Trade union

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Demonstrators surrounded by soldiers during the Lawrence textile strike in 1912. A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English) is an organization of workers that have banded together to achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members (rank and file members) and negotiates labour contracts (collective bargaining) with employers. This may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies. The agreements negotiated by the union leaders are binding on the rank and file members and the employer and in some cases on other non-member workers. Originating in Europe, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial Revolution, when the lack of skill necessary to perform most jobs shifted employment bargaining power almost completely to the employers' side, causing many workers to be mistreated and underpaid. Trade union organizations may be composed of individual workers, professionals, past workers, or the unemployed. The most common, but by no means only, purpose of these organizations is "maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment".[1] Over the last three hundred years, many trade unions have developed into a number of forms, influenced by differing political objectives. Activities of trade unions vary, but may include:

Provision of benefits to members: Early trade unions, like Friendly Societies, often provided a range of benefits to insure members against unemployment, ill health, old age and funeral expenses. In many developed countries, these functions have been assumed by the state; however, the provision of professional training, legal advice and representation for members is still an important benefit of trade union membership.

Collective bargaining: Where trade unions are able to operate openly and are recognized by employers, they may negotiate with employers over wages and working conditions. Industrial action: Trade unions may enforce strikes or resistance to lockouts in furtherance of particular goals. Political activity: Trade unions may promote legislation favourable to the interests of their members or workers as a whole. To this end they may pursue campaigns, undertake lobbying, or financially support individual candidates or parties (such as the Labour Party in Britain) for public office.

Contents
[hide]

1 History

1.1 Origins and early history 1.2 Europe 1.3 Unions in the United States

1.3.1 19th Century American Unionism 1.3.2 Knights of Labour 1.3.3 American Federation of Labor 1.3.4 Congress of Industrial Organisations 1.3.5 AFL-CIO

1.4 Mexico 1.5 Australia

2 Structure and politics 3 Shop types 4 Diversity of international unions 5 Criticism 6 International unionization 7 Union publications 8 In film 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading

11.1 Books 11.2 Articles

12 External links

[edit] History
The examples and perspective in this article or section might have an extensive bias or disproportional coverage towards USA. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. The origins of unions' existence can be traced from the 18th century, where the rapid expansion of industrial society drew women, children, rural workers, and immigrants to the work force in numbers and in new roles. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour spontaneously organised in fits and starts throughout its beginnings,[1] and would later be an important arena for the development of trade unions. Trade unions as such were endorsed by the Catholic Church towards the end of the 19th Century. Pope Leo XIII in his "Magna Carta"Rerum Novarum spoke against the atrocities workers faced and demanded that workers should be granted certain rights and safety regulations.[2]

[edit] Origins and early history

Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the guilds of medieval Europe, though the relationship between the two is disputed.[3] Medieval guilds existed to protect and enhance their members' livelihoods through controlling the instructional capital of artisanship and the progression of members from apprentice to craftsman, journeyman, and eventually to master and grandmaster of their craft. A trade union might include workers from only one trade or craft, or might combine several or all the workers in one company or industry. Trade unions and/or collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Labourers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. Union organizing would eventually be outlawed everywhere and remain so until the middle of the 19th century. Since the publication of the History of Trade Unionism (1894) by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, the predominant historical view is that a trade union "is a continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment."[1] A modern definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics states that a trade union is "an organization consisting predominantly of employees, the principal activities of which include the negotiation of rates of pay and conditions of employment for its members."[4] Yet historian R.A. Leeson, in United we Stand (1971), said: Two conflicting views of the trade-union movement strove for ascendancy in the nineteenth century: one the defensive-restrictive guild-craft tradition passed down through journeymen's clubs and friendly societies, ... the other the aggressive-expansionist drive to unite all 'labouring men and women' for a 'different order of things'. Recent historical research by Bob James in Craft, Trade or Mystery (2001) puts forward the view that trade unions are part of a broader movement of benefit societies, which includes medieval guilds, Freemasons, Oddfellows, friendly societies, and other fraternal organisations. The 18th century economist Adam Smith noted the imbalance in the rights of workers in regards to owners (or "masters"). In The Wealth of Nations, Book I, chapter 8, Smith wrote: We rarely hear, it has been said, of the combination of masters, though frequently of those of workmen. But whoever imagines, upon this account, that masters rarely combine, is as ignorant of the world as of the subject. Masters are always and everywhere in a sort of tacit, but constant and uniform combination, not to raise the wages of labor above their actual rate[.]

When workers combine, masters ... never cease to call aloud for the assistance of the civil magistrate, and the rigorous execution of those laws which have been enacted with so much severity against the combination of servants, labourers, and journeymen. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries, although Smith argued that it should remain illegal to fix wages or prices by employees or employers. There were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. Despite this, unions were formed and began to acquire political power, eventually resulting in a body of labour law that not only legalized organizing efforts, but codified the relationship between employers and those employees organized into unions. Even after the legitimization of trade unions there was opposition, as the case of the Tolpuddle Martyrs shows. The right to join a trade union is mentioned in article 23, subsection 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which also states in article 20, subsection 2 that "No one may be compelled to belong to an association". Prohibiting a person from joining or forming a union, as well as forcing a person to do the same (e.g. "closed shops" or "union shops", see below), whether by a government or by a business, is generally considered a human rights abuse. Similar allegations can be levelled if an employer discriminates based on trade union membership. Attempts by an employer, often with the help of outside agencies, to prevent union membership amongst their staff is known as union busting.

[edit] Europe
In France, Germany, and other European countries, socialist parties and democrats played a prominent role in forming and building up trade unions, especially from the 1870s onwards. This stood in contrast to the British experience, where moderate New Model Unions dominated the union movement from the mid-19th century and where trade unionism was stronger than the political labour movement until the formation and growth of the Labour Party in the early years of the 20th century. Government opposition to Trade unionism in the United Kingdom was a major factor in economic crises during the 1960s and in particular the 1970s, culminating some would argue in the Winter of Discontent of late 1978 and early 1979, when a significant percentage of the nation's public sector workers went on strike. By this stage, some 12,000,000 workers in the United Kingdom were trade union members. However, the election of the Conservative Party led by Margaret Thatcher at the general election in May 1979, at the expense of Labour's James Callaghan, saw substantial trade union reform which saw the level of strikes fall, but also the level of trade union membership fall. By the end of the 1980s, membership had fallen to just over 6,000,000little more than half the level of a decade earlierand it also counted against the Labour Party's hopes of regaining power, as its relationship with the trade unions had traditionally been seen as a strength but after the Winter of Discontent it was seen as a liability. Manufacturing, the main source of union strength in the United Kingdom, had shrunk by half during the early 1980s recession as a result of Thatcher's economic policies, pushing unemployment from 1,500,000 to more than 3,000,000.[5]

[edit] Unions in the United States

Main article: Labour unions in the United States [edit] 19th Century American Unionism

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific clean up instructions.) Please improve this section if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (March 2011) In the early 19th century, many men from large cities put together the organization which we now call the Trade Union Movement. Individuals who were members of unions at this time were skilled, experienced, and knew how to get the job done. Their main reasoning for starting this movement was to put on strikes. However, they did not have enough men to fulfill their needs and the unions which began this trendy movement collapsed quickly. The Mechanics Union Trade Association was the next approach to bring workers together. In 1827, this union was the first U.S. labor organization which brought together workers of divergent occupations. This was "the first city-wide federation of American workers, which recognized that all labor, regardless of trades, had common problems that could be solved only by united efforts as a class."[6] This organization took off when carpentry workers from Philadelphia went on strike to protest their pay wages and working hours. This union strike was only a premonition of what was to come in the future. According to history.com:[7]

Workers realized what unionism was all about through the configuration of mechanics association and many people followed in their footsteps. The strike gave others hope that they could get their concerns out by word of mouth. Before this time many people did not speak about their concerns because of the lack of bodies. However, with more people comes more confidence. Strikes were a new way of speaking your mind and getting things accomplished. The next established union which made an impact on the trade movement was the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union. This union was founded in 1834 as the first domestic association. However, this union was short lived due to the panic of 1837. "[Andrew] Jackson thought the Bank of the United States hurt ordinary citizens by exercising too much control over credit and economic opportunity, and he succeeded in shutting it down. But the state banks' reckless credit policies led to massive speculation in Western lands. By 1837, after Van Buren had become president, banks were clearly in trouble. Some began to close, businesses began to fail, and thousands of people lost their land." [8] This collapse of financial support and businesses left workers unemployed. Many of these workers, who became affected by the 1837 disaster, were members of a union. It was very hard for them to stay together in an economic hardship and the trade union movement came to a bump in the road. But the economy was restored by the early 1840s and trade unions started doing better. National labor unions were forming, different than ones in the past, consisting now of members of the same occupation.
"Labor is prior to, and independent of, capital. Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher consideration." U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, December 3, 1861[9]

