500 meters, having connections to the east with the trains and to west with the metro system. One clear problem in intermodality for this city is the transfers that need to be done. The fare collection for the system will be a prepaid modality. The corridor selection was more a political issue than an engineered or equity elaborated planning, the fare is the same for riding the BRT buses than normal buses.
45
Source: ITDP Argentina

Figure 26. Planning of BRT in Buenos Aires,Argentina

3.7 Conclusions This chapter proposed to show how the most important BRT systems in South America are working at the moment of the research, how they have confronted many similar situations with different approaches and solutions, what the results were after the implementation and how the users reacted. An analysis of various systems in Latin American capital cities where a BRT has been implemented or planned will follow. This will provide a general idea of the reaction to the implementation in different cities, outline the mistakes made, and describe improvements made to the areas surrounding the system. TransMilenio (Bogot, Colombia) was born after a Japanese plan was rejected and the visionary mayor of Bogota at that time wanted to introduce a new system that would be economically feasible for the towns budget. His political acceptance fell dramatically immediately after the implementation of the system, but because of good planning and high quality of service delivered to the user, his political acceptance rose again. There have been continuous improvements and optimizations in the system leading to greater acceptance of the service and expansion of area covered. TransMilenio meet the ridership that existed before the system was implemented and increased it given the technology they brought with the new buses, achieving average vehicle speeds higher than 25 kph. They use off bus fare collection, improving travel times for their users, it has a closed system where some emergency vehicles are allowed to enter, it has a feeder service which is for free and the phasing of the implementation was ideal for the user to fully understand how the system works and the benefits they would get from the location of the stations. Some problems are visible in the videos referenced in this document, as for example ticket fraud when students try to enter the bays to board the trunk buses, or problems with local culture when pedestrians and bikers do not respect the signaling and priority for buses in the lanes. Also agglomerations on the trunk bus lines cause some casual users to have the wrong impression of the service. Security problems have been scarce. Overall the service meets the demand of the

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population and the network is continuously expanding (TransMilenio 2007, RCN news Channel 2008, RCN news channel 2009). From the Trolebs (Quito, Ecuador) we acknowledged that many times they have not always been able to get all the stakeholders together to agree on new policies to be , and to prioritize the surroundings of the BRT corridors. This created discomfort for the old bus system drivers because they were not allowed to drive close to the corridor of the Trol. There were fierce riots and protests lasting an entire month until an agreement was reached. During this time transportation in the city was chaotic. This system complies to all of the main design objectives of a BRT , the corridor selection they made was very important, they removed the superimposed lines that were in the corridor, decreasing the greenhouse gas emissions in that area and improving quality of life of people surrounding the corridor, by building stations in strategic locations helped to the developing of new commercial areas, they also have an off bus fare collection method for payment and they keep up to demand now planning the extension of the system, meeting the phasing needed in this type of projects. The Quito Trol has an interesting and evolving network although the lack of communication with the stakeholders at the beginning jeopardized the success of the system. This must be taken into account and avoided for new implementations (BRT Guide 2007). Transantiago (Santiago de Chile, Chile) is an example of what happens when the system is not phased in properly, giving the user the time to learn about the benefits they should expect from the new service. The frequencies were not as expected, could not cope with the demand, making the user overpopulate the metro, and surpassing its capacity also. The corridors were not closed along the routes and the combination of mixed traffic decreased travel speeds which in turn increased the travelling times. Security was not enforced as in other BRTs, such as TransMilenio, larger systems require more surveillance and this was not taken into account. At this time this system is going into a vicious circle because of the lack of passengers it requires to remain cost effective, the company has increased its fares to avoid the need for subsidies, but the more the fare price goes up the fewer passengers use the system (Coeymans 2010, Hernandez et al. 2010).
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The lack of planning for the implementation of the Transantiago, the abrupt changes in bus service and a total disrupt of the common routes confused the users and created a wrong perception on how the system will work. The fare collection system lacks technical support and the delivered service ended up mismatched against what was promised. Low frequencies at the beginning of the service discouraged many users and forced them to change their transportation modes. Unfortunately the many mistakes made in this system make it an example of what should not be done during a new implementation. The Metropolitano de Lima (Lima, Per) started operations in May, 2010 , it had a successful start, demonstrating the benefits to the users by opening the selected corridor for free for a test period. After the test period and based on demand Metropolitano has increased the number of stations to be served by the system. One of the most delicate details in this system is the fare price. It is more expensive than the regular bus and people are accustomed to the fares on the older system. The use of new technology and the service delivered will have to supply a high level of satisfaction in order to maintain and attract more ridership into the system and keeping it subsidy free. This system used an effective way to approach users. Giving them an initial period with free rides allowed them to become acquainted with the new system, an approach that can be replicated in other systems. They open selected corridors and increase the serviced stations as the demand increases (Dextre 2010, Metropolitano de Lima 2010). It uses off bus fare collection, they meet the phasing requirement by opening just one corridor and expanding the service according to demand, the corridor selection works well, given the acceptance of the system and the increasing ridership it has, one of the problems this system had was the lack of political will , because it took too long to build the corridor and works were paralyzed for a year, now the land surrounding the corridor is recovering value, the system use a closed system which helps to increase the speed for the vehicles and decrease the travel times for the users, the units have a higher capacity than the conventional bus system. The Rede Integrada de Transportes (RIT) (Curitiba, Brazil) is a vast network delivering many different services which can be confusing to occasional users, in particular to tourists. The system has evolved over years and expanded to become a better service, but has failed to be
48

more accessible to visitors. People who will use this service just once or twice during a visit to the city are unable to find a user friendly map which will help them navigate to their destination. It must be noted that while Brazilians are South Americans , and given the different cultural traditions along the country, in the south of Brazil, they enjoy a very strong European heritage, so the system has evolved in a very organized environment, something that can be found in few other places in the continent. Local culture as stated in this research has always great importance in the implementation of a transport system, as for example this system would not work the same if implemented in the north of Brazil or the far west. This system has implemented as well a closed system, it has off bus fare collection payment method, a diverse service of feeders, intermodality with different transport modes in the city as metro or suburban trains, phasing has meet the demand of the users and travel times are always keep low given the different specifications the stations and the buses has, like sliding doors, alighting only stations, platform bridges more than 1 boarding bay. The construction of the Transbarca (Barquisimeto, Venezuela) was delayed due to unforeseen events and supposed corruption from local authorities and the contractor. Politicians seeking to increase their power in the region had the Venezuelan President stop the project and sue the current mayor and local governor of the state. The project is paralyzed at this moment. This system has planned to launch a single corridor in which they will have off bus fare collection, they will expand the system according to demand (phasing), they are lacking political will and involvement of the stakeholders, which is a severe risk for the successful implementation of the system, they are looking to implement feeder services (Transbarca 2006). The STM Montevideo (Montevideo, Uruguay) is still under construction. One of the main concerns in this system is the type of fare collection to be implemented. Even though the intelligent card will be used (off bus fare collection) and will be free initially, there is still a need to instruct the user on how to use it. The system is going to launch more than 2 corridors at once, which is risky as it happen in Santiago, (phasing) the use of new technology is one of the bids for this system to increase and attract new ridership into the system in order to meet current and projected passenger demand
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Not much information is available for this system, although is under construction, no information related to the planning process has been divulged (Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo 2010). The Metrobs (Buenos Aires, Argentina) is still under construction. The main concern of this project is the intermodality with trains at both ends of the trunk corridor. They will apply the off bus fare collection method, although as stated above, they are not going to introduce that much new technology, as they are going to use the old conventional buses at the beginning, which may represent a risk when attracting ridership They have done a successful selection for the corridor, choosing one that is congested by public transportation units, as they are going to have a closed system they will reduce travel times for users and achieve speeds higher than 25 kph. The location of the stations are going to be on both sides of the corridor which will increase the cost of the project (Fingeret 2010).

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4. SOME CONTRIBUTIONS FOR BRT DESIGN

In this chapter we will present a mathematical model that will help us develop a solution for the problem considered in our case study. In this case a BRT system seems to be a good alternative given the long travelling times considered. Different parameters derived from the data collected by the municipality in the case study will be taken into account. A simple and efficient constructive heuristic was developed to support an optimization design of the BRT system. 4.1 Problem description The design of a BRT system involves several sub-problems, as we have suggested in chapter 2, and as described in chapter 3 in the various experiences of the South American systems. These sub-problems involve issues such as: Corridor selection Station location Fare collection method Intermodality Phasing Coordinated services

We will make certain assumptions for these problems. For the purpose of this work we focus on the route design problem, which is an element found in all of the problems referenced above. For the corridor selection we will consider a set of corridors that have already been studied and represented in an O/D matrix and selected from among the ones that are more affected by traffic congestion and those with the biggest ridership. Thus according to the types of intersections and areas the corridor runs through, we will define the location of the stations, taking into account the ease of transfer for the user, whenever needed, and the time the user is willing to spend walking to the station.

