Acylation

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In chemistry, acylation (rarely, but more formally: alkanoylation) is the process of adding an acyl group to a compound. The compound providing the acyl group is called the acylating agent. Because they form a strong electrophile when treated with some metal catalysts, acyl halides are commonly used as acylating agents. For example, Friedel-Crafts acylation uses acetyl chloride(ethanoyl chloride), CH3COCl, as the agent and aluminum chloride (AlCl3) as a catalyst to add an ethanoyl (acetyl) group to benzene:

The mechanism of this reaction is electrophilic substitution. Acyl halides and anhydrides of carboxylic acids are also commonly used acylating agents to acylate amines to form amides or acylate alcohols to form esters. The amines and alcohols arenucleophiles; the mechanism is nucleophilic additionelimination. Succinic acid is also commonly used in a specific type of acylation called succination. Oversuccination occurs when more than one succinate adds to a single compound. Acylation is commonly used in biological signaling.[1

Alcoholysis

Definition: General chemical reaction involving an ester exchange or the process of reacting an ester with an alcohol. The cleavage of a CC bond by the addition of an alcohol.

Alkylation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Alkylating agent" redirects here. For the class of drugs, see alkylating antineoplastic agent.

Alkylation is the transfer of an alkyl group from one molecule to another. The alkyl group may be transferred as an alkyl carbocation, a free radical, a carbanion or a carbene (or their equivalents).[1]Alkylating agents are widely used in chemistry because the alkyl group is probably the most common group encountered in organic molecules. Many biological target molecules or their synthetic precursors are composed of an alkyl chain with specific functional groups in a specific order. Selective alkylation, or adding parts to the chain with the desired functional groups, is used, especially if there is no commonly available biological precursor. Alkylation with only one carbon is termed methylation. In oil refining contexts, alkylation refers to a particular alkylation of isobutane with olefins. It is a major aspect of the upgrading of petroleum.[2] In medicine, alkylation of DNA is used in chemotherapy to damage the DNA of cancer cells. Alkylation is accomplished with the class of drugs called alkylating antineoplastic agents.

Reductive amination
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Reductive amination (also known as reductive alkylation) is a form of amination that involves the conversion of a carbonyl group to an amine via an intermediate imine. The carbonyl group is most commonly a ketone or an aldehyde.

Amonnolysis
decomposition in which ammonia is resolved into other compoundsby being a source of H+ a nd NH2.

Aromatization
The conversion of any nonaromatic hydrocarbon structures, especially those found in petroleum, to aromatic hydrocarbons. There are numerous routes and means to accomplish this transformation, the simplest and most important of which are direct dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics, reaction (1); dehydroisomerization of naphthenes to aromatics, reaction (2); dehydrocyclization of aliphatics to aromatics, reaction (3); and high-temperature condensation of hydrocarbons to aromatics, reaction (4).

Calcination (also referred to as calcining) is a thermal treatment process applied to ores and other solid materials to bring about a thermal decomposition, phase transition, or removal of a volatile fraction. The calcination process normally takes place at temperatures below the melting point of the product materials. Calcination is to be distinguished from roasting, in which more complex gassolid reactions take place between the furnace atmosphere and the solids.

Calcination reactions
Calcination reactions usually take place at or above the thermal decomposition temperature (for decomposition and volatilization reactions) or the transition temperature (for phase transitions). This temperature is usually defined as the temperature at which the standard Gibbs free energy for a particular calcination reaction is equal to zero. For example, in limestone calcination, a decomposition process, the chemical reaction is CaCO3 CaO + CO2(g)

The standard Gibbs free energy of reaction is approximated as Gr = 177,100 158 T (J/mol).[2] The standard free energy of reaction is zero in this case when the temperature, T, is equal to 1121 K, or 848 C. Examples of chemical decomposition reactions common in calcination processes, and their respective thermal decomposition temperatures include: CaCO3 CaO + CO2; 848 C

Causticization

A process for converting an alkaline carbonate into lime.