The work force was drastically impacted by the Civil War and the economy was thriving. Many workers gained employment because of this economic boom and unions increased greatly. "More than 30 national craft unions were established during the 1860s and early '70s."[7] One of the significant national craft unions to be formed during this time was the National Labour Union (NLU). It was created in 1866 and included many types of workers.[10] Although relatively shortlived, the NLU paved the way for future American unions. Following the decline of the NLU,

the Knights of Labour became the leading countrywide union in the 1860s. This union did not include Chinese, and partially included black people and women.[11] [edit] Knights of Labour Main article: Knights of Labour The Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labour (KOL) was founded in Philadelphia in 1869 by Uriah Stephens and six other men. The union was formed for the purpose of organising, educating and directing the power of the industrial masses, according to their Constitution of 1878.[12] The Knights gathered people to join the Order who believed in creating "the greatest good to the greatest amount of people". The Knights took their set goals very seriously. Some of which consisted of "productive work, civic responsibility, education, a wholesome family life, temperance, and self-improvement."[13] The Knights of Labour worked as a secret fraternal society until 1881. The union grew slowly until the economic depression of the 1870s, when large numbers of workers joined the organisation.[14] The Knights only permitted certain groups of individuals into their Order which promoted social division amongst the people around them. Bankers, speculators, lawyers, liquor dealers, gamblers, and teachers were all excluded from the union. These workers were known as the "non-producers" because their jobs did not entail physical labour. Factory workers and business men were known as the "producers" because their job constructed a physical product. The working force producers were welcomed into the Order. Women were also welcome to join the Knights, as well as black workers by the year 1883.[15] However, Asians were excluded. In November 1885, the Knights of a Washington city pushed to get rid of their Asian population. The knights were strongly for the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 because it greatly helped them deteriorate the Asian community. "The Act required the few non-labourers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to immigrate. But this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not labourers because the 1882 act defined excludables as skilled and unskilled labourers and Chinese employed in mining. Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law." [16] The act also stated that if an Asian left the country, they needed a certificate to re-enter. Although Asians were not welcomed in the union, black workers who joined the union brought a large number of blacks into the white labour movement. In 1886, the Union exceeded 700,000 members, 60,000 of them black. The Knights were told that they "broke the walls of prejudice"; the "colour line had been broken and black and white were found working in the same cause. [edit] American Federation of Labor Main article: American Federation of Labor The American Federation of Labour (AFL),founded by Samuel Gompers, was established due to the vexation of many Knights who parted from the KOL. Many Knights joined the AFL because they set themselves apart from the KOL. The KOL "tried to teach the American wage-earner that he was a wage-earner first and a bricklayer, carpenter, miner [...] after. This meant that the Order was teaching something that was not so in the hope that sometime it would be. But the AFL affiliates organised carpenters as carpenters, bricklayers as bricklayers, and so forth, teaching them all to place their own craft interests before those of other workers."[17] The AFL also differed from the KOL because it only allowed associations to be formed from workers and workers were the only people permitted to join them. Unlike the AFL, the knights also allowed small businesses to join. A small business is "An independently owned and

operated business that is not dominant in its field of operation and conforms to standards set by the Small Business Administration or by state law regarding number of employees and yearly income called also small business concern."[18] Since the knights allowed an array of members into their association, they ended up getting rid of many because they did not fit the title. However, the AFL was right behind them picking up their pieces. This was another way in which the AFL helped to destroy the Knights. Once an associate was no longer a knight, and they fit the description of an AFL member, they hunted them down and offered them a spot. Many times spots were offered to men who were still Knights. This allowed the AFL to grow very strong with a diverse set of members. The diversity in the AFL faltered when many of the black members were excluded. Gompers only wanted skilled workers representing his union and many black people were not considered skilled. The AFL claimed to not exclude the black members because of their race but because they were not qualified for the part. "So as long as wages rose, and they did, hours fell, and they did, security increased, and it appeared to, the AFL could grow fat while neglecting millions of labourers doomed to lives of misery and want."[17] Even black workers considered skilled enough to fit the part were generally excluded from the Union. The AFL conducted literacy tests which had the effect of excluding immigrants and blacks. Regardless of black members being excluded, the AFL was the most prevalent union federation in America before the mid 1940s. The union was composed of over 10 million members before it combined with the Congress of Industrial Organisation (CIO). [edit] Congress of Industrial Organisations Main article: Congress of Industrial Organisations The CIO was put forth by John L. Lewis when troubles with the AFL persisted, after the death of Gompers in 1924. Many members of the union requested that they switch the rules which were laid out by Gompers. They wanted to support inexperienced workmen rather than only focusing on experienced workers of one occupation. John L. Lewis was the first member of the AFL to act upon this issue in 1935. He was the founder of the Committee for the Industrial Organisation which was an original union branched from the AFL. The Committee for the Industrial Organisation transformed into the Congress of Industrial Organisation. "The Congress of Industrial Organisations (CIO) encompassed the largest sustained surge of worker organisation in American history."[19] In the 1930s, the CIO grabbed many of their members attention through victorious strikes. In the 1935, employees of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company formed their own union called the United Rubber Workers. The Rubber Workers went on strike in 1936 to protest an increase in product with lower pay wages. "There were forty-eight strikes in 1936 in which the strikers remained at their jobs for at least one day; in twenty-two of these work stoppages, involving 34,565 workers, the strikers stayed inside the plants for more than twentyfour hours."[20] This tactic was called a "sit-down" strike which entailed workers to stop doing their job and sit in their place of employment. During these strikes, business owners were unable to bring in new workers to replace the ones who were on strike because they were still in their seats at the factory. This was unlike any strikes in the past. Before this time, workers showed their fury by leaving their factory and standing in picket lines. Walter Reuther was in control of the union at this time and moved forward to higher roles during 1955. [edit] AFL-CIO On May 5, 1955, union delegates gathered in NY on behalf of 16 million workers, to witness and support the merger of The American Federation of Labor and The Congress of Industrial Organization. The merger is a result of 20 years of effort put forth by both the AFL and CIO

presidents, George Meany and Walter Reuther. The gathered delegates applauded loudly when the time came to nominate officers for the new AFL-CIO. Reuther who was named one of the 37 vice presidents of the union, nominated Meany for President. After Meanys retirement in 1979, Lane Kirkland took over his position. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was elected in 1952, was the first to publicly address and congratulate the new union, which was now the largest in the world. In Eisenhowers telephone broadcast to the United States he acknowledged the impact union members had made to better the nation and one of these impacts was "the development of the American philosophy of labour."[21] Eisenhower states three principles which he feels apply to the philosophy of labour. The first principles states that: "the ultimate values of mankind are spiritual; these values include liberty, human dignity, opportunity and equal rights and justice."[21] Eisenhower was stating that every individual deserves a job with decent compensation, practical hours, and good working conditions that leave them feeling fulfilled. His second principle speaks of the economic interest of the employer and employee being a mutual prosperity.[21] The employers and employees must work together in order for there to be the greatest amount of wealth for all. Workers have a right to strike when they feel their boundaries are being crossed and the best way for the employer to fix the employees unhappiness is to come to a mutual agreement. His last principle which he preached stated: "labour relations will be managed best when worked out in honest negotiation between employers and unions, without Governments unwarranted interference."[21] Eisenhower was saying that when both parties cooperate and act in mature fashion, it will be easier to work out situations and a better outcome will result because of it. Once he was done delivering the speech, everyone across the U.S. knew of the new AFL-CIO whose "mission [was] to bring social and economic justice to our nation by enabling working people to have a voice on the job, in government, in a changing global economy and in their communities."[22] This new alliance is made up of 56 nationwide and intercontinental labour unions. The unions which are a part of this alliance are composed of 2.5 million working Americans and 8.5 million other affiliated members. These members do not fall under one job title but they are very diversely spread out among the working area. Their jobs go from doctors to truck drivers and painters to bankers. The mission of these workers and the AFL-CIO "is to improve the lives of working familiesto bring economic justice to the workplace and social justice to our nation. To accomplish this mission we will build and change the American labour movement."[23] The AFLCIO also has many goals which coincide with their mission: "We will build a broad movement of American workers by organizing workers into unions. We will build a strong political voice for workers in our nation. We will change our unions to provide a new voice to workers in a changing economy. We will change our labour movement by creating a new voice for workers in our communities."[23] The association was willing to go to any extent to help out their employers which is why the membership was so high. Members started to slowly disappear after 25 successful years of a steady membership. Starting out with 16 million members in 1955 and dropping down to 13 million by 1984 is a significant loss. This loss of members is in large part due to the 1957 removal of the Teamsters Union who were long time members of the AFL. The Teamsters were involved in organized crime and manipulating employers with strong force. The Teamsters philosophy was to "Let each member do his duty as he sees fit. Let each put his shoulder to the wheel and work together to bring about better results. Let no member sow seeds of discord within our ranks, and