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The intermodality varies from city to city and involves coordinated services in some cases. We are assuming there is a good coordination among services, and that there is an automatic fare collection with an intelligent card. For the phasing we are assuming to replicate the case of Metropolitano (Lima). In our proposed BRT system implementation, we will extend the service according to demand, use just one corridor in the system and will focus on attracting ridership. Our BRT corridor is comprised of a set of stations S, (one at each end of the corridor and some intermediate stations) { ,, and ;n s S} (where is any given origin station is any given destination station or vice versa). Considering a set of routes R we will . These routes stop at different

select a subset among the total possible routes

stations where some of these stations are common for several routes. We will simplify our set of routes to those we find interesting according to equity and congestion criteria After applying a mathematical model we will understand the ridership at physical nodes (stations) and then decide which lines should stop in each station in order to reduce the travelling time for passengers and reduce the transfer burden for each passenger (based on an O/D matrix S x S). As we are going to see in the case study, the main problem is the sinuous route and long travel times for each line. The locations of the bus stops are inadequate given traffic signaling. Land use policies for areas surrounding the station and information at the stations about the lines stopping at these stations is confusing to the user, and stations are not as reliable in terms of safety and comfort as expected. Users tend to avoid public transportation due to the unreliability where these aspects are concerned. 4.2 Network Model of the BRT Route Design Problem The following mathematical formulation was developed by German Riao, Jose Walteros and Andres Medaglia who studied the extension of the Transmilenio service (Riao et al. 2008). The BRT Route Design Problem is based on a network representation of the BRT system. This model is a starting point for a simplified model to be applied in our case study, helping us to develop a constructive heuristic in order to solve the problem in an efficient way.

52

Suppose a graph

, where N corresponds to the set of nodes and A the set of directed

arcs, (the nodes are the starting or ending points of any arc). Then let S will be the set of stations in the system and R the set of all feasible routes that will serve the system (a station is the place where the user will board the bus, and a route is the path the bus follows, which can stop or not at a certain station). We will have a node for every station being the gate to station s; these nodes are

going to be called gate nodes (by gate we understand the entrance to the station). Special attention should be taken into account here, given the fact that there are physical nodes and virtual nodes, i.e. nodes which will not vary and will be the same at all times and others that will vary according to passengers movements. We will have a node for each pair (r, s), if the route r stops at station s. Being these nodes the boarding doors on station s at which users wait for a bus serving route r, these will be called stop nodes (for boarding or alighting the bus). Inside a station s we have an arc connecting each pair of stop nodes and an arc connecting the gate node and each stop node. We will call these arcs, station arcs, they model the movement of the users inside the station (as with nodes, we will also have these station arcs that will vary according to users movement and are not physically visible). For each route r, we will have an arc connecting the existing stop nodes along the route, following the sequence defined by the route. We will call these arcs, route arcs, they model the movement of a bus between stops through busways based on the sequence defined by route r (a route is a set of arcs). Let be the subset of arcs associated to route r, then a network representing a four-

station BRT system with one bus corridor (a corridor can be a set of routes or just one single route along the corridor) is illustrated in Figure 2. It should be taken into account that the 11 routes listed in Figure 2(a), showing all possible routes for this BRT system, excludes the infeasible routes like nonstop or single-node routes.

53

Figure 2(b), details the sub-network related to the stations, given the fact that routes 1 through 7 stop at station 1, the matching sub-network contains the (s, r) nodes (1, 1),(1, 2),(1,3),(1, 4),(1, 5),(1, 6) and (1, 7). Figure 2(c) shows the resulting BRT network after the expansion of the station sub-networks and addition of the route arcs; i.e. route 10 (red) only stops at stations 2 and 4, and is designated by the red arc that connects nodes (2, 10) and (4, 10) (Riao et al. 2008).

Source: Riao et al. 2008

Figure 27.Example of a four station BRT system (reproduced from Riao et al. 2008)

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Let then

be the time a passenger takes crossing arc (i, j). If this arc (i, j) is located in a station,

will be the walking time from the gate to a boarding door, and vice versa, or the transfer

time (the walking time between boarding doors plus the average wait time for the next bus). If arc (i, j) is a route arc, then s to station t at node i. When node i is the gate node of origin station s, then destination station t, then < 0; > 0, (meaning that passengers will be the time the bus spends within stops. Let be the

demand (when value < 0) or supply (when value > 0) of passengers willing to travel from station

are boarding the bus in station s, supply of passengers); likewise, when node i is the gate node of ; (meaning that passengers are alighting bus at station t, = 0; . (meaning no demand of passengers), when node i is a stop node, then

passengers boarding or alighting) this may mean as well people has to do transshipment. We will produce from the data at the OD matrix regarding the demand in each station and be the lower and upper bounds on arc

and the passengers arriving at each station. Let

(i, j), the lower bounds on the arcs of subset A(r) corresponds to the minimum amount of users that should use route r, in order for this arc to be cost effective and be considered as a feasible route. In contrast, the upper bounds on arcs in A(r) depend on the type of arc they are. If are located in a station, it represents the capacity flow for arc (i, j), always related to station capacity. If the arc is a route arc, it represents the maximum amount of users in a route and is coupled with the solution that allocates a fleet of buses to route r. Let m be the maximum number of routes that the BRT operator will manage. Having as

our decision variable, representing the flow of passengers through arc (i, j) that are willing to travel from station s to station t; and our decision variable that takes the value of 1 if route r is selected or 0 otherwise. Then the BRT Route Design Problem can be stated as follows:

55

where the objective function (1) looks to minimize the total amount of time a passenger spends travelling; our constraints are given by the following formulas and these are (2) to assure each user reach his/her destination (3) related to capacity which force the flow of passengers of each arc to be within the allowable limits, and (4) that has to maintain the number of routes being less or equal to the limit established by the BRT operator. (5) let us know that the only values passengers has to be a positive number. This model is bonded to the set of routes R. Where the total number of routes is given by , implying that in order to solve the proposed model defined by (1-6), we need to solve a problem with an exponential number of constraints and binary variables. This could be enormous for a real life system (Riao et al. 2008). 4.4 Constructive heuristic Due to the difficulty and dimension of the mathematical models, even for small sized problems, we have adopted a heuristic approach to construct a hopefully satisfactory solution. Generally speaking, a heuristic is a "rule of thumb", a trial-and-error method of problem solving used when an algorithmic approach is impractical, or simply a good guide to follow when making decisions. can take is 0 or 1 and (6) that the amount of

56

As more sample data is tested, it becomes easier to create an efficient algorithm to process similar types of data. The goal of heuristics is to develop a simple process that generates satisfactory results in an acceptable amount of time (Techterms.com 2010). For the problem described, we have designed the following heuristic approach: STEP 1 We will set a minimum quantity of users, by taking the highest amount of passengers we have for a single pair and then set the 80% of this amount as the minimum we want to transport; we do so by inspecting row by row our O/D Matrix for passengers, taking into account the fleet we will have and the capacity of our buses STEP 2 We pick the pairs that match the minimum amount of passengers or higher by inspecting the O/D matrix for passengers row by row STEP 3 Having the pairs we want to serve according to the minimum amount of passengers we will then look row by row at our O/D Matrix for travelling times in order to choose the pairs with their respective times. STEP 4 We will then match the routes in figure 29 row by row with the pairs we are to serve and pick the ones that takes the less amount of time servicing the pairs the most efficient way STEP 5 If there is a set of routes that covers the whole corridor and takes less amount of time than another set of routes we will then pick that one and scratch the other STEP 6 Whenever we have at least 4 routes that serves the chosen pairs, we will try to optimize it, by looking again at our results and find the most efficient ones among those that have been chosen.
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4.4.1 Formal description of the heuristic Let a passenger matrix have n rows and columns (this is to say a nxn matrix) Where i represent the rows and j the columns and a is the figure in the cell Build 2 matrixes with the previous description, one for travelling times and another for ridership, with the flow between the stations being studied. Let A or B be the biggest figure in the passengers matrix; defined by a double check given the fact that the selection for the biggest figure is done by rows and by columns separately. STEP 1 If then if not then ,

REPEAT for each column If then if not then ,

REPEAT for each row If A then Then Let a=0.8 STEP 2 If if not, go to next column, and REPEAT for each row For travelling times matrix: If if not, go to next column, and REPEAT for each row was picked in the last step, then take into account for calculations, then pick as a pair to be taken into account for the calculations, if not then is the maximum number in the matrix

