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Human Growth and Development Theories

December 7, 2008

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The term growth and development both refers to dynamic process. Often used interchangeably, these terms have different meanings. Growth and development are interdependent, interrelated process. Growth generally takes place during the first 20 years of life.; development continues after that. Growth: 1. Is physical change and increase in size. 2. It can be measured quantitatively. 3. Indicators of growth includes height, weight, bone size, and dentition. 4. Growth rates vary during different stages of growth and development. 5. The growth rate is rapid during the prenatal, neonatal, infancy and adolescent stages and slows during childhood. 6. Physical growth is minimal during adulthood. Development: 1. Is an increase in the complexity of function and skill progression. 2. It is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment. 3. Development is the behavioral aspect of growth. THEORIES: 1. Freuds Psychosexual Development Theory STAGE AGE CHARACTERISTICS 1. Oral Birth to 1 Center of pleasure: mouth (major source of gratification y/o & exploration) Primary need: Security

Major conflict: weaning 2. Anal 1 to 3 y/o Source of pleasure: anus & bladder (sensual satisfaction & self-control) Major conflict: toilet training 3. Phallic 4 to 6 y/o Center of pleasure: childs genital (masturbation) Major conflict: Oedipus & Electra Complex 4. Latency 6 y/o to Energy directed to physical & intellectual activities puberty Sexual impulses repressed Relationship between peers of same sex 5. Genital Puberty Energy directed towards full sexual maturity & function onwards & development of skills to cope with the environment 2. Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory STAGE AGE CENTRAL (+) RESOLUTION (-) RESOLUTION TASK 1. Infancy Birth-18 Trust vs Learn to trust others Mistrust, mos Mistrust withdrawal, estrangement 2. Early 1 to 3 y/o Autonomy vs Self control w/o loss of Compulsive, selfchildhood Shame & self esteem restraint or doubt Ability of cooperate & compliance. express oneself Willfulness & defiance. 3. Late 3 to 5 y/o Initiative vs Learns to become Lack of selfchildhood guilt assertive confidence. Ability to evaluate Pessimism, fear of ones own behavior wrongdoing. Over-control & over-restriction. 4. School Age 6 to 12 y/o Industry vs Learns to create, Loss of hope, Inferiority develop & manipulate. sense of being Develop sense of mediocre. competence & Withdrawal from perseverance. school & peers. 5. 1220 y/o Identity vs Coherent sense of self. Feelings of Adolescence role confusion Plans to actualize confusion, ones abilities indecisiveness, & possible anti-social behavior. 6. Young 18-25 y/o Intimacy vs Intimate relationship Impersonal Adulthood isolation with another person. relationships. Commitment to work Avoidance of and relationships. relationship, career or lifestyle commitments. 7. Adulthood 25-65 y/o Generativity Creativity,productivity, Self-indulgence, vs stagnation concern for others. self-concern, lack

of interests & commitments. 8. Maturity 65 y/o to Integrity vs Acceptance of worth & Sense of loss, death despair uniqueness of ones contempt for own life. others. Acceptance of death. 3. Havighursts Developmental Stage and Tasks DEVELOPMENTAL DEVELOPMENTAL TASK STAGE 1. Infancy & early childhood - eat solid foods - walk - talk - control elimination of wastes - relate emotionally to others - distinguish right from wrong through development of a conscience - learn sex differences and sexual modesty - achieve personal independence - form simple concepts of social & physical reality 2. Middle childhood - learn physical skills, required for games - build healthy attitudes towards oneself - learn to socialize with peers - learn appropriate masculine or feminine role - gain basic reading, writing & mathematical skills - develop concepts necessary for everyday living - formulate a conscience based on a value system - achieve personal independence - develop attitudes toward social groups & institutions 3. Adolescence - establish more mature relationships with same-age individuals of both sexes - achieve a masculine or feminine social role - accept own body - establish emotional independence from parents - achieve assurance of economic independence - prepare for an occupation - prepare for marriage & establishment of a family - acquire skills necessary to fulfill civic responsibilities - develop a set of values that guides behavior 4. Early Adulthood - select a partner - learn to live with a partner - start a family - manage a home - establish self in a career/occupation - assume civic responsibilities - become part of a social group 5. Middle Adulthood - fulfill civic & social responsibilities

- maintain an economic standard of living - assist adolescent children to become responsible, happy adults - relate ones partner - adjust to physiological changes - adjust to aging parents 6. Later Maturity - adjust to physiological changes & alterations in health status - adjust to retirement & altered income - adjust to death of spouse - develop affiliation with ones age group - meet civic & social responsibilities - establish satisfactory living arrangements 4. Levinsons Seasons of Adulthood AGE SEASON CHARACTERISTICS 18-20 yrs Early adult Seeks independence by separating from family transition 21-27 yrs Entrance into the Experiments with different careers & lifestyles adult world 28-32 yrs Transition Makes lifestyle adjustments 33-39 yrs Settling down Experiences greater stability 45-65 yrs Pay-off years Is self-directed & engages in self-evaluation 4. Sullivans Interpersonal Model of Personality Development STAGE AGE DESCRIPTION 1. Infancy Birth to Infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet needs 1 yrs & desires 2. Childhood 1 to 6 yrs Child begins learning to delay immediate gratification of needs & desires 3. Juvenile 6 to 9 yrs Child forms fulfilling peer relationships 4. Preadolescence 9 to 12 yrs Child relates successfully to same-sex peers 5. Early Adolescence 12 to 14 yrs Adolescent learns to be independent & forms relationships with members of opposite sex 6. Late Adolescence 14 to 21 yrs Person establishes an intimate, long-lasting relationship with someone of the opposite sex 5. Piagets Phases of Cognitive Development PHASE AGE DESCRIPTION a. Sensorimotor Birth to 2 yrs Sensory organs & muscles become more functional Stage 1: Use of Birth to 1 Movements are primarily reflexive reflexes month Stage 2: Primary 1-4 months Perceptions center around ones body. circular reaction Objects are perceived as extensions of the self. Stage 3: Secondary 4-8 months Becomes aware of external environment. circular reaction Initiates acts to change the movement. Stage 4: Coordination 8-12 months Differentiates goals and goal-directed activities. of secondary schemata