let our enemies see that the Teamsters of this country are determined to get their just rewards and to make their organization as it should beone of the largest and strongest trade unions in the country now and beyond."[24] This philosophy did not work well for Teamster presidents Beck, Hoffa, and Williams who were all accused of criminal acts and sent to prison. In 1987 the AFL-CIO membership grew to 14 million members when the Teamsters Union was restored to the association. The AFL-CIO also lost many members due to financial struggles in the United States. During the late 20th century the U.S. dollar began to oscillate due to rivalry with foreign countries and their currencies. This affects global trafficking and results in job loss for American citizens. The issues between the United States and foreign countries cannot be resolved by Eisenhowers third principle, which entailed honest negotiations. Consequently, the association has been dynamically supportive in administration policies which deal with global trafficking, the production of goods, and many other issues, which are optimistic policies that will add to an established financial system. The AFL-CIO is now governed by a gathering of delegates who are present on behalf of association members who meet every four years. The delegates who are the spokespeople of the federation members are chosen by union members. While the delegates vote for new representatives every four years, they also lay down the goals and policies for the union. The most recent representatives for the organization along with 45 vice presidents are President John J. Sweeny, Secretary-treasurer Richard Trumka, and executive vice president Arlene Holt Baker In the United States there are a total of 15.4 million union members, "11 million of whom belong to unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO."[25] This number has grown rapidly since the beginning of the union movement because today, all individuals with different occupations are welcomed to join unions. "Today's unions include manufacturing and construction workers, teachers, technicians and doctorsand every type of worker in between. No matter what you do for a living, there's a union that has members who do the same thing."[25] Educating union members about issues that shape lives of functioning families on a daily basis is one of the AFL-CIOs policies. They give them confidence to have their voices heard for political purposes. They also prioritize in "creating family-supporting jobs by investing tax dollars in schools, roads, bridges and airports; improving the lives of workers through education, job training and raising the minimum wage; keeping good jobs at home by reforming trade rules, reindustrializing the U.S. economy and redoubling efforts at worker protections in the global economy; strengthening Social Security and private pensions; making high-quality, affordable health care available to everyone; and holding corporations more accountable for their actions."[25] The AFL-CIO is very supportive of political issues and they show their concern[editorializing] by giving out information about existing political issues to families. This information is spread by volunteers and activists and includes where all the candidates stand on the issues.

[edit] Mexico
Before the 1990s, unions in Mexico had been historically part of a state institutional system. Between the end of the Mexican revolution in 1940, till the 1980s worldwide spread of neoliberalism through the Washington Consensus, the Mexican unions did not operate independently, but instead as part of a state institutional system, largely controlled by the ruling party.[26]

During these 40 years, the primary aim of the labour unions was not to benefit the workers, but to carry out the state's economic policy under their cosy relationship with the ruling party. This economic policy, which peaked in the 1950-60s with the so called Mexican Miracle, saw rising incomes and rising standards of living. Only a minor part went to the workers, while the primary beneficiaries had been the wealthy.[26] In the 1980s, Mexico began to follow the Washington Consensus, and sell off state industries (railroad, telecommunication) to private industries. The new owners had an antagonist attitude towards unions, and the unions, accustomed to the comfortable relationship with the state, were not prepared to fight back. A movement of new unions began to emerge with a more independent model, while the old institutionalised unions had become very corrupt, violent and gangster led. From the 1990s, the new model of independent unions prevailed, and a number of them were represented by the National Union of Workers.[26]

[edit] Australia

A 1919 strike leader addressing a crowd in Gary, Indiana. Supporters of Unions, such as the ACTU or Australian Labor Party, often credit trade unions with leading the labour movement in the early 20th century, which generally sought to end child labour practices, improve worker safety, increase wages for both union workers and non union workers, raise the entire society's standard of living, reduce the hours in a work week, provide public education for children, and bring other benefits to working class families.[27]

[edit] Structure and politics

Union structures, politics, and legal status vary greatly from country to country. For specific country details see List of trade unions.

A rally of the trade union UNISON in Oxford during a strike on 2006-03-28.

Unions may organize a particular section of skilled workers (craft unionism), a cross-section of workers from various trades (general unionism), or attempt to organize all workers within a particular industry (industrial unionism). These unions are often divided into "locals", and united in national federations. These federations themselves will affiliate with Internationals, such as the International Trade Union Confederation. A union may acquire the status of a "juristic person" (an artificial legal entity), with a mandate to negotiate with employers for the workers it represents. In such cases, unions have certain legal rights, most importantly the right to engage in collective bargaining with the employer (or employers) over wages, working hours, and other terms and conditions of employment. The inability of the parties to reach an agreement may lead to industrial action, culminating in either strike action or management lockout, or binding arbitration. In extreme cases, violent or illegal activities may develop around these events. In other circumstances, unions may not have the legal right to represent workers, or the right may be in question. This lack of status can range from non-recognition of a union to political or criminal prosecution of union activists and members, with many cases of violence and deaths having been recorded both historically and contemporarily.[28][29] Unions may also engage in broader political or social struggle. Social Unionism encompasses many unions that use their organizational strength to advocate for social policies and legislation favourable to their members or to workers in general. As well, unions in some countries are closely aligned with political parties. Unions are also delineated by the service model and the organizing model. The service model union focuses more on maintaining worker rights, providing services, and resolving disputes. Alternately, the organizing model typically involves full-time union organizers, who work by building up confidence, strong networks, and leaders within the workforce; and confrontational campaigns involving large numbers of union members. Many unions are a blend of these two philosophies, and the definitions of the models themselves are still debated. Although their political structure and autonomy varies widely, union leaderships are usually formed through democratic elections. Some research, such as that conducted by the ACIRRT,[30] argues that unionized workers enjoy better conditions and wages than those who are not unionized. In Britain, the perceived left-leaning nature of trade unions has resulted in the formation of a reactionary right-wing trade union called Solidarity which is supported by the far-right BNP.

[edit] Shop types

Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models:

A closed shop (US) or a "pre-entry closed shop" (UK) employs only people who are already union members. The compulsory hiring hall is an example of a closed shopin this case the employer must recruit directly from the union, as well as the employee working strictly for unionized employers. A union shop (US) or a "post-entry closed shop" (UK) employs non-union workers as well, but sets a time limit within which new employees must join a union. An agency shop requires non-union workers to pay a fee to the union for its services in negotiating their contract. This is sometimes called the Rand formula. In certain

situations involving state public employees in the United States, such as California, "fair share laws" make it easy to require these sorts of payments.

An open shop does not require union membership in employing or keeping workers. Where a union is active, workers who do not contribute to a union still benefit from the collective bargaining process. In the United States, state level right-to-work laws mandate the open shop in some states.

[edit] Diversity of international unions

Union law varies from country to country, as does the function of unions. For example, in Germany only open shops are legal; that is, all discrimination based on union membership is forbidden. This affects the function and services of the union. In addition, German unions have played a greater role in management decisions through participation in corporate boards and co-determination than have unions in the United States.[31] In Britain, a series of laws introduced during the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher's government restricted closed and union shops. All agreements requiring a worker to join a union are now illegal. In the United States, the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 outlawed the closed shop, but permitted the union shop unless the state government chose to prohibit it. In addition, unions' relations with political parties vary. In many countries unions are tightly bonded, or even share leadership, with a political party intended to represent the interests of working people. Typically this is a left-wing, socialist, or social democratic party, but many exceptions exist. In the United States, by contrast, although it is historically aligned with the Democratic Party, the union movement is by no means monolithic on that point; this is especially true among the individual "rank and file" members. For example, the International Brotherhood of Teamsters has supported Republican Party candidates on a number of occasions and the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) endorsed Ronald Reagan in 1980. In Britain the union movement's relationship with the Labour Party frayed as party leadership embarked on privatisation plans at odds with what unions see as the worker's interests. However, it has strengthened once more after the Labour party's election of Ed Milliband who beat his brother David Milliband, to become leader of the party after Ed secured the trade unions votes. On top of this in the past there as been a group known as the Conservative Trade Unionists or CTU. A group formed of people who sympathized with right wing Tory policy but were Trade Unionists. In Western Europe, professional associations often carry out the functions of a trade union. In these cases, they may be negotiating for white-collar workers, such as physicians, engineers, or teachers. Typically such trade unions refrain from politics or pursue a more ordoliberal politics than their blue-collar counterparts[citation needed]. In Germany the relation between individual employees and employers is considered to be asymmetrical. In consequence, many working conditions are not negotiable due to a strong legal protection of individuals. However, the German flavour or works legislation has as its main objective to create a balance of power between employees organized in unions and employers organized in employers associations. This allows much wider legal boundaries for collective bargaining, compared to the narrow boundaries for individual negotiations. As a condition to obtain the legal status of a trade union, employee associations need to prove that their leverage is strong enough to serve as a counterforce in negotiations with employers. If such an employees association is competing against another union, its leverage may be questioned by unions and then evaluated in a court trial. In Germany only very few

professional associations obtained the right to negotiate salaries and working conditions for their members, notably the medical doctors association Marburger Bund and the pilots association Vereinigung Cockpit. The engineers association Verein Deutscher Ingenieure does not strive to act as a union, as it also represents the interests of engineering businesses. Finally, the structure of employment laws affects unions' roles and how they carry out their business. In many western European countries wages and benefits are largely set by governmental action. The United States takes a more laissez-faire approach, setting some minimum standards but leaving most workers' wages and benefits to collective bargaining and market forces. Historically, the Republic of Korea has regulated collective bargaining by requiring employers to participate but collective bargaining has been legal only if held in sessions before the lunar new year.