58

STEP 3 Get a matrix with total passengers and total time spent by passengers reaching each station, for solution proposed and solution obtained, in order to compare results Sum columns in order to get total amount of passengers

let let columns

be the amount of users that get to station 1, ;

the ones who get to station 2, etc. until we finish with the number of

Then, multiply cells in passenger matrix by cells in travelling times matrix + do the next column STEP 4 If route R serves STEP 5 Have a matrix of the times of the routes chosen If routes, until STEP 6 If every station is served, this is to say the whole corridor is served, then finish the program, if not, then got back to Step 4 and find an R serving the station which is not served 4.3 Example scenario We will consider a corridor that links a dense residential area to a commercial business district in which we will assume high congestion rates, large travelling times and slow speed for buses, implying a low quality service delivered to users.
59

, until we have finished with the first column and then

, then take into account for calculations and assign a time

+ +

+ *

* +

, then pick another set of *

This corridor has 5 stations and we will consider a feasible solution with only 10 routes (figure 29) given the fact that as the number of stations increases so also do the possible outcomes, making the possibility of obtaining solutions very complex .We will therefore try to simplify the problem. We will also have an O/D matrix (table 1) with passengers flowing among stations and the times the buses take to move from one station to another. Then our decision problem is to choose the routes we will have running in the corridor, the stations where these routes will stop, and assign passengers to the total flow in the corridor. For illustrative purposes we will only present these tables and figures but certainly there are more aspects to take into account such as the congestion rate in the corridor, the population surrounding the stations, the type of vehicles to be used, if the stations are going to be in the center of the corridor or on the sides, safety and reliability of the stations and the number of routes that are superimposed at the moment. Table 1. S x S Matrix passengers and times
Passengers moving from station to station (passengers/ hour) Station 1 Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 0 310 465 712 875 Station 2 532 0 543 976 654 Station 3 456 543 0 845 564 Station 4 876 912 543 0 354 Station 5 865 789 423 254 0

Time from station to station in minutes Station 1 Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5 0 2 7 13 16 Station 2 2 0 3 8 11 Station 3 7 3 0 3 7 Station 4 13 8 3 0 3 Station 5 16 11 7 3 0

Source: author In this last matrix we are assuming that it takes 3 minutes for passengers to transfer from route to route including their walking time from station gates to bus doors
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In our case study, we will include data such as the number of passengers who board and alight in each station, in order to pick the number of stations to be served by the system, travelling times for these passengers, to choose the right routes that will transport these passengers, the level of service on the path assigned for feeder or trunk corridors, in order to choose whether to install separators or not, and others. We will have constraints, such as the availability of units at a given period of time, or in other words the frequency of the system to be affected by the forecasted ridership. Our objective function will be to minimize the travelling time for these passengers and then optimize it in order to minimize costs.

Source: author Figure 28. Solution proposed

4.5 Application of the heuristic We will apply the algorithm explained above to our example in order to illustrate its operation.
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We are going to take into account only direct lines from terminal stations, this is to say, routes that stop only at stations at the end or beginning of each route. The reason for this choice is that we believe direct lines may be faster and work better than those that stop at each and every station. We acknowledge that some interesting solutions may be left out of our analysis, but this simplification was made for illustration purposes only. STEP 1 searching for the base figure to work with Inspecting the O/D matrix for passengers, row by row, we find that 976 is the highest amount of passenger per pair we got in the example and 80% of this figure would be 781, which will be then set as a minimum amount of passengers. STEP 2 identifying the pairs to work with As done before we repeat the same procedure row by row we inspect the O/D matrix and find the pairs that matches this figure and higher and choose pairs (1, 4) (2, 4) (1, 5) (2, 5) (4, 2) (4 ,3) (5, 1) STEP 3 getting travelling times We obtain the times for these pairs by inspecting row by row the O/D matrix for travelling times which are 13, 8, 16, 11,8, 3 and 16 respectively STEP 4 identifying routes serving our pairs We then look at the diagram where we have the routes and row by row we check all the routes that serves our pairs; routes 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 serve our pairs and covers the whole corridor STEP 5 building the set of routes Route 3 joint with 6 serves pair (1, 5) in 15 min.; route 4 joint with 5 serves the same pair in 13 min. We are, therefore, more interested in routes 4 and 5. Routes 3 and 6 optimize the use of buses although we add 2 minutes to the users who travels from station 1 to 5. We save buses serving pairs that are not that much interesting. However, our objective function is to minimize

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travelling time for passengers and this is not achieved with the single set formed by routes 4 and 5. Our comparison, is due to the fact that we were trying to optimize our results, by using less fleet and cutting more routes, but seeing the final results, our times wouldnt decrease, we then add routes 3, 6, 8 and 9, with which then we obtain less travelling times, optimizing our solution proposed. STEP 6 improving the set of routes chosen These routes altogether explore the corridor meeting the goals of the objective function.

Table 2. Results for the algorithm passengers arriving per hour time passengers spend getting to this station (solution given) (minutes) time passengers spend getting to this station (solution obtained) (minutes) Station 1 2362 Station 2 2705 Station 3 2408 Station 4 2685 Station 5 2331

27131

17695

11304

21375

26242

20016

15089

10392

19401

25425 Source: author

Having obtained the amount of passengers at each station, we can estimate the size of our fleet. According to the capacity of our buses, using the model proposed in the BRT Guide 2007, we will first define the adequate capacity of the vehicle:

138 passengers per vehicle This means that for this short example we will assume that we have 14000 passengers per hour moving at peak time in the whole corridor and that the bus will be filled to 85 % capacity to give the users room; we will assume that the frequency is one bus every minute, having 60 buses per hour; and we will assume that our stations have two stopping bays. Buses with a capacity for
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150 passengers are enough for this system. The fleet size for the whole corridor is given by the following formula:

We will assume the demand on critical link to be 10000 passengers per hour given the affluence each station has.

Total fleet taking into account a contingency amount of buses = 37 Buses

Source: author Figure 29. Obtained solution

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4.6 Conclusions We first had a brief description of what were the main problems for BRT, then we have focus on the one we are more interested to solve, which is route network design in a BRT corridor, we then considered a mathematical model which exemplifies a small BRT corridor. After developing the heuristic, a formal description of the heuristic is presented step by step, then we have applied this to our example scenario, some graphical representations of the results were presented and an approximate of the fleet size to be used has been calculated. We have found a satisfactory solution, after checking the results obtained and verifying that the heuristic works, we will apply this in our next chapter where we will find some real problems and real data from the city of our case study.

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5. CASE STUDY
In this chapter we will present the eastern city of Bolivia, Santa Cruz de la Sierra. A brief introduction to the history of the city will explain its growing behaviors, and the most important features concerning transportation primarily as related to a reorganization of the traffic in the city. We will point out the most important concerns such as congestion at peak hours, travel and cultural behaviors and what has been done recently to palliate this situation.

Source: Google Earth Figure 30. Santa Cruz de la sierra - Bolivia

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5.1 Case study definition (Plan de Modernizacin del transporte pblico 2006, Espinoza 2010) The transport of people is a direct consequence of the distribution of population, their activities and the structure of land use. Given this condition, transport is a mechanism of planning and zoning of territory. (Plan de Modernizacin del Transporte Pblico, GMASC) The city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra is the capital city of the Department of Santa Cruz located in eastern Bolivia. The municipalitys population projected for 2010 is 1,651,436 and the population in the greater metro area raises this number close to 2,000,000 inhabitants. This city was founded February 26, 1561 but moved to its present location on the banks of Pira River in 1592. It was nearly a century after Bolivia gained its independence (1825) before the city started to take an important role in the nation's history. The Acre war with Brazil in the early 20th century, as well as the Chaco war with Paraguay in the 1930s, forced the central government to turn its attention to the east, allocating more resources for regional governments and improving communication. The isolated town was connected by a road to Cochabamba in the 1950s, (S. west in satellite image) and subsequently to Brazil by railway (S. east in satellite image), thus stimulating economic and demographic growth. Improvement in routes and modes of transport, such as Viru Viru International Airport (North in satellite image), as well as a continuous influx of immigrants, turned the city into one of the most industrialized and important trading centers of the country during the second half of the 20th century. In 1958 the Techint Plan made by the European company Techint was adopted, explaining why the city looks like many European cities with a concentric design. In 1990 Santa Cruz implemented the first Management Plan for Public Transport, which implemented public transport corridors to the first ring, being based on studies of origins and destinations proportional to supply and demand existent at that time. The city at this moment continues to grow and now has urban sprawl extending to the eighth ring.