Combustion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the process of burning. For combustion without external ignition, see spontaneous combustion. For the engine used in mobile propulsion, see internal combustion engine. For the visible part of a fire, see flame. "Burning" redirects here. For other uses, see Burning (disambiguation). For other uses, see Combustion (disambiguation).

The flames caused as a result of afuel undergoing combustion (burning)

Combustion (English pronunciation: /kmbs.tn /) or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical

species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame. Fuels of interest often include organic compounds (especially hydrocarbons) in the gas, liquid or solid phase. In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidizing element, such as oxygen or fluorine, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing element. For example: CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O + energy CH2S + 6 F2 CF4 + 2 HF + SF6[discuss] A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, which is a commonly used reaction in rocket engines: 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O(g) + heat The result is water vapor. Complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve. In reality, as actual combustion reactions come to equilibrium, a wide variety of major and minor species will be present such as carbon monoxide and pure carbon (soot or ash). Additionally, any combustion in atmospheric air, which is 78% nitrogen, will also create several forms of nitrogen oxides.

Condensation
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For other uses, see Condensation (disambiguation).

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific cleanup instructions.) Please helpimprove this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (October 2010)

Water vapour condenses into a liquid after making contact with the surface of a cold bottle.

Condensation forming over the wing of an aircraft in a low pressure zone

Condensation is the change of the physical state of matter from gaseous phase into liquid phase, and is the reverse of vaporization.[1] When the transition happens from the gaseous phase into the solid phase directly, the change is called deposition. Condensation is initiated by the formation of atomic/molecular clusters of that species within its gaseous volumelike rain drop or snow-flake formation within cloudsor at the contact between such gaseous phase and a (solvent) liquid or solid surface. A few distinct reversibility scenarios emerge here with respect to the nature of the surface.

absorption into the surface of a liquid (either of the same species or one of its solvents)is reversible as evaporation.[1]

adsorption (as dew droplets) onto solid surface at pressures and temperatures higher than the specie's triple pointalso reversible as evaporation.

adsorption onto solid surface (as supplemental layers of solid) at pressures and temperatures lower than the specie's triple pointis reversible assublimation.

Condensation commonly occurs when a vapour is cooled and/or compressed to its saturation limit when the molecular density in the gas phase reaches its maximal threshold. Vapour cooling and compressing equipment that collects condensed liquids is called "condenser". Psychrometry measures the rates of condensation from and evaporation into the air moisture at various atmospheric pressures and temperatures. Water is the product of its vapour condensationcondensation is the process of such phase conversion.

Dehydration reaction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about chemical reactions resulting in the loss of water from a molecule. For the removal of water from solvents and reagents, see desiccation. In chemistry and the biological sciences, a dehydration reaction is usually defined as a chemical reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule. Dehydration reactions are a subset of elimination reactions. Because the hydroxyl group (-OH) is a poor leaving group, having a Brnsted acid catalyst often helps by protonating the hydroxyl group to give the better leaving group, -OH2+. The reverse of a dehydration reaction is a hydration reaction. Dehydration reactions and dehydration synthesis have the same meaning, and are often used interchangeably. Two monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose can be joined together (to form sucrose) using dehydration synthesis. The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a disaccharide. The process of hydrolysis is the reverse reaction, meaning that the water is recombined with the two hydroxyl groups and the disaccharide reverts to being monosaccharides. In the related condensation reaction water is released from two different reactants.

Dehydrogenation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Dehydrogenation is a chemical reaction that involves the elimination of hydrogen (H2). It is the reverse process of hydrogenation. Dehydrogenation reactions may be either large scale industrial processes or smaller scale laboratory procedures. There are a variety of classes of dehydrogenations:

Aromatization - Six-membered alicyclic rings can be aromatized in the presence of hydrogenation catalysts, the elements sulfur and selenium, or quinones (such as DDQ