[edit] Criticism

Many union members were illegally fired during the 1980s in the United States due to government opposition to unions.[32] Main article: Opposition to trade unions Trade unions have been accused of benefiting insider workers, those having secure jobs, at the cost of outsider workers, consumers of the goods or services produced, and the shareholders of the unionized business.[33] In the United States, the outsourcing of labour to Asia, Latin America, and Africa has been partially driven by increasing costs of union partnership, which gives other countries a comparative advantage in labour, making it more efficient to perform labour-intensive work there.[34] Milton Friedman, Nobel economist and advocate of laissez-faire capitalism, sought to show that unionization produces higher wages (for the union members) at the expense of fewer jobs, and that, if some industries are unionized while others are not, wages will tend to decline in non-unionized industries.[35] Trade unions have been said to have ineffective policies on racism and sexism, such that a union is justified in not supporting a member taking action against another member. This was demonstrated by the 1987 judgment in the Weaver v NATFHE case in the UK, in which a black Muslim woman brought a complaint of workplace racist harassment against a cotrade unionist. The court found that the union, had it offered assistance to the plaintiff, would be in violation of its duty to protect the tenure of the accused member, and this judgment remains the precedent for cases in which union members who make complaints to the employer of racist or sexist harassment against member(s) of the same union cannot obtain union advice or assistance; this applies irrespective of the merit of the complaint.[36]

[edit] International unionization

The largest trade union in the world is the Brussels-based International Trade Union Confederation, which today has approximately 309 affiliated organizations in 156 countries and territories, with a combined membership of 166 million. Other global trade union organizations include the World Federation of Trade Unions. National and regional trade unions organizing in specific industry sectors or occupational groups also form global union federations, such as Union Network International, the International Federation of Journalists or the International Arts and Entertainment Alliance.

[edit] Union publications

Several sources of current news exist about the trade union movement in the world. These include LabourStart and the official website of the international trade union movement Global Unions. Another source of union news is the Workers Independent News, a news organization providing radio articles to independent and syndicated radio shows. Labor Notes is the largest circulation cross-union publication remaining in the United States. It reports news and analysis about union activity or problems facing the labour movement.

[edit] In film

The 2000 film Bread and Roses by British director Ken Loach depicted the struggle of cleaners in Los Angeles to fight for better pay, and working conditions, and the right to join a union. HoffaA Danny DeVito film (1992): The man who was willing to pay the price for power. "Jack Nicholson gives a gigantic powerhouse performance"The New York Times The 1985 documentary film Final Offer by Sturla Gunnarsson and Robert Collision shows the 1984 union contract negotiations with General Motors. The 1979 film Norma Rae, directed by Martin Ritt, is based on the true story of Crystal Lee Jordan's successful attempt to unionize her textile factory. Other documentaries: Made in L.A. (2007); American Standoff (2002); The Fight in the Fields (1997); With Babies and Banners: Story of the Women's Emergency Brigade (1979); Harlan County USA (1976); The Inheritance (1964) Other dramatizations: 10,000 Black Men Named George (2002); Matewan (1987); American Playhouse"The Killing Floor" (1985); Salt of the Earth (1954); The Grapes of Wrath (1940); Black Fury (1935)

[edit] See also

Social democracy

Precursors[hide] Humanism Age of Enlightenment French Revolution Utopian socialism Trade unionism Revolutions of 1848 Orthodox Marxism Development[show] Revisionism Reformism Gradualism Frankfurt Declaration Policies[show] Representative democracy Civil liberties Economic democracy Labor rights Mixed economy Nationalization Welfare state Fair trade Environmental protection Rhine Capitalism Secularism Social corporatism Social Market Economy

Organizations[show] Social democratic parties Socialist International International Union of Socialist Youth Party of European Socialists Young European Socialists International Trade Union Confederation SAMAK Leaders[show] Social Democrats Clement Attlee Eduard Bernstein Lon Blum Hjalmar Branting Ignacy Daszyski Tommy Douglas Friedrich Ebert David Lewis Michael Joseph Savage Blent Ecevit Jean Jaurs Karl Kautsky Ferdinand Lassalle Georgi Plekhanov John Curtin

vde

Organized labour portal

List of trade unions Eight-hour day Anarcho-syndicalism Political Catholicism Labour aristocracy New Unionism Solidarity Strike action Salt (union organizing) Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act

General

Syndicalism Workers' Memorial Day Labour Day Labour movement Hazards Campaign Opposition to trade unions Union busting Employers' organization Craft unionism Directly Affiliated Local Union General union Industrial unionism Labour council Trades Hall National trade union center Anarcho-syndicalism AFL-CIO Change to Win Federation Labor federation competition in the United States International Trade Union Confederation International Labor Rights Forum International Workers Association
1. ^ a b c Webb, Sidney; Webb, Beatrice (1920). History of Trade Unionism. Longmans and Co. London.
ch. I

Types of unions

Union federation

[edit] References
2. ^ "Rerum Novarum: Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on Capital and Labor". Libreria Editrice Vaticana.
http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerumnovarum_en.html. Retrieved July 27, 2011.

3. ^ Kautsky, Karl (April 1901). "Trades Unions and Socialism". International Socialist Review 1 (10).
http://www.marxists.org/archive/kautsky/1901/04/unions.htm. Retrieved July 27, 2011.

4. ^ "Trade Union Census". Australian Bureau of Statistics.

http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/0/9FCBBF538897395ACA2570EC001A6CED? OpenDocument. Retrieved July 27, 2011.

5. ^ Wilenius, Paul (5 March 2004). "Enemies within: Thatcher and the unions". BBC News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/3067563.stm. Retrieved July 27, 2011.

6. ^ Foner, Philip S. (1972). History of the Labor Movement in the United States Vol 1: From the
Colonial Times to the Founding of the American Federation of Labor. New York: Intl Publishers Co. ISBN 9780717800919.

7. ^ a b Trade Unions in the United States. 2008. Retrieved April 1, 2009. 8. ^ Panic of 1837. America's Story from America's Library. Retrieved April 6, 2009. 9. ^ Lincoln, Abraham (1911). Ida Minerva Tarbell. ed. Selections from the Letters, Speeches, and State
Papers of Abraham Lincoln. Ginn. p. 77. http://books.google.com/books? id=yNMVAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.

10. ^ Ayers, Edward L. et al.. American Passages: A History of the United States. Vol. 1. Harcourt.
p. 288. ISBN 978-0-4950-5015-5.

11. ^ Kennedy, David; Lizabeth Cohen, Thomas Bailey (2006). The American Pageant (Thirteenth
Edition ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.

12. ^ 1997. "Knights of Labour constitution of 1878." Knights of Labour Constitution of 1878 1, no. 1: 1.
Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Retrieved February 24, 2009.

13. ^ Fink, Leon. Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labour and America Politics. United States
of America: the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, 1983.

14. ^ "Knights of Labour." The History Channel website (accessed Feb 24, 2009). 15. ^ "Knights of Labor." Columbia Encyclopedia . Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost . Retrieved
February 24, 2009.

16. ^ Chinese Exclusion Act (1882). 1989. Retrieved March 31, 2009. 17. ^ a b Dubofsky, Melvyn (2000). We Shall Be All: A History of the Industrial Workers of the World
(Abridged ed. ed.). Urbana [u.a.]: Univ. of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252069055. http://books.google.com/books? id=DmAer6Nz75kC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=Knights+of+Labor+competition+with+AFL&source=b l&ots=k3A0t8rN6&sig=Xt1W6THNjgswcbTwsHoWszrlqa4&hl=en&ei=rrHbSfXBFJvqlQfFrfiUCA&sa=X &oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7#PPP1,M1.

18. ^ Definition of "small business" Dictionary.com (2009). Retrieved April 6, 2009. 19. ^ Zieger, Robert H. (1995). The CIO: 1935-1955 ([Nachdr.]. ed.). Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina press. ISBN 9780807846308. http://books.google.com/books?id=ghy45fyXYyoC.

20. ^ Fine, Sidney (1979). Sit-Down: The General Motors Strike of 1936-1937 (4. [Dr.] ed.). Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472329489. http://books.google.com/books? id=0TkupxD2njcC&pg=PA123&dq=Rubber+Strike+of+1936.

21. ^ a b c d Eisenhower, Dwight D. (December 5, 1955) 245 - Telephone Broadcast to the AFL-CIO
Merger Meeting in New York City. The American Presidency Project. Retrieved April 16, 2009.

22. ^ Union Facts. 2009. Retrieved April 7, 2009. 23. ^ a b What We Stand for: Mission and Goals of the AFL-CIO. 2009. Retrieved April 20, 2009. 24. ^ The Teamster History. International Brotherhood of Teamsters. Retrieved April 20, 2009. 25. ^ a b c Union Facts. 2009. Retrieved April 20, 2009. 26. ^ a b c Dan La Botz US supported economics spurred Mexican emigration, pt.1, interview at The Real
News, May 1, 2010

27. ^ History of the ACTU. Australian Council of Trade Unions. 28. ^ ICFTU press releaseregarding Cambodia.