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Subsequently, the consultant company BCEOM developed the transportation plan (1996), which established the following parameters and concepts for optimal operations of public transport systems: Estimate optimal number of buses within the first ring (Fleet rationalization). Rationalization of operating costs (Increased profitability). Enforcement of headways for buses (Implementation of transit stops). Staff training (Public Transport). Institutional Reorganization (municipalities with broad powers to intervene in the regulation and control of public transport system). Institutionalization of private operators. In 2002 an inter-institutional commission was created with the sole purpose of developing programs to bring solutions to vehicular congestion, the committee was composed of: The transit operating agency. Municipal Government. City Council. Engineers Society. Architects Association. Private operators. Federation of Neighborhoods. The zoning plan adopted by the municipality states the following: Design: integrated transport system with a design that reflects the city model and a transport design formed by rings and radials. Infrastructure: Plan for street paving of public transport corridors, maintenance and improvement of the main network. Administration: Company operated system and modern fare payment method.
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 Social: Driver, company employee. Management: Improving traffic management done by the municipal government. Traffic Education: Improving conditions for vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Today Santa Cruz is not only the most populated city in Bolivia, but the department is also the richest, generating close to 30% of the national GDP. The heavy congestion experienced today is related to three major problems; an extensive, disorganized network; a system administered by many private operators, and the lack of road safety education among the citizens. Climate Temperatures vary from 18 C 31 C in Summer (which is almost the whole year round) and 10 C 15 C in winter (mostly June and July). Because of humidity the thermal sensation is higher so it feels much warmer or chillier than this. Average humidity is 68% and the months of heaviest rainfall are December, January and February. Thus public transportation users are always complaining about congested units or inadequate units such as buses with no air conditioning when it is hot or heaters when it is cold in the streets. To avoid arriving at work sweaty and smelly, people avoid using public transportation and prefer to use taxis. Culture The city of Santa Cruz has benefited from a fast paced growing economy for the last 15 years. This has allowed a multicultural and ethnically diverse city to develop. Despite its fast growth, the city preserves much of its traditions and culture. The majority of bus drivers are from the western region of the country, and regionalism plays a role when users are unsatisfied. This increases the discontent in both sides and increases the unsafe conditions for all users. Drivers become aggressive, there is lack of control in the streets and inside the buses, leaving users to fend for themselves. Santa Cruz is a major fashion and modeling hub in Bolivia. Locals spend the highest amount of money per capita on personal care and beauty products nationwide. By this we intuit
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that there is a reticence among women and men from medium class to ride on public transit, increasing the need for taxis for these people. Other AeroSur (a privately owned airline) has its headquarters in Santa Cruz, and is an important tax source for the local government. The area around its headquarters is a heavily congested area given the number of people travelling every day. There is inadequate parking near the office nor are there walkways, resulting in many customers blocking up to two lanes of the First circle with parked cars. To get a drivers license in Santa Cruz is shamefully easy. It is totally different from the process of obtaining a license in the US or European countries where drivers must study a manual, take a written test and a practical driving test. To legally drive a car you must also be insured in most countries. In Santa Cruz if you have a hundred dollars you can bribe one of the local police officers and in an hour or two you can have a drivers license. Otherwise it will take a week or as long as a month. Few drivers are insured. There are countless relatively cheap Japanese manufactured taxi cabs throughout the city. It is easy to imagine the chaos formed when all these cars converge into the Second Ring creating very heavy congestion. All types of cars invade bus lanes, vehicles stop at will and the lack of licensing control and mandatory insurance for drivers means that everyone is able to drive as they please with little respect for public space or pedestrian rights The city is home to Palmasola Prison. The surrounding area is considered to be a

dangerous zone given the nature of this prison so lines going in this direction are always scarce and drivers are always disrespectful, again causing people to avoid using public transportation. The city has a many problems concerning public transportation: A fare method, for the elderly, students and regular users that does not please drivers who earn a salary based on commissions for the number of passengers they carry. Routes are very sinuous and take too long to travel from one terminal point to another.

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 There are excessive numbers of lines, the units are outdated, and as operators do not invest in maintenance the units break down frequently and pollute considerably. Users transferring from one line to another are charged anew, which increases their cost spent on public transport. Buses are inadequately sized, demand is higher than the offer and people have to travel very uncomfortably. Drivers work more than 8 hours per day, get tired and cause accidents, adding to the bad service to users. 5.2 Data collection We have used the data collected in 2006 by the Municipality of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Studies were done by collecting different types of data including estimated ridership, peak time periods, fleet sizing, travelling behavior by rings, etc. (See appendixes) 5.3 Data analysis and management From tables 5 through 15 we can observe different aspects considering the demand for public transportation both in the rings and the radials of the city. Given the high number of cars, wagons and pick-up trucks we see that many of the cars in the city are private, or taxi, and that the addition of buses adds greatly to the street congestion. There are close to 208.000 cars in the region which tells us that around 10% of the population owns a car. With an urban sprawl of close to 90 the need for an effective public transportation system is one of the main concerns for the local municipality, and needs to be one that delivers equality among inhabitants. In this city there is a high need for a Bus Rapid Transit system because congestion rates are reaching maximum limits each day. Driving is no longer a solution to transport users from one place to another in the city. Sometimes it is faster to walk then drive from work to home at lunch time. The public service is poorly regulated and has too many routes serving the same corridors creating an over population of buses in the streets. In addition there is a huge number of taxis.
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To implement this system as required, priorities must be given to the BRT to make it work. As an example bus only lanes may be created requiring physical separators of different kinds. These may need physical separators of different types according to the areas where they operate. Transportation policies have to be reviewed and changed if needed in order to give the priority this system requires. One of the main constraints of the current system is the fare payment method which differs from the actual service. Time and money will have to be spent educating future users on how this system works, how to use fare cards to access the stations, how to acquire the card and how to charge it. The objective of implementing this system, as in every other city where the system has been implemented, is to deliver a better service to the user. In addition to reducing congestion and more closely regulating urban traffic, the most important element is to improve the user experience when using public transportation to move across the city. From table 13 we observe routes 3, 7, 10, 11a, 11, 17a, 17 and the 3rd and 6th ring are the busiest radials and rings respectively, showing 3 peak periods 5 to 9, 12 to 15 and 18 to 21. The first period corresponds to people heading to work, students going to schools, housemaids heading to popular markets or people traveling to towns which are far from the main city. The second period corresponds to lunch time and students leaving schools. or going shopping. Most of the regular users have to take 2 buses to get to their destinations. The major universities are in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd rings, which is why if a person comes from a radial he must also take a ring line to get to the university. The most used corridors are the ones passing through main the avenues Grigota, Banzer, Santos Dumont, Tres Pasos al Frente and Virgen de Cotoca, which are the cardinal points of the city with many neighborhoods around them. Routes 11 and 17 show great interest for our study given the dense residential areas they service, although when taking into account route 17 we have to acknowledge this corridor goes beyond the 8th ring and it has substantial influx of ridership from small towns along the highway, the old Cochabamba road. Both show great BRT potential.
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The third period

corresponds to people coming back from distant towns, heading back home, going out for dinner

There are three small towns in the outskirts of Santa Cruz, no further than 20 kms. away La Guardia to the west, Cotoca to the east and Warnes to the north. Besides these towns, to the south there is a growing residential area. These towns and areas constitute homes for the labor force in the center of Santa Cruz, from shopkeepers at the popular markets to nurses at hospitals. These are the people who must either drive or take a bus to downtown, or move from town to town. 5.4 Application of the developed approach For the application of our algorithm to the case study we will first have to identify the problem, given the number of corridors with many different routes. To choose one of these corridors and apply our algorithm we will collect data such as fleet availability, capacity, congestion rates, O/D matrix with travelling times and passengers as well as other cultural behaviors in the city. We will look at a map of the different routes along the corridor selected, we will have to take into account urban sprawl and forecast for the next 3 years, a short term given the fact that the city has grown 10 times its size in the last 50 years. We will need to collect information from different sectors, from all of the stakeholders, and we will identify the weaknesses of the system and how to react against any eventuality. We will start looking for a zone in the city with corridors of interest concerning ridership, low quality service, congestion and high travelling times, which are the biggest problem at this moment in public transportation. This will allow us to come up with corridors that are excellent prospects for what we are looking to improve. We will then implement the algorithm we devised and explained in the previous chapter We will reduce the time spent by the passenger from the moment he/she starts walking until the moment he/she reaches his/her destination crossing different types of arcs which we have already explained in the mathematical model which are physically visible and others that are variable according to the passengers movement as well as nodes. These passengers are going to be moving either from station to station or through the station from route to route having an origin and a destination node which are going to be our reference for measuring the time
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We will assure that every passenger will reach his/her destination by dealing with the demand and supply at each station, taking into account their origin and destination nodes connected by the arcs of our routes which are part of our systems set of nodes and arcs supplied by an O/D matrix. This is set from station to station and also takes into account the number of passengers being carried in order to deliver a good service, avoiding crowding in the buses by taking into account the lower and upper bounds of passengers which are the minimum and maximum number of passengers that should use the routes. This is achieved by having a well studied frequency of service We are interested in picking a set of corridors in use in the actual system, and planning the BRT system in phases allowing the system to be expanded as the ridership increases over time. From figure 30 we pick corridors 3, 7, 10, 11, 11a, 17 and17a, which according to table 13 has the highest ridership. These corridors pass through different types of neighborhoods and business areas and are corridors with high congestion rates at peak hours. After having all of the important stations selected and the routes defined in the corridor we will then apply the algorithm. In a simplified way, the corridor selected is Av. Grigot, which has a capacity of 6 lanes extending to the 6th ring, a diverse set of businesses and neighborhoods around it, and is an important artery for the traffic flow in this part of the city. It is of great importance to reduce traffic congestion in this area. We also acknowledge that the system has to have a corridor that will serve as an example to future users to demonstrate how this system actually works and the benefits expected from it such as saving travel time, improving safety and reliability from this service. We will see how many routes have excess of ridership and the frequency of these routes, whether they have priority lanes or not and how many passengers are transported per hour. Also we will determine how many stations they have in common and if all of them are running through the corridor selected and the distance they run in this corridor. This will provide us with a more amplified scope of the routes that can be joined and which stations are the most important to be served.