Stage 5: Tertiary circular reaction Stage 6: Invention of new means

Experiments with methods to reach goals. Develops rituals that become significant. Uses mental imagery to understand the environment. Uses fantasy. b. Pre-operational 2-7 years Emerging ability to think Pre-conceptual stage 2-4 year Thinking tends to be egocentric. Exhibits use of symbolism. Intuitive stage 4-7 years Unable to break down a whole into separate parts. Able to classify objects according to one trait. c. Concrete 7-11 years Learns to reason about events in the here-andOperations now. d. Formal Operations 11+ years Able to see relationships and to reason in the abstract. 6. Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Development LEVEL AND STAGE DESCRIPTION LEVEL I: Pre-conventional Authority figures are obeyed. (Birth to 9 years) Misbehavior is viewed in terms of damage done. Stage 1: Punishment & obedience A deed is perceived as wrong if one is punished; orientation the activity is right if one is not punished. Stage 2: Instrumental-relativist Right is defined as that which is acceptable to & orientation approved by the self. When actions satisfy ones needs, they are right. LEVEL II: Conventional Cordial interpersonal relationships are maintained. (9-13 years) Approval of others is sought through ones actions. Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance Authority is respected. Stage 4: Law and order orientation Individual feels duty bound to maintain social order. Behavior is right when it conforms to the rules. LEVEL III: Post-conventional Individual understands the morality of having democratically established laws. (13+ years) Stage 5: Social contract orientation It is wrong to violate others rights. Stage 6: Universal ethics The person understands the principles of human orientation rights & personal conscience. Person believes that trust is basis for relationships. 7. Gilligans Theory of Moral Development LEVEL CHARACTERISTICS I. Orientation of Individual Survival Concentrates on what is best for self. Transition Selfish. Dependent on others. Transition 1: From Selfishness to Recognizes connections to others. Responsibility Makes responsible choices in terms of self and others.

12-18 months 18-24 months

II. Goodness as Self-sacrifice

Transition 2: From Goodness to Truth

III. Morality of Nonviolence

Puts needs of others ahead of own. Feels responsible for others. Is dependent. May use guilt to manipulate others when attempting to help. Decisions based on intentions & consequences, not on others responses. Considers needs of self and others. Wants to help others while being responsible to self. Increased social participation. Sees self and others as morally equal Assumes responsibilities for own decisions. Basic tenet to hurt no one including self. Conflict between selfishness and selflessness. Self-judgment is not dependent on others perceptions but rather on consequences & intentions of actions. CHARACTERISTICS Trust, hope and love compete with environmental inconsistencies or threats if abandonment. Imitates parental behaviors and attitudes about religion and spirituality. Has no real understanding of spiritual concepts. Accepts existence of a deity. Religious & moral beliefs are symbolized by stories. Appreciates others viewpoints. Accepts concept of reciprocal fairness. Questions values & religious beliefs in an attempt to form own identity. Assumes responsibility for own attitudes & beliefs. Integrates other perspectives about faith into own definition of truth. Makes concepts of love & justice tangible.

8. Fowlers Stages of Faith STAGE AGE PreInfant stage:Undifferentiated faith Stage 1: IntuitiveToddlerprojective faith preschooler

Stage 2: Mythicalliteral faith

School-aged child

Stage 3: Syntheticconventional faith Stage 4: Individuativereflective faith Stage 5: Conjunctive faith Stage 6: Universalizing faith

Adolescent Late adolescent & young adult Adult Adult

http://nursingcrib.com/nursing-notes-reviewer/maternal-child-health/developmental-theories/ Theorists consider that emotional, social, cognitive and moral skills develop in stages.

1.

Psychosocial Erik Eriksons theory of psychosocial development is most widely used. At each stage, children confront a crisis that requires the integration of personal needs and skills with social and cultural expectations. Each stage has two possible components, favorable and unfavorable. Psychosexual Sigmund Freud considered sexual instincts to be significant in the development of personality. At each stage, regions of the body assume prominent psychologic significance as source of pleasure. Cognitive Jean Piaget proposed four major stages of development for logical thinking. Each stage arises from and builds on the previous stage in an orderly fashion. Moral Lawrence Kohlbergs theory of moral development is based on cognitive development and consists of three major levels, each containing two stages.

2. 3. 4.

Stage Infancy (birth to 1 year) Toddlerhood (1-3 years old)

Erikson Trust vs. mistrust

Freud Oral

Piaget Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) Sensorimotor (12 years); preoperational (preconceptual) (2-4 years) Preoperational (preconceptual) (2-4 years); preoperational (intuitive) (4-7 years) Concrete operations (7-11 years)

Kohlberg

Autonomy vs. same and doubt

Anal

Preconventional

Preschool (3-6 years old)

Initiative vs. guilt

Phallic

Preconventional

School Age (6-12 years)

Industry vs. inferiority

Latency

Conventional

Adolescence (12-18 years)

Identity vs. role diffusion (confusion)

Genital

Formal operations (11-15 years)

Postconventional

Source: Lippincotts Review Series