29. ^ Amnesty International report 23 September 2005fear for safety of SINALTRAINAL member Jos
Onofre Esquivel Luna

30. ^ "Australian Centre for Industrial Relations Research and Training report.". Acirrt.com.
http://www.acirrt.com/pubs/Trainingwagesupdate.pdf. Retrieved 2011-07-27.

31. ^ Bamberg, Ulrich (June 2004). "The role of German trade unions in the national and European
standardization process". TUTB Newsletter 24-25. http://hesa.etuirehs.org/uk/newsletter/files/BTS012EN_12-15.pdf. Retrieved July 27, 2011.

32. ^ Bernstein, Aaron (May 23, 1994). "Why America Needs Unions But Not the Kind It Has Now".
BusinessWeek. http://www.businessweek.com/archives/1994/b337360.arc.htm.

33. ^ Card David, Krueger Alan. (1995). Myth and measurement: The new economics of the minimum
wage. Princeton, NJ. Princeton University Press.

34. ^ Kramarz, Francis (2006-10-19). "Outsourcing, Unions, and Wages: Evidence from data matching
imports, firms, and workers". http://www.eco.uc3m.es/temp/agenda/wage102006.pdf. Retrieved 200701-22.

35. ^ Friedman, Milton (2007). Price theory ([New ed.], 3rd printing ed.). New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9780202309699. http://books.google.com/books?id=EhcI5D9wREC&pg=PA164.

36. ^ "The Legal Ferret.net" Retrieved on 22 December 2008.

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Books

The Government of British Trade Unions: A study of Apathy and the Democratic Process in the Transport and General Worker Union by Joseph Goldstein[1] The Early English Trade Unions: Documents from Home Office Papers in the Public Record Office by A. Aspinall[2] Magnificent Journey: The Rise of the Trade Unions, by Francis Williams[3] Trade Unions by Allan Flanders[4] Trade Union Government and Administration in Great Britain by B C Roberts[5] Union Power: The Growth and Challenge in Perspective by Claud Cockburn[6] Directory of Employer's Associations, Trade Unions, Joint OrganisationsNo author and produced in paperback[7] The History of the TUC (Trades Union Congress) 18681968: A pictorial Survey of a Social RevolutionIllustrated with Contemporary Prints, Documents and Photographs, edited by Lionel Birch[8] Clarke, T.; Clements, L. (1978). Trade Unions under Capitalism. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. ISBN 0-391-00728-9. Panitch, Leo & Swartz, Donald (2003). From consent to coercion: The assault on trade union freedoms, third edition. Ontario: Garamound Press. Phil Dine (2007). State of the Unions: How Labor Can Strengthen the Middle Class, Improve Our Economy, and Regain Political Influence, McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-07-148844-0

[edit] Articles

Charles A. Orr, "Trade Unionism in Colonial Africa" Journal of Modern African Studies, 4 (1966), pp. 6581
1. ^ First published by George Allen and Unwin Ltd (London) in 1952, and subject of reprints
Foreword by Arthur Deakin

Notes

2. ^ Published by Batchworth Press (London) in 1949 3. ^ First published by Odhams Press (London) in 1954 4. ^ First published by Hutchinson (London) in 1952 and reprinted several times 5. ^ First published by The School of Economics/Bell and Sons (London) in 1956 and reprinted 6. ^ First published by William Kimber in 1976 (London) ISBN 0718301137 7. ^ published by HMSO (Her Majesty's Stationery Office) on 1986 ISBN 113612508 8. ^ Published in large paperback by Hamlyn/General Council of Trade Union Congress in 1968 with a
foreword by George Woodcock

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Trade unions International

LabourStart international trade union news service New Unionism Network Younionize Global Union Directory Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU)- Australian Council of Trade Unions Trade union membership 19932003European Industrial Relations Observatory report on membership trends in 26 European countries Trade Union AncestorsListing of 5,000 UK trade unions with histories of main organizations, trade union "family trees" and details of union membership and strikes since 1900. TUC History onlineHistory of the British union movement Trade EUEuropean Trade Directory Short history of the UGT in Catalonia Labor rights in the USA

Australia Europe

United States

Trade Union :

Trade Union Section 2(h) of the Trade Unions Act, 1926 has defined a trade union as Any combination, whether temporary or permanent, formed primarily for the purpose of regulating the relations between workmen and

employers, or between workmen and workmen, or between employers and employers, or for imposing restrictive conditions on the conduct of any trade or business, and includes any federation of two or more trade unions. Then this definition talks about three relationships. They are relationship between the: Workmen and workmen Workmen and employers Employers and employers.

Features of trade unions : Features of trade unions It is an organisation formed by employees or workers. It is formed on a continuous basis. It is a permanent body and not a casual or temporary one. It is formed to protect and promote all kinds of interests economic, political and social-of its members. The dominant interest with which a union is concerned is, however, economic. It includes federations of trade unions also. It achieves its objectives through collective action and group effort

Objectives of Trade Union : Objectives of Trade Union To improve the economic lot of employees by securing for them better wages. To secure better working conditions for the workers. To secure bonus for the employees from the profit of the concern, To resist schemes of the management which reduce employment, e.g., rationalisation and automation. To secure welfare of employees through group schemes which give benefit to every employee. To protect the interests of employees by taking active participation in the management. To secure social welfare of the employees. To secure organisational stability, growth, and leadership.

Functions of Trade Unions : Functions of Trade Unions Broadly speaking, trade unions perform two types of functions, viz., Militant Functions. One set of activities performed by trade unions leads to the betterment of the position of their members in relation to their employment. The aim of such activities is to ensure adequate wages, secure better conditions of work and employment, get better treatment from employers, etc. When the unions fail to accomplish these aims by the method of collective bargaining and negotiations, they adopt an approach and put up a fight with the management in the form of so-slow, strike, boycott, gherao, etc. Hence, these functions of the trade unions are known as militant or fighting functions. Fraternal Functions. Another set of activities performed by trade unions aims at rendering help to its members in times of need, and improving their efficiency. Trade unions try to foster a spirit of cooperation and promote friendly relations and diffuse education and culture among their members. They also arrange for legal assistance to its members, if necessary. Besides, these, they undertake many welfare measures for their members, e.g., school for the education of children, library, reading-rooms, in-door and out-door games, and other recreational facilities. Some trade unions even undertake publication of some magazine or journal. These activities, which may be called fraternal functions, depend on the availability of funds, which the unions raise by subscription from members and donations from outsiders, and also on their competent and enlightened leadership.

Functions of Trade Unions : Functions of Trade Unions Another broad classification of the functions of unions may be as follows Intra-mural activities. These consist of those functions of the unions that lead to the betterment of employment conditions such as ensuring adequate wages and salaries, etc. for which the methods adopted may be collective bargaining, negotiations, strikes, etc. Extra-mural activities. These activities help the employees to maintain and improve their efficiency or productivity, e.g., measures intended to foster a spirit of cooperation, promote friendly relations, and diffuse education among members and various other types of welfare measures. Political activities. Modern trade unions also take up political activities to achieve their objectives. Such activities may be related to the formation of a political party or those reflecting an attempt to seek influence on public policy relating to matters connected with the interests of working class.

Criticism of Trade Unions :

Criticism of Trade Unions Lack of education makes the workers narrow-minded, and prevents them from taking longterm views. Thus, anything, which does not result in an immediate reward, becomes unattractive to them. This attitude is responsible for many strikes and lock-outs in industrial concerns. Trade unions may not welcome rationalisation and improved methods of production for the fear that some of the workers will be put out of work. Therefore, they resort to go slow policy that retards industrial progress. When labour unions strike because of illogical grounds, incalculable losses occur to producers, community and the nation. These are harmful to the workers also. They suffer because of the loss of wages. They create artificial scarcity of labour by demanding that only union personnel should be employed. By undue insistence on the payment of standard rates of wages, they have only leveled down the earnings of the efficient workers.

Motivation to Join Unions : Motivation to Join Unions Greater Bargaining Power. The individual employee possesses very little bargaining power as compared to that of his employer. If he is not satisfied with the wage and other conditions of employment, he can leave the job. Make their Voices Heard. The desire for self-expression is a fundamental human drive for most people. Dont you agree with that? All of us wish to share our feelings, ideas and opinions with others. Similarly the workers also want the management to listen to them. Minimise Discrimination. The decisions regarding pay, work, transfer, promotion, etc. are highly subjective in nature. I may rate you very differently as compared to your marketing teacher! Similarly the personal relationships existing between the supervisor and each of his subordinates may influence the management. Thus, there are chances of favoritisms and discriminations. Sense of Security. The employees may join the unions because of their belief that it is an effective way to secure adequate protection from various types of hazards and income insecurity such as accident, injury, illness, unemployment, etc. The trade union secure retirement benefits of the workers and compel the management to invest in welfare services for the benefit of the workers. Sense of Participation. The employees can participate in management of matters affecting their interests only if they join trade unions. They can influence the decisions that are taken as a result of collective bargaining between the union and the management. Sense of Belongingness. Many employees join a union because their coworkers are the members of the union. At times, an employee joins a union under group pressure; if he does not, he often has a very difficult time at work. On the other hand, those who are members of a union feel that they gain respect in the eyes of their fellow workers. They can also discuss their problem with the trade union leaders.