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As we did not obtain all the information and data we would have preferred to have we have made up a small O/D matrix just for illustration purposes trying to resemble the busy corridor we have in mind.
Table 3. Case study O/D Matrix passengers and travelling times Passengers moving from station to station (per hour)
1st circle 2nd circle 3 circle 4th circle 5th circle
rd

1st circle 0 1647 823 573 4579

2nd circle 1432 0 907 675 4764

3rd circle 2533 2474 0 972 5757

4th circle 2483 4708 563 0 432

5th circle 1567 5088 2546 153 0

Time from station to station in minutes

1st circle 2nd circle 3 circle 4th circle 5th circle
rd

1st circle 0 5 12 16 22

2nd circle 5 0 5 12 16

3rd circle 12 5 0 3 11

4th circle 16 12 3 0 6

5th circle 22 16 11 6 0

Source: author

Source: author Figure 31. Case study solution proposed

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We apply the same steps of our algorithm already explained in detailed above; we are to find a feasible solution for a set of routes that will satisfy the transportation along the corridor and then we will optimize it in order to have the less amount of superimposed routes this way having the most efficient routes working we will create a set of routes obtaining the time the system takes to move them from one station to another and the number of passengers the system will displace.
STEP 1 searching for the base figure to work with

Inspecting the O/D matrix for passengers row by row we find that 5757 is the highest amount of passenger per pair we got in the example and 80% of this figure would be 4606, which will be then set as a minimum amount of passengers.
STEP 2 identifying the pairs to work with

After that, as done before we repeat the same procedure row by row we inspect the O/D matrix and find the pairs that matches this figure and higher and choose pairs (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5)
STEP 3 getting travelling times

We get the times for these pairs by inspecting row by row the O/D matrix for travelling times which are 22, 16, 11, 12 and 16 respectively
STEP 4 identifying routes serving our pairs

After that we then look at the diagram where we have the routes and row by row we check all the routes that serves our pairs; routes 1,2,3,4 5, 7 and 8 serves our pairs covering the whole corridor.
STEP 5 building the set of routes

We did not find another combination of routes that could optimized the ones obtained at step 4
STEP 6 improving the set of routes chosen

No other combination of routes where found better than the ones selected.

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Results from the heuristic

Source: author Figure 32. Solution Obtained

Table 4. Results for algorithm in case study

passengers arriving per hour time passengers spend getting to this station (solution proposed) (min) time passengers spend getting to this station (solution obtained) (min)

Station 1 7622 128017

Station 2 7778 96019

Station 3 11736 109009

Station 4 8186 100505

Station 5 9354 144806

121792

93319

103943

81673

143239
Source: author

Having the number of passengers that gets to each station we can calculate the number of buses according to the capacity of our buses, using the formulation we see at the BRT Guide 2007 we will first see the adequate capacity for the vehicle to use:

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148 passengers per vehicle

Which means that for this short example assuming that we have 45000 passengers per hour moving in the whole corridor at peak time and we want the bus not to be full just 85 % in order to give them enough room, assuming the frequency is two buses every minute having 120 buses per hour and our stations has three stopping bays. Buses with a capacity for 150 passengers are enough for this system, now the fleet size for the whole corridor is given by the following formula:

We will assume the demand on critical link to be 30000 passengers per hour given the affluence each station has.

Total fleet taking into account a contingency amount of buses = 154 Buses

There are certain assumptions to take into account when looking at the approach. Conditions for this system to deliver a good service are: Closed system, allowing emergency vehicles only ( no taxis, no carpool, no van pool) Prepaid system (time savings, safety for driver focused on driving only) Buses with 3 doors to get either in or out the bus (time savings) Stations at bus level (time savings, fraud reduced) Feeder services for free (time savings, increased ridership) Stations distanced 800 meters from each other Central Traffic Control Center (GPS controlled buses with constant headways, trying to coordinate the feeder services with the trunk lines at intermediate terminals and end terminals)
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 Level 2 Transfer at each Transfer station (Intermodality almost null because there are only taxis with the buses in public transportation, no fluvial, nor metro in the city) Passing lane at stations so buses that wont stop at certain stations can go through and do not need to wait for the other ones to free the lane. With the implementation of a BRT in corridor 17 we need to create feeders routes along it, connecting the terminals at each route and the neighborhoods surrounding the main corridor. We will reduce an extensive fleet of buses running through this corridor, and implement different types of stations according to demand and location of the stations. When implementing this BRT we will create feeders along the main corridor. We will put it to test for the citizens who will see the differences when travelling to other areas of the city not being served by this system.

Source: author

Figure 33. Highest ridership corridors in red, chosen corridor in blue with feeders in green

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5.5 Discussion of the approach We have considered many different aspects that are not so often taken into account. Nevertheless, in order for the system to be efficient, these aspects have to be considered by any planner. Given an implementation of a BRT system in this city, planners will have to find the way to accomplish all of the assumptions made and reflect them in the field if the experience for the user is to be improved. Data delivered was often insufficient or erroneous apparently due to the lack of comprehension of what was expected from the people who developed the tables. In fact quite often the tables show numbers that do not correspond to the real figures. The research is focused only on Latin-American experiences but could be expanded to other countries or continents, as long as the developer takes into account that the cultural behaviors are not the same and policies are different from one country to another. One problem with the present research was the limited time we had to perform it. Much of the supporting material, which would have been interesting in order to develop a more in-depth research, was not available. Thus for the example the data has been elaborated and this way we avoid delays in our research. As we have stated, heuristics find feasible solutions which may not be the best. We believe that the solutions here presented can be considered reliable and feasible for the problem described. In fact we were able to simplify the problem and come up with an algorithm that could help us solve the problem. The results may be improved by gathering more information regarding local travel and cultural behaviors. The problem has been simplified for illustration purposes only, given the fact that had more stations been studied the number of routes and possible combinations would have increased exponentially. We could not get real data that could be used for this research; we did not have time tables or O/D matrixes. So in order to resemble a model that would look like the city of our case study we have invented the data shown here.

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6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

Cultural influences Regarding the cultural influences in South America for the implementation of a BRT and the differences with other continents such as Asia, we could explain that Asia is an older culture, some countries have already gone through the same problems we are facing now in South America, like Japan or China, this is why the transportation systems in these countries are much more advanced and organized than ours. Nevertheless they already have some problems with the cost of vehicles being so cheap, many people now drives a motorbike and they invade the priority lanes for BRT when no physical restriction is applied to this lane. Other countries such as India, with a diverse culture like Brazil in south America, with people having diverse influence in the north than in the south, BRT systems applied in some poor cities dont have the same success than the one implemented in the capital city. This system will be successful, if the marketing of the services and benefits the users will get are well advertised, when a new technology is being introduced, people tend to like it and pay a bit more in order to enjoy from the benefits, transport policies should be reviewed and changed if its the case, a new payment method and a new structure of a system delivering public transportation, paying a fixed salary to the drivers, making them work just 8 hours, giving them benefits as any other worker would change the relationship between drivers and users. Data management The use of a Transportation software was considered as the TransCAD and the TransModeler in order to perform a more sophisticated and easy to understand solution, but the time to learn this software would have delayed our research and deadlines could not be achieved. To understand more deeply and graphically how this research could evolve and improve a given implementation of a BRT, it is necessary to apply it in a city of a developing country, such as in the case study, and optimize it as the needs arise. This research shows many different