Structure of Trade Unions : Structure of Trade Unions Plant level Unions: The first level in the structure from below is the plant level union. This comprises the unions in one organisation or factory. Please note that only seven members are required to form a union. This has lead to multiple unions in one factory. (We will discuss the details of this aspect in the problems faced by unions in India). Local Level federations. This is the second level in the structure from below. The local trade union federation holds together the plant level unions at the local level in a particular craft and industry. These local level federations might be affiliated to either some regional level or national level federation or these may be independent. Regional level federations. These are the organisations of all the constituent unions in a particular state or region. National federations. These are national level bodies to which plant level unions, local unions or regional level unions may get affiliated. These are the apex bodies at the top of the structure. They act as coordinating bodies. These national federations may have their own regional or state level coordinating bodies to which the plant level unions may get affiliated.

Problems & weaknesses of Trade Unions : Problems & weaknesses of Trade Unions Uneven Growth. The trade unionism in India is characterised by uneven growth, both industry-wise and area-wise. Trade unions are popular in big industries and the degree of unionisation varies widely from industry to industry. Besides, trade union activities are concentrated in a few states and in bigger industrial centers mainly due to concentration of industries in those places. Limited Membership. The number of trade unions in India has increased considerably. But this has been followed by the declining membership per union. Multiplicity of Unions. There exist several trade unions in the same establishment. The multiplicity of unions is the result of outside leadership and labour laws. The law permits and gives sanctity to small unions. Any seven persons can form a union under the Trade Unions Act, 1926. This Act confers rights on such a union. It is allowed under the

Act to raise disputes, file suits, go to conciliation and even bargain with employers. Therefore, small sections of workers are encouraged to form separate Unions. There is no restriction on the number of unions to be registered in one establishment. Outside Leadership. Trade unions in India are led largely by people who themselves are not workers. These outsiders are politicians, intellectuals and professionals having no experience of work in industry. Outsiders continue to dominate the trade unions to advance their personal interests.

Problems & weaknesses of Trade Unions : Problems & weaknesses of Trade Unions Financial Problems. The financial position of the trade unions is weak because their average yearly income is very low and inadequate. The subscription rates are very low. Under conditions of multiplicity of unions, a union interested in increasing its membership figures keeps the subscription rate unduly low. As a result, the funds with the unions are inadequate and they cannot undertake welfare programmes for their members. Another reason for the weak financial position of union is that large amounts of subscription dues remain unpaid by the workers. Besides this, unions do not have proper staff and organisation to collect subscriptions. Indifferent Attitude of Workers. In India, a large number of workers have not joined any union. Moreover, all the members of the trade unions do not show interest in their affairs. The attendance at the general meetings of the unions is very low. Under such circumstance, trade unionism cannot be expected to make much progress.

Suggestions for the development Unions : Suggestions for the development Unions One Union in One Industry: Multiplicity of unions in the same plant leads to inter-union rivalry that ultimately cuts at the root of the trade union movement. It weakens the power for collective bargaining and reduces the effectiveness of workers in securing their legitimate rights. Therefore, there should be only one union in one industry. Paid Union Officials: Generally, the trade unions avail the services of the honorary workers due to lack of funds. The practice should be stopped because honorary office bearers cannot do full justice to the task entrusted to them because of lack of time at their disposal. Suppose that you are asked to do something in the office, which requires a lot of responsibility. You are not offered any thing in return. Of course the motivational levels will come down unless and until you are a very passionate or a committed person. The same applies to the officials of the unions. Therefore, paid union officials should be employed who are persons of proven integrity and who are able to evaluate the demands of workers so that they may negotiate with employers on equal footing. Development of Leadership from Within: It is of crucial importance that trade unions are managed by the workers, and not by outsiders. Leadership should be developed from within the rank and file of the workers. Recognition of Trade Unions. Till recently, the employers refused recognition to the trade unions either on the basis that unions consisted of only a minority of employees or two or more unions existed.

Trade Unionism In India

Industrial Relations Home Trade Unionism In India

The trade unionism in India developed quite slowly as compared to the western nations. Indian trade union movement can be divided into three phases. The first phase (1850 to1900)

During this phase the inception of trade unions took place. During this period, the working and living conditions of the labor were poor and their working hours were long. Capitalists were only interested in their productivity and profitability. In addition, the wages were also low and general economic conditions were poor in industries. In order to regulate the working hours and other service conditions of the Indian textile laborers, the Indian Factories Act was enacted in 1881. As a result, employment of child labor was prohibited.

The growth of trade union movement was slow in this phase and later on the Indian Factory Act of 1881 was amended in 1891. Many strikes took place in the two decades following 1880 in all industrial cities. These strikes taught workers to understand the power of united action even though there was no union in real terms. Small associations like Bombay Mill-Hands Association came up by this time. The second phase (1900 to 1946) This phase was characterized by the development of organized trade unions and political movements of the working class. Between 1918 and 1923, many unions came into existence in the country. At Ahmedabad, under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, occupational unions like spinners unions and weavers unions were formed. A strike was launched by these unions under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi who turned it into a satyagrah. These unions federated into industrial union known as Textile Labor Association in 1920.In 1920, the First National Trade union organization (The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)) was established. Many of the leaders of this organization were leaders of the national Movement. In 1926, Trade union law came up with the efforts of Mr. N N Joshi that became operative from 1927. During 1928, All India Trade Union Federation (AITUF) was formed. The third phase began with the emergence of independent India (in 1947). The partition of country affected the trade union movement particularly Bengal and Punjab. By 1949, four central trade union organizations were functioning in the country: 1. 2. The All India Trade Union Congress, The Indian National Trade Union Congress,

3. The Hindu Mazdoor Sangh, and

4. The United Trade Union Congress

The working class movement was also politicized along the lines of political parties. For instance Indian national trade Union Congress (INTUC) is the trade union arm of the Congress Party. The AITUC is the trade union arm of the Communist Party of India. Besides workers, white-collar employees, supervisors and managers are also organized by the trade unions, as for example in the Banking, Insurance and Petroleum industries. Trade unions in India The Indian workforce consists of 430 million workers, growing 2% annually. The Indian labor markets consist of three sectors: 1. The rural workers, who constitute about 60 per cent of the workforce.

2. 3.

Organized sector, which employs 8 per cent of workforce, and The urban informal sector (which includes the growing software industry and other services, not included in the formal sector) which constitutes the rest 32 per cent of the workforce.

At present there are twelve Central Trade Union Organizations in India: 1. All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)

2. Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS)

3. Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU)

4. Hind Mazdoor Kisan Panchayat (HMKP) 5. Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS)

6. 7. 8. 9. Indian Federation of Free Trade Unions (IFFTU) Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) National Front of Indian Trade Unions (NFITU) National Labor Organization (NLO)

10. Trade Unions Co-ordination Centre (TUCC) 11. United Trade Union Congress (UTUC) and

12. United Trade Union Congress - Lenin Sarani (UTUC - LS)

Changing Role of Trade Unions in India

Hi, You were looking for useful links that might help you with the research for your dissertation. I think this essay, which deals with industrial relations at Apollo Tyres might be helpful. It looks in detail at the relationships which arise at and out of the workplace including: 1. Relationships between individual workers 2. Relationships between workers and their employer(s) 3. Relationships between employers 4. The relationships employers and workers have with the organizations formed to promote their respective interests 5. the relations between those organizations, at all levels. Industrial relations also include the processes through which these relationships are expressed such as, collective bargaining, workers' participation in decision-making,

and grievance and dispute settlement, and the management of conflicts between employers, workers and trade unions. In APOLLO TYRES India, we have studied all these aspects of relationships that exist between employees and employers. We have surveyed how workers feel about management and other subjects and interviewed management about their positions and perceptions on the same issues. This will help us to understand how an assembly line worker and an office employee see things within the same company. METHODOLOGY: Since the company employs around 800 employees at the headquarters, we have decided to conduct a sample survey to be conducted on 20% of the personnel and carry out personal interviews with representatives of almost all of the levels within each of the departments. In order to fully understand the employer-employee relation, an extensive study of the company literature is followed by the interpretation of the survey outcome. This will allow us to identify employee expectations and their validity from the employers point-of-view. As I cannot post an URL you will need to search for the following title "Trade Unions and their impact on the growth of organisations (India)"

History

The origins of unions' existence can be traced from the eighteenth century, where the rapid expansion of industrial society drew women, children, rural workers, and immigrants to the work force in larger numbers and in new roles. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labor spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout its beginnings and would later be an important arena for the development of trade unions. Trade unions as such were endorsed by the Catholic Church towards the end of the 19th Century.