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aspects of how the system would develop given the assumptions, and after seeing how the implementation reacts, developing a more specific and focused research. Data for this research was insufficient given the requirements of our algorithm; we suggest developing a study of origins and destinations in the city, given the importance of this research. The local government may be interested in using municipal funds to improve the results of this study, as well as doing research in site. This means that future research should take into account more than just memories of how the traffic congestion once behaved, and because transport policies, which have changed during this research, influence travel behaviors, such as increasing or reducing taxes for gas, incentives to use natural gas, laws that cut importing of used vehicles, etc. Future developments Visiting at least one implemented BRT and one to pending implementation will help to better understand how problems were managed under similar circumstances. Visits will also help to understand and grasp why cultural behaviors are important in deciding which corridors are to be implemented first, and which to use as examples in order to gain more acceptance from the beginning. Looking at experiences in neighboring countries we can learn that if done quickly and without much talk with the stakeholders, the system wont produce the expected results. If no community conscience is created the system wont attain our goals. For further developments, this heuristic can be improved by considering some additional aspects. This may be done by increasing the percentage we take into account for the pairs we are going to serve. As we increase ridership, the routes need to become more flexible, which in turn makes this a more complex problem and would take more time than allowed in this research. The transportation conference WCTR 2010 took place in Lisbon, Portugal this year. By attending I was able to exchange ideas with people who were in some way involved in BRT systems. I believe this was a great asset to our research given the amount of information and knowledge acquired concerning the development and struggles that each country has undergone. It was very interesting to get to meet both sides of the problem for Transantiago, both the people

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who support the way it is being implemented and the ones who are not satisfied with the service delivered. This demonstrates that politics plays a huge role and this enlightens our approach to every system studied. This has been a very important part of the research findings - not to always listen or believe the first version of the story, as was the case with TransMilenio. TransMilenio also has problems of safety inside the system and problems with mixed traffic. The constructive criticism we have tried to apply to each system highlights the elements we will want to polish as the years pass by. As technologies advance knowledge becomes more and more accessible and the person who will do more research in this area will have more access to new methods and formulas to improve what has been done. We acknowledge that everything can be optimized, everything can be improved. We have (as the title of our research says), contributed to the beginning of the great venture of developing BRT systems in developing cities where this system offers the most feasible solution. We have tried to avoid expanding the scope of our research excessively, given how easily the real objective can be confused. It would be more interesting for further research to use BRT simulator software. However, this was not accessible in the time allowed for this research, and we would not have been able to fully master all of the functions. It would surely be more precise and more understandable to have a simulator show why picking certain corridors would be more efficient than others. All of the mathematical modeling, which was very complex for this thesis, would be substituted by the software.

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Appendixes

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Table 5. Fleet In Santa Cruz De La Sierra, Bolivia , as to October 27, 2009 OFFICIAL Car Truck Pick-up trucks Van Jeep Buses Minibus Motorbike Omnibus Quadratrack Torpedo Tractor-Trailer Wagons Totals 20 105 340 6 248 19 18 598 4 3 1 134 1.496 PRIVATE 43.465 12.750 25.728 629 16.529 1.838 1.409 10.479 308 116 9 1.261 78.208 192.729 PUBLIC 1.450 2.171 97 1 49 3.960 54 3 405 294 4.675 13.159 TOTAL 44.935 15.026 26.165 636 16.826 5.817 1.481 11.080 717 119 9 1.556 83.017 207.384

Source: Plan Modernizacin del transporte pblico 2006

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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE CALCULATION AND VALUATION OF DATA

Table 6. Factor Analysis of Time Distribution
Radials

ADOPTION

OF

FORMULAS

FOR

Circles According to timetables

3 Qty. (hrs.) 4 3 3 3 3 2 18

4 1/3*3/2 Qty. trips 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65

5 %100 Fraction 0,35 0,06 0,24 0,06 0,24 0,06 1

6 I.N.E. 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23

7 Factor (time) 0,178 0,038 0,163 0,038 0,163 0,058 0,639

3 Qty. (hrs.) 4 3 3 3 3 2 18

4 1/3*3/2 Qty. trips 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55 0,55

5 %100 Fraction 0,35 0,06 0,24 0,06 0,24 0,06 1

6 I.N.E. 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23 1,23

7 Factor (time) 0,059 0,013 0,054 0,013 0,054 0,019 0,213

Schedules From (hr.) 5 9 12 15 18 21 Total To (hr.) 9 12 15 18 21 23

Schedules From (hr.) 5 9 12 15 18 21 Total To (hr.) 9 12 15 18 21 23

Source: Plan Modernizacin del transporte pblico 2006

Columns 1 & 2 has the hours limits Column 3 has the hours between column 1 & 2, Column 4 usage factor Column 5 percentage of users that uses Public Transportation according to the times indicated in column 1 & 2 Column 6 factor of the quantity of users incremented according to demographic growth projected for 2007 Column 7 multiplying columns 4 * 5 * 6 and divided by column 3, to obtain time factor distribution. Surveys made by the Superintendencia de transporte, shows that the average use for public transportation is 3 times a day and column 4 reflects this. The numbers of users considered in the sizing have been taken from the INE census of 2001, affected by a reduction coefficient of 0.55 (according to surveys, 55% uses public transportation.

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Table 7. Analysis of a few lines proposed

Dist.(x) km. Time (hrs.)/ trip 0,57 0,80 0,58 0,55 0,58 Trips / hr. Lap hrs. Total Qty. Pax/hr. Pax. 1,8 1,2 1,7 1,8 1,7 1,2 1,7 1,2 1,2 1,2 88 62 87 90 86 14250 16086 13771 20855 10548 Hrs. 161,27 257,39 158,66 230,58 122,42 Trips 285 322 275 417 211 5 to 9 51 57 49 74 38 9 to 12 11 12 11 16 8 12 to 15 46 52 45 68 34 15 to 18 11 12 11 16 8 18 to 21 46 52 45 68 34 21 to 23 16 19 16 24 12 Qty. Of Trips Per Hour

Line

1a 1 2 3 4

8,08 11,43 8,23 7,90 8,29

Source: Plan Modernizacin del transporte pblico 2006

Table 8. Fleet sizing of the lines proposed

5 to 9 Line Fleet needed 62 96 61 88 47 Period min/veh 1,0 0,6 1,0 0,7 1,3 9 to 12 Fleet needed 13 21 13 19 10 Period min/veh 4,5 2,9 4,6 3,1 5,9 12 to 15 Fleet needed 56 88 55 81 43 Period min/veh 1,1 0,7 1,1 0,7 1,4 15 to 18 Fleet needed 13 21 13 19 10 Period min/veh 4,5 2,9 4,6 3,1 5,9 18 to 21 Fleet needed 56 88 55 81 43 Period min/veh 1,1 0,7 1,1 0,7 1,4 21 to 23 Fleet needed 20 31 20 29 15 Period min/veh 3,0 1,9 3,1 2,1 4,0 1 (Bs) Total (Bs) for tickets 26243 41886 25819 37523 19922

1a 1 2 3 4

0,92 1,30 0,94 0,90 0,94

Source: Plan Modernizacin del transporte pblico 2006

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Source: Plan de Modernizacion del Transporte Pblico 2006

Figure 34. Influence areas for demand analysis

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Table 9. Demand estimation

Pax using public transportation on circles and radials Radials 1a 1 2 3 4 800 1349 2710 1560 8th circle 7th circle 1110 2163 1846 2313 1520 6th circle 990 1592 1204 1873 636 5th circle 1781 2823 1952 3299 1195 4th circle 5946 5271 1735 2493 857 3rd circle 3228 2242 1915 3556 2248 2nd circle 991 991 2134 3157 1898 1st circle 205 205 1636 1454 636 Total for radials 14250 16086 13771 20855 10548

Source: Plan de Modernizacion del Transporte Pblico 2006

91

Table 10. Summary (General) (a) veh. qty. Peak hours and tariffs
Distance to: Veh Qty per line 62 96 61 88 47 44 43 15 56 82 12 42 101 53 20 35 52 62 85 105 153 142 190 168 4th circle km. 4,66 8,57 5,06 5,01 5,06 6,10 7,72 2,96 6,78 10,80 0,00 8,43 6,58 6,47 5,09 4,95 6,38 7,07 6,60 8,28 7,93 12,25 12,86 9,34 3rd circle km. 6,14 9,71 6,18 6,09 6,43 7,04 8,59 4,00 7,65 11,67 0,86 9,19 7,34 7,56 6,18 6,04 7,47 7,89 7,43 9,28 8,59 13,03 13,64 10,12 2nd circle km. 7,60 10,96 7,47 7,21 7,52 8,27 9,83 5,07 8,89 12,91 1,96 10,25 8,40 15,23 6,94 6,80 8,23 9,01 8,55 10,40 9,84 13,99 14,60 11,09 1st circle km. 8,08 11,43 8,23 7,90 8,29 9,06 10,69 5,93 9,75 13,77 2,77 11,06 9,21 16,08 7,80 7,65 9,09 10,09 9,63 11,48 11,31 15,47 16,08 12,56 Adjustment Factors Capacity (pax) 4th circle Bs. 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 Tariffs from: 3rd circle Bs. 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 2nd circle Bs. 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 1st circle Bs. 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07

Line 1a 1 2 3 4 4a 5a 5 5b 5c 6 7a 7 8a 8b 8c 8 9a 9 9b 10 11b 11a 11

4th circle 0,72 133,00 0,78 0,78 0,78 0,94 1,20 0,46 1,05 1,67 1,31 1,02 1,00 0,79 0,77 0,99 1,09 1,02 1,28 1,23 1,90 1,99 1,45

3rd circle 0,86 1,37 0,87 0,86 0,90 0,99 1,21 0,56 1,08 1,64 0,12 1,29 1,03 1,06 0,87 0,85 1,05 1,11 1,04 1,31 1,21 1,83 1,92 1,42

2nd circle 0,89 1,28 0,87 0,84 0,88 0,97 1,15 0,59 1,04 1,51 0,23 1,20 0,98 1,78 0,81 0,79 0,96 1,05 1,00 1,21 1,15 1,63 1,70 1,29

1st circle 0,86 1,21 0,87 0,84 0,88 0,96 1,13 0,63 1,03 1,46 0,29 1,17 0,98 1,71 0,83 0,81 0,96 1,07 1,02 1,22 1,20 1,64 1,71 1,33

4th circle 36,09 66,33 39,17 38,76 39,17 47,20 59,77 22,92 52,49 83,59 65,28 50,96 50,11 39,39 38,29 49,38 54,69 51,11 64,12 61,37 94,78 99,52 72,29

3rd circle 43,17 68,32 43,47 42,86 45,23 49,50 60,43 28,12 53,81 82,07 6,08 64,65 51,64 53,19 43,45 42,45 52,52 55,49 52,24 65,26 60,42 91,63 95,93 71,19

2nd circle 44,38 63,96 43,58 42,09 43,91 48,25 57,38 29,62 51,91 75,36 11,45 59,83 49,03 88,91 40,53 39,70 48,06 52,60 49,90 60,71 57,41 81,67 85,24 64,71

1st circle 42,85 60,59 43,63 41,87 43,95 48,02 56,67 31,46 51,70 73,00 14,68 58,61 48,81 85,27 41,33 40,58 48,17 53,50 51,05 60,87 59,97 82,01 85,26 66,60

92

12 13a 13b 13 14a 14b 14c 14d 14e 14 14f 15 15a 15b 15c 15d 17a 17 17b 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26

39 91 53 83 56 60 55 31 27 22 41 60 86 55 56 63 83 79 71 66 23 18 18 11 6 12 24 61

6,68 8,02 7,70 7,89 7,20 8,00 9,25 8,82 8,68 7,83 6,95 6,46 7,20 5,48 5,59 6,70 5,47 5,03 5,06 4,41 0,84 0,84 0,86 4,17

8,24 9,65 9,34 9,53 8,20 9,00 10,25 9,82 9,68 8,83 7,95 8,33 9,07 7,35 7,46 8,57 6,55 6,11 6,92 5,59 2,61 1,95 1,23 0,77 0,58 0,91 1,83 5,21

9,43 11,33 11,02 11,20 9,87 10,67 11,92 11,49 11,35 10,50 9,63 10,18 10,92 9,20 9,31 10,42 7,70 7,26 8,07 6,87 3,89 3,16 2,43 2,05 1,99 2,59 3,37 6,62

10,25 12,07 11,76 11,94 10,65 11,45 12,70 12,27 12,13 11,28 10,37 11,11 11,85 10,13 10,24 11,36 8,53 8,09 8,89 7,64 4,66 3,83 2,97 2,98 2,92 3,52 4,30 7,09

1,03 1,24 1,19 1,22 1,11 1,24 1,43 1,37 1,34 1,21 1,08 1,00 1,11 0,85 0,86 1,04 0,85 0,78 0,68 0,13 0,13 0,13 0,65

1,16 1,36 1,31 1,34 1,15 1,27 1,44 1,38 1,36 1,24 1,12 1,17 1,28 1,03 1,05 1,21 0,92 0,86 0,97 0,79 0,37 0,27 0,17 0,11 0,08 0,13 0,26 0,73

1,10 1,32 1,29 1,31 1,15 1,25 1,39 1,34 1,33 1,23 1,12 1,19 1,27 1,07 1,09 1,22 0,90 0,85 0,94 0,80 0,45 0,37 0,28 0,24 0,23 0,30 0,39 0,77

1,09 1,28 1,25 1,27 1,13 1,21 1,35 1,30 1,29 1,20 1,10 1,18 1,26 1,07 1,09 1,20 0,90 0,86 0,94 0,81 0,49 0,41 0,32 0,32 0,31 0,37 0,46 0,75

51,67 62,04 59,63 61,06 55,71 61,93 71,57 68,28 67,21 60,63 53,79 49,98 55,71 42,41 43,24 51,85 42,36 38,96 39,15 34,10 6,48 6,49 6,66 32,31

57,94 67,89 65,70 67,00 57,66 63,31 72,07 69,08 68,11 62,13 55,92 58,60 63,81 51,73 52,48 60,31 46,06 42,98 48,65 39,33 18,37 13,68 8,63 5,43 4,05 6,42 12,89 36,67

55,03 66,12 64,31 65,39 57,59 62,28 69,55 67,07 66,26 61,30 56,19 59,40 63,72 53,69 54,31 60,81 44,93 42,35 47,08 40,12 22,72 18,44 14,17 11,94 11,60 15,12 19,69 38,62

54,36 63,99 62,34 63,32 56,46 60,71 67,32 65,07 64,33 59,82 54,96 58,92 62,85 53,73 54,30 60,21 45,21 42,87 47,16 40,52 24,72 20,33 15,77 15,78 15,47 18,67 22,82 37,58

0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74 0,74

0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81 0,81

0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98 0,98

1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07 1,07

93

Total s

3164

310,07

369,65

445,43

490,37

Source: Plan de Modernizacion del Transporte Pblico 2006

Table 11. Analysis for radial's circulation Summary

Totals Qty of trips per hour

Line 1a 1 2 3 4 4a 5a 5 5b 5c 6 7a 7 8a 8b 8c 8

Distance km. 8,08 11,43 8,23 7,90 8,29 9,06 10,69 5,93 9,75 13,77 2,77 11,06 9,21 16,08 7,80 7,65 9,09

Time Hrs./trip 0,57 0,80 0,58 0,55 0,58 0,63 0,75 0,42 0,68 0,96 0,19 0,77 0,64 1,13 0,55 0,54 0,64

Trips per hour 1,8 1,2 1,7 1,8 1,7 1,6 1,3 2,4 1,5 1,0 5,2 1,3 1,6 0,9 1,8 1,9 1,6

Period Hrs. 1,2 1,7 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,4 1,6 0,9 1,4 2,0 0,5 1,6 1,4 2,3 1,2 1,2 1,4

Pax/hr 88 62 87 90 86 79 67 120 73 52 258 65 78 44 92 93 79

Pax 14250 16086 13771 20855 10548 9052 7710 4454 10824 11461 6965 7200 20733 6420 4690 8598 10734

Hrs. 161,27 257,39 158,66 230,58 122,42 114,79 115,39 37,00 147,78 220,95 27,00 111,46 267,24 144,58 51,19 92,14 136,55

Trips 285 322 275 417 211 181 154 89 216 229 139 144 415 128 94 172 215

5 to 9 51 57 49 74 38 32 27 16 39 41 25 26 74 23 17 31 38

9 to 12 11 12 11 16 8 7 6 3 8 9 5 6 16 5 4 7 8

12 to 15 46 52 45 68 34 29 25 15 35 37 23 23 68 21 15 28 35

15 to 18 11 12 11 16 8 7 6 3 8 9 5 6 16 5 4 7 8

18 to 21 46 52 45 68 34 29 25 15 35 37 23 23 68 21 15 28 35

21 to 23 16 19 16 24 12 10 9 5 12 13 8 8 24 7 5 10 12

94

9a 9 9b 10 11b 11a 11 12 13a 13b 13 14a 14b 14c 14d 14e 14 14f 15 15a 15b 15c 15d 17a 17 17b 18 19

10,09 9,63 11,48 11,31 15,47 16,08 12,56 10,25 12,07 11,76 11,94 10,65 11,45 12,70 12,27 12,13 11,28 10,37 11,11 11,85 10,13 10,24 11,36 8,53 8,09 8,89 7,64 4,66

0,71 0,67 0,80 0,79 1,08 1,13 0,88 0,72 0,84 0,82 0,84 0,75 0,80 0,89 0,86 0,85 0,79 0,73 0,78 0,83 0,71 0,80 0,72 0,60 0,57 0,62 0,54 0,33

1,4 1,5 1,2 1,3 0,9 0,9 1,1 1,4 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,3 1,2 1,1 1,2 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,4 1,3 1,4 1,7 1,8 1,6 1,9 3,1

1,5 1,4 1,7 1,7 2,2 2,3 1,8 1,5 1,8 1,7 1,8 1,6 1,7 1,9 1,8 1,8 1,7 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,5 1,7 1,5 1,3 1,2 1,3 1,2 0,7

71 74 62 63 46 44 57 70 59 61 60 67 62 56 58 59 63 69 64 60 70 63 70 84 88 80 93 153