Origins and early history

Trade Unions have sometimes been seen as successors to theguilds of medieval Europe, though the relationship between the two is disputed Medieval guilds existed to protect and enhance their members' livelihoods through controlling the instructional capital of artisanship and the progression of members from apprenticeto craftsman, journeyman, and eventually to master andgrandmas ter of their craft. A labor union might include workers from only one trade or craft, or might combine several or all the workers in one company or industry. Since the publication of the History of Trade Unionism (1894) bySidney andBeatrice Webb, the predominant historical view is that a trade union "is a continuous association of wage earners for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their employment. A modern definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics states that a trade union is "an organization consisting predominantly of employees, the principal activities of which include the negotiation of rates of pay and conditions of employment for its members. As Smith noted, unions were illegal for many years in most countries (and Smith argued that schemes to fix wages or prices, by employees or employers, should be). There were severe penalties for attempting to organize unions, up to and including execution. Despite this, unions were formed and began to acquire political power, eventually resulting in a body of labor law that not only legalized organizing efforts, but codified the relationship between employers and those employees organized into unions. Even after the legitimization of trade unions there was opposition, as the case of the To puddle Martyrs shows. The right to join a trade union is mentioned in article 23, subsection 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which also states in article 20, subsection 2 that "No one may be compelled to belong to an association". Prohibiting a person from joining or forming a union, as well as forcing a person to do the same (e.g. "closed shops" or "union shops", see below), whether by a government or by a business, is generally considered a human rights abuse. Similar allegations can be leveled if an employer discriminates based on trade union membership. Attempts by an employer, often with the help of outside agencies, to prevent union membership amongst their staff are known as union busting. one main group were the to puddle martyrs

19th Century American Unionism

In the early 1800s many men from large cities put together the organization which we now call the Trade Union Movement. Individuals who were members of unions at this

time were skilled, experienced, and knew how to get the job done. Their main reasoning for starting this movement was to put on strikes. However, they did not have enough men to fulfill their needs and the unions which began this trendy movement, collapsed quickly. The Mechanics Union Trade Association was the next approach to bring workers together. In 1827, this union was the first U.S. labor organization which brought together workers of divergent occupations. This was the first city-wide federation of American workers, which recognized that all labor, regardless of trades, had common problems that could be solved only by united effort as a class. This organization took off when carpentry workers from Philadelphia went on strike to protest their pay wages and working hours. This union strike was only a premonition of what was to come in the future. Workers realized what unionism was all about through the configuration of mechanics association and many people followed in their footsteps. The strike gave others hope that they. could get their concerns out by word of mouth. Before this time many people did not speak about their concerns because of the lack of bodies. However, with more people comes more confidence. Strikes were a new way of speaking your mind and getting things accomplished. The next established union which made an impact on the trade movement was the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union. This union was founded in 1834 as the first domestic association. However, this union was short lived due to the panic of 1837. [Andrew] Jackson thought the Bank of the United States hurt ordinary citizens by exercising too much control over credit and economic opportunity, and he succeeded in shutting it down. But the state banks' reckless credit policies led to massive speculation in Western lands. By 1837, after Van Buren had become president, banks were clearly in trouble. Some began to close, businesses began to fail, and thousands of people lost their land. This collapse of financial support and businesses left workers unemployed. Many of these workers, who became affected by the 1837 disaster, were members of a union. It was very hard for them to stay together in an economic hardship and the trade union movement came to a bump in the road. But the economy was restored by the early 1840s and trade unions started doing better. National labor unions were forming, different than ones in the past, consisting now of members of the same occupation. The work force was drastically impacted by the Civil War and the economy was thriving. Many workers gained employment because of this economic boom and unions increased greatly. More than 30 national craft unions were established during the 1860s and early '70s.One of the significant national craft unions to be formed during this time was the National Labor Union (NLU). It was created in 1866 and included many types of workers.Although relatively short-lived, the NLU paved the way for future American unions. Following the decline of the NLU, the Knights of Labor became the leading countrywide union in the 1860s. This union did not include Chinese, and partially included black people and women.[10]

Congress of Industrial Organizations

Main article: Congress of Industrial Organizations The CIO was put forth by John L. Lewis when troubles with the AFL persisted, after the death of Gompers in 1924. Many members of the union requested that they switch the rules which were laid out by Gompers. They wanted to support inexperienced workmen rather than only focusing on experienced workers of one occupation. John L. Lewis was the first member of the AFL to act upon this issue in 1935. He was the founder of the Committee for the Industrial Organization which was an original union branched from the AFL. The Committee for the Industrial Organization transformed into the Congress of Industrial Organization. The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) encompassed the largest sustained surge of worker organization in American history.[19] In the 1930s, the CIO grabbed many of their members attention through victorious strikes. In the 1935, employees of Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company formed their own union called the United Rubber Workers. The Rubber Workers went on strike in 1936 to protest an increase in product with lower pay wages. There were forty-eight strikes in 1936 in which the strikers remained at their jobs for at least one day; in twenty-two of these work stoppages, involving 34,565 workers, the strikers stayed inside the plants for more than twenty-four hours.[20] This tactic was called a sit-down strike which entailed workers to stop doing their job and sit in their place of employment. During these strikes, business owners were unable to bring in new workers to replace the ones who were on strike because they were still in their seats at the factory. This was unlike any strikes in the past. Before this time, workers showed their fury by leaving their factory and standing in

picket lines.Walter Reuther was in control of the union at this time and moved forward to higher roles during 1955.

Shop types
Companies that employ workers with a union generally operate on one of several models:

A closed shop (US) or a "pre-entry closed shop" (UK) employs only people who are already union members. The compulsory hiring hall is an example of a closed shop in this case the employer must recruit directly from the union, as well as the employee working strictly for unionized employers.

A union shop (US) or a "post-entry closed shop" (UK) employs non-union workers as well, but sets a time limit within which new employees must join a union.

An agency shop requires non-union workers to pay a fee to the union for its services in negotiating their contract. This is sometimes called the Rand formula. In certain situations involving state public employees in the United States, such as California, "fair share laws" make it easy to require these sorts of payments.

An open shop does not require union membership in employing or keeping workers. Where a union is active, workers who do not contribute to a union still benefit from the collective bargaining process. In the United States, state level right-to-work laws mandate the open shop in some states.

Features of trade unions:

1. It is an association either of employers or employees or of independent workers. They may consist of :o

Employers association (eg., Employers Federation of India, Indian paper mill association, etc.)
o

General labor unions

o

Friendly societies
o

Unions of intellectual labor (eg, All India Teachers Association) 2. It is formed on a continuous basis. It is a permanent body and not a casual or temporary one. They persist throughout the year. 3. It is formed to protect and promote all kinds of interests economic, political and social-of its members. The dominant interest with which a union is concerned is, however, economic. 4. It achieves its objectives through collective action and group effort. Negotiations and collective bargaining are the tools for accomplishing objectives. 5. Trade unions have shown remarkable progress since their inception; moreover, the character of trade unions has also been changing. In spite of only focusing on the economic benefits of workers, the trade unions are also working towards raising the status of labors as a part of industry.

IMPORTANCE OF TRADE UNIONS

Reduction in Industrial Disputes Good industrial relations reduce the industrial disputes. Disputes are reflections of the failure of basic human urges or motivations to secure adequate satisfaction or expression which are fully cured by good industrial relations. Strikes, lockouts, go-slow tactics, gherao and grievances are some of the

reflections of industrial unrest which do not spring up in an atmosphere of industrial peace. It helps promoting co-operation and increasing production. High morale Good industrial relations improve the morale of the employees.

Employees work with great zeal with the feeling in mind that the interest of employer and employees is one and the same, i.e. to increase production. Every worker feels that he is a co-owner of the gains of industry. The employer in his turn must realize that the gains of industry are not for him along but they should be shared equally and generously with his workers. In other words, complete unity of thought and action is the main achievement of industrial peace. It increases the place of workers in the society and their ego is satisfied. It naturally affects production because mighty co-operative efforts alone can produce great results. Mental Revolution The main object of industrial relation is a complete mental

revolution of workers and employees. The industrial peace lies ultimately in a transformed outlook on the part of both. It is the business of leadership in the ranks of workers, employees and Government to work out a new relationship in consonance with a spirit of true democracy. Both should think themselves as partners of the industry and the role of workers in such a partnership should be recognized. On the other hand, workers must recognize employers authority. It will naturally have impact on production because they recognize the interest of each other. Reduced Wastage Good industrial relations are maintained on the basis of

cooperation and recognition of each other. It will help increase production. Wastages of man, material and machines are reduced to the minimum and thus national interest is protected. Thus, it is evident that good industrial relations is the basis of higher production with minimum cost and higher profits. It also results in increased efficiency of workers. New and new projects may be introduced for the welfare of the workers and to promote the morale of the people at work. An economy organized for planned production and distribution, aiming at the realization of social justice and welfare of the massage can function effectively only in an atmosphere of industrial peace. If the twin objectives of rapid national development and increased social justice are to be achieved, there must be harmonious relationship between management and labor.

OBJECTIVES OF TRADE UNION

To establish and promote the growth of an industrial democracy based on labor partnership in the sharing of profits and of managerial decisions, so that ban individuals personality may grow its full stature for the benefit of the industry and of the country as well.

To eliminate or minimize the number of strikes, lockouts and gheraos by providing reasonable wages, improved living and working conditions, said fringe benefits.