11688 16736 17436 25766 17735 22857 25571 7236 14341 8585 13320 9931 10057 8322 4797 4307 3728 7477 10261 13829 10192 9341 11640 18294 18124 15047 16172 8778

165,14 225,63 280,28 408,09 384,12 514,66 449,79 103,88 242,33 141,34 222,74 148,08 161,25 147,94 82,44 73,18 58,90 108,53 159,68 229,52 144,62 148,52 166,94 218,41 205,19 187,40 173,08 57,32

234 335 349 515 355 457 511 145 287 172 266 199 201 166 96 86 75 150 205 277 204 187 233 366 362 301 323 176

42 60 62 92 63 81 91 26 51 31 47 35 36 30 17 15 13 27 37 49 36 33 41 65 65 54 58 31

9 13 13 20 14 18 20 6 11 7 10 8 8 6 4 3 3 6 8 11 8 7 9 14 14 12 12 7

38 55 57 84 58 74 83 24 47 28 43 32 33 27 16 14 12 24 33 45 33 30 38 60 59 49 53 29

9 13 13 20 14 18 20 6 11 7 10 8 8 6 4 3 3 6 8 11 8 7 9 14 14 12 12 7

38 55 57 84 58 74 83 24 47 28 43 32 33 27 16 14 12 24 33 45 33 30 38 60 59 49 53 29

13 19 20 30 20 26 30 8 17 10 15 11 12 10 6 5 4 9 12 16 12 11 13 21 21 17 19 10

95

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Total s

3,83 2,97 2,98 2,92 3,52 4,30 7,09 490

0,27 0,21 0,21 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,50 34

3,7 4,8 4,8 4,9 4,1 3,3 2,0

0,6 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,6 0,7 1,1

186 240 240 245 203 166 101

7940 10131 6143 3384 5812 9887 15862 605074

42,62 42,19 25,60 13,82 28,65 59,59 157,41 8375

159 203 123 68 116 198 317 12101

28 36 22 12 21 35 57 2156

6 8 5 3 4 8 12 465

26 33 20 11 19 32 52 1971

6 8 5 3 4 8 12 465

26 33 20 11 19 32 52 1971

9 12 7 4 7 11 18 698

Source: Plan de Modernizacion del Transporte Pblico 2006

96

Table 12. Summary of rapid transit in radials until 3rd circle with stops only at the circles (for vehicles of 25 pax)
Totals Line Distance km. Time Hrs./trip Trips per hour 2,47 Period Hrs. Pax/hr Qty of veh. per hour

Pax

Hrs.

Trips

5 to 9

9 to 12

12 to 15

15 to 18

18 to 21

21 to 23

9,71

0,40

Frequencies (mins.) 9 7,43 0,31 3,23

0,89

123,58

8242,00

67,00

165,00

24,00 2,52 19,00 3,20 29,00 2,05 37,00 1,61 5,00 13,26 11,00 5,30 125,00

5,00 11,66 4,00 14,82 6,00 9,49 8,00 7,47 1,00 61,41 2,00 24,56 26,00

22,00 2,75 17,00 3,50 27,00 2,24 34,00 1,76 4,00 14,50 10,00 5,80 114,00

5,00 11,66 4,00 14,82 6,00 9,49 8,00 7,47 1,00 61,41 2,00 24,56 26,00

22,00 2,75 17,00 3,50 27,00 2,24 34,00 1,76 4,00 14,50 10,00 5,80 114,00

8,00 7,77 6,00 9,88 9,00 6,33 12,00 4,98 1,00 40,94 4,00 16,38 40,00

Frequencies (mins.) 10 8,59 0,36 2,79

0,70

161,51

8247,00

51,00

165,00

Frequencies (mins.) 11 10,12 0,42 2,37

0,80

139,70

11316,00

81,00

226,00

Frequencies (mins.) 14 10,12 0,42 2,37

0,92

118,58

12398,00

105,00

248,00

Frequencies (mins.) 15 8,83 0,37 2,72

0,92

118,58

1508,00

13,00

30,00

Frequencies (mins.) Totals

0,82

135,90

4262,00

31,00

85,00

Source: Plan de Modernizacion del Transporte Pblico 2006

Table 13. Pax using public transportation on circles and radials

Pax using public transportation on circles and radials Radials 1a 1 2 3 4 4a 5a 5 5b 5c 6 7a 7 8a 8b 500 1523 749 600 3101 330 680 700 4272 2011 680 800 3729 1214 1214 900 1093 366 366 1355 2442 4014 3247 800 1349 2710 1560 64 2036 8th circle 7th circle 1110 2163 1846 2313 1520 1520 1220 6th circle 990 1592 1204 1873 636 636 1541 1541 1781 2536 5th circle 1781 2823 1952 3299 1195 1195 356 356 1117 679 4th circle 5946 5271 1735 2493 857 857 943 943 943 943 3rd circle 3228 2242 1915 3556 2248 2248 853 853 853 853 2434 1000 1518 640 640 2nd circle 991 991 2134 3157 1898 1898 601 601 601 601 2764 1200 2822 533 533 1st circle 205 205 1636 1454 636 636 160 160 160 160 1767 1500 2675 578 578 Total for radials 14250 16087 13771 20855 10548 9052 7710 4454 10824 11461 6965 7200 20733 6420 4690

97

8c 8 9a 9 9b 10 11b 11a 11 12 13a 13b 13 14a 14b 14c 14d 14e 14 14f 15 15a 15b 15c 15d 17a 17 17b 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 Total circles for 70552 1840 1368 1458 1128 4582 4454 5809 3991 1028 343 114 592 3714 5210 4513 2074 1584 1005 1038 1368 4656 611 1223 635 503 437 186

1639 1499 1080 1003 1851 3064 1719 5747 11564 1090 1635 1419 2318 1086 2310 1601 608 608 608 2140 2167 1369 919 919 2635 1235 1417 1235 744

1985 2421 2752 3056 2853 8410 8488 8488 5807 566 849 706 1200 823 941 612 520 520 520 1233 1408 1585 1057 1057 2587 3724 3928 2834 768

2858 2858 2561 5562 3060 1891 997 997 2392 1122 5510 2787 2947 1811 364 364 364 364 364 1835 1624 1061 2448 2448 2089 2470 2463 2753 1247

366 366 1454 3184 2104 1955 521 261 261 952 3570 1190 3894 1381 115 115 115 115 115 115 544 2008 2008 544 544 4907 1395 2352 2468 2200 1019

640 640 1115 1115 3258 2729 782 782 782 1268 1224 1656 1656 403 403 403 403 403 403 403 1414 1414 1414 1414 1414 1943 4972 2175 3621 3459 3290 4727 3252 1465 3001

533 533 891 891 2714 2448 545 545 545 409 409 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 503 1443 1443 1443 1443 1443 2395 2395 2395 4206 2608 2608 3916 2287 1315 2207 1640 2272 73770

578 578 468 468 468 687 229 229 229 801 801 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 210 294 294 294 294 294 1118 1118 1118 3118 511 1023 1488 604 604 604 1500 594 34797

8598 10734 11688 16736 17436 25766 17735 22857 25571 7236 14341 8585 13320 9931 10057 8322 4797 4307 3728 7477 10261 13829 10192 9341 11640 18294 18124 15047 16172 8778 7940 10131 6143 3384 5812 9887 15862 605074

3477 222 80892 93689 81541 6392 75660

3270 6382 94173

Source: Plan de Modernizacion del Transporte Pblico 2006

98

Table 14. Demand Estimation Summary

Use of Transport Public Most usual destinations 26% D-11 55% Pop. 12% D-1 11% D-8 Reasons for trips 53% - work 34% - studies 8% - buying Hours for the trip 35% from 5 to 9 24% from 12 to 15 24% from 18 to 21 Excess of offer 9 to 17 D-1,5,9,10 and 12 Excess of demand 6 to 8 18 to 20 D-6 and 7

Source: Plan de Modernizacion del Transporte Pblico 2006

Table 15. Qty. of trips done by user type

Way Going Back Going Back Going Back Going Back Going Back Going Back Totals Elder Children Regular School students Description University students 1 Bus 10,2 9,6 12,3 12,2 14,8 15,3 3,4 3,5 1,4 1,7 42,1 42,3 2 Buses 16,4 16,5 7,9 7,7 18,2 17,4 2,3 2,1 1,2 0,9 46 44,6 3 Buses 2,8 3,4 0,8 1,5 3,6 3,4 0,2 0,3 0 0 7,4 8,6 4 Buses 1,5 1,3 0,4 0,4 1,2 1,9 0 0 0 0 3,1 3,6 5 or more Buses 0,8 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,2 0,2 0 0 1,4 0,9 Total (%) 31,7 31,1 21,6 21,9 38 38,3 6,1 6,1 2,6 2,6 100 100

Source: U.TE.P.SA

99

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103