To improve the economic conditions of workers in the existing state of industrial managements and political government.

Socialization of industries by making the state itself a major employer

Vesting of a proprietary interest of the workers in the industries in which they are employed.

FUNCTIONS OF TRADE UNION

Trade unions perform a number of functions in order to achieve the objectives. These functions can be broadly classified into two categories: (a)militant (b)Faternal

Militant function
One set of activities performed by trade unions leads to the betterment of the position of their members in relation to their employment. The aim of such activities is to ensure adequate wages, secure better conditions of work and employment, get better treatment from employers, etc. When the unions fail to accomplish these aims by the method of collective bargaining and negotiations, they adopt an approach and put up a fight with the management in the form of go-slow tactics, strike, boycott, gherao, etc. Hence, these functions of the trade unions are known as militant or fighting functions. Thus, the militant functions of trade unions can be summed up as:

To achieve higher wages and better working conditions

To raise the status of workers as a part of industry

To protect labors against victimization and injustice

Fraternal function

Another set of activities performed by trade unions aims at rendering help to its members in times of need, and improving their efficiency. Trade unions try to foster a spirit of cooperation and promote friendly industrial relations and diffuse education and culture among their members. They take up welfare measures for improving the morale of workers and generate self confidence among them. They also arrange for legal assistance to its members, if necessary. Besides, these, they undertake many welfare measures for their members, e.g., school for the education of children, library, reading-rooms, in-door and out-door games, and other recreational facilities. Some trade unions even undertake publication of some magazine or journal. These activities, which may be called fraternal functions, depend on the availability of funds, which the unions raise by subscription from members and donations from outsiders, and also on their competent and enlightened leadership. Thus, the fraternal functions of trade unions can be summed up as:

To take up welfare measures for improving the morale of workers

To generate self confidence among workers

To encourage sincerity and discipline among workers

To provide opportunities for promotion and growth

To protect women workers against discrimination

WHY TO JOIN TRADE UNION

The important forces that make the employees join a union are as follows:

1. Greater Bargaining Power The individual employee possesses very little bargaining power as compared to that of his employer. If he is not satisfied with the wage and other conditions of employment, he can leave the job. It is not practicable to continually resign from one job after another when he is dissatisfied. This imposes a great financial and emotional burden upon the worker. The better course for him is to join a union that can take concerted action against the employer. The threat or actuality of a strike by a union is a powerful tool that often causes the employer to accept the demands of the workers for better conditions of employment. 2. Minimize Discrimination The decisions regarding pay, work, transfer, promotion, etc. are highly subjective in nature. The personal relationships existing between the supervisor and each of his subordinates may influence the management. Thus, there are chances of favoritisms and discriminations. A trade union can compel the management to formulate personnel policies that press for equality of treatment to the workers. All the labor decisions of the management are under close scrutiny of the labor union. This has the effect of minimizing favoritism and discrimination. 3. Sense of Security The employees may join the unions because of their belief that it is an effective way to secure adequate protection from various types of hazards and income insecurity such as accident, injury, illness, unemployment, etc. The trade union secure retirement benefits of the workers and compel the management to invest in welfare services for the benefit of the workers. 4. Sense of Participation The employees can participate in management of matters affecting their interests only if they join trade unions. They can influence the decisions that are taken as a result of collective bargaining between the union and the management. 5. Sense of Belongingness Many employees join a union because their co-workers are the members of the union. At times, an employee joins a union under group pressure; if he does not, he often has a very difficult time at work. On the other hand, those who are members of a union feel that they gain respect in the eyes of their fellow workers. They can also discuss their problem with the trade union leaders. 6. Platform for self expression The desire for self-expression is a fundamental human drive for most people. All of us wish to share our feelings, ideas and opinions with others. Similarly the workers also want the management to listen to them. A trade union provides such a forum where the feelings, ideas and opinions of the workers could be discussed. It can also transmit the feelings, ideas, opinions and complaints of the workers to the management. The collective voice of the workers is heard by the management and give due consideration while taking policy decisions by the management.

7. Betterment of relationships Another reason for employees joining unions is that employees feel that unions can fulfill the important need for adequate machinery for proper maintenance of employeremployee relations. Unions help in betterment of industrial relations among management and workers by solving the problems peacefully.

Trade union in India

The trade unionism in India developed quite slowly as compared to the western nations. Indian trade union movement can be divided into three phases. The first phase (1850 to1900) During this phase the inception of trade unions took place. During this period, the working and living conditions of the labor were poor and their working hours were long. Capitalists were only interested in their productivity and profitability. In addition, the wages were also low and general economic conditions were poor in industries. In order to regulate the working hours and other service conditions of the Indian textile laborers, the Indian Factories Act was enacted in 1881. As a result, employment of child labor was prohibited. The growth of trade union movement was slow in this phase and later on the Indian Factory Act of 1881 was amended in 1891. Many strikes took place in the two decades following 1880 in all industrial cities. These strikes taught workers to understand the power of united action even though there was no union in real terms. Small associations like Bombay Mill-Hands Association came up by this time. The second phase (1900 to 1946) This phase was characterized by the development of organized trade unions and political movements of the working class. Between 1918 and 1923, many unions came into existence in the country. At Ahmedabad, under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi, occupational unions like spinners unions and weavers unions were formed. A strike was launched by these unions under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi who turned it into a satyagrah. These unions federated into industrial union known as Textile Labor Association in 1920.In 1920, the First National Trade union organization (The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)) was established. Many of the leaders of this organization were leaders of the national Movement. In 1926, Trade union law came up with the efforts of Mr. N N Joshi that became operative from 1927. During 1928, All India Trade Union Federation (AITUF) was formed. The third phase began with the emergence of independent India (in 1947). The partition of country affected the trade union movement particularly Bengal and Punjab. By 1949, four central trade union organizations were functioning in the country: 1. The All India Trade Union Congress, 2. The Indian National Trade Union Congress, 3. The Hindu Mazdoor Sangh, and 4. The United Trade Union Congress

The working class movement was also politicized along the lines of political parties. For instance Indian national trade Union Congress (INTUC) is the trade union arm of the Congress Party. The AITUC is the trade union arm of the Communist Party of India. Besides workers, white-collar employees, supervisors and managers are also organized by the trade unions, as for example in the Banking, Insurance and Petroleum industries. Trade unions in India The Indian workforce consists of 430 million workers, growing 2% annually. The Indian labor markets consist of three sectors: 1. The rural workers, who constitute about 60 per cent of the workforce. 2. Organized sector, which employs 8 per cent of workforce, and 3. The urban informal sector (which includes the growing software industry and other services, not included in the formal sector) which constitutes the rest 32 per cent of the workforce. At present there are twelve Central Trade Union Organizations in India: 1. All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) 2. Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) 3. Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU) 4. Hind Mazdoor Kisan Panchayat (HMKP) 5. Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) 6. Indian Federation of Free Trade Unions (IFFTU) 7. Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) 8. National Front of Indian Trade Unions (NFITU) 9. National Labor Organization (NLO) 10. Trade Unions Co-ordination Centre (TUCC) 11. United Trade Union Congress (UTUC) and United Trade Union Congress - Lenin Sarani (UTUC LS) Figures regarding trade union in India
Table Showing Growth Of Trade Unions and Membership is following below

Industrial relation policy

Prior to 1991, the industrial relations system in India sought to control conflicts and disputes through excessive labor legislations. These labor laws were protective in nature and covered a wide range of aspects of workplace industrial relations like laws on health and safety of labors, layoffs and retrenchment policies, industrial disputes and the like. The basic purpose of these laws was to protect labors. However, these protectionist policies created an atmosphere that led to increased inefficiency in firms, over employment and inability to introduce efficacy.

With the coming of globalization, the 40 year old policy of protectionism proved inadequate for Indian industry to remain competitive as the lack of flexibility posed a serious threat to manufacturers because they had to compete in the international market. With the advent of liberalization in1992, the industrial relations policy began to change. Now, the policy was tilted towards employers. Employers opted for workforce reduction, introduced policies of voluntary retirement schemes and flexibility in workplace also increased. Thus, globalization brought major changes ini nd ust ri al relations policy in India. The changes can be summarized as follows:

Collective bargaining in India has mostly been decentralized, but now in sectors where it was not so, are also facing pressures to follow decentralization.

Some industries are cutting employment to a significant extent to cope with the domestic and foreign competition e.g. pharmaceuticals. On the other hand, in other industries where the demand for employment is increasing are experiencing employment growths.

In the expansionary economy there is a clear shortage of managers and skilled labor. The number of local and enterprise level unions has increased and there is a significant reduction in the influence of the unions.

Under pressure some unions and federations are putting up a united front e.g. banking. Another trend is that the employers have started to push for internal unions i.e. no outside affiliation. HR policies and forms of work are emerging that include, especially in multi-national companies, multi- skills, variable compensation, job rotation etc. These new policies are difficult to implement in place of old practices as the institutional set up still needs to be changed.

HRM is seen as a key component of business strategy. Training and skill development is also receiving attention in a number of industries, especially banking and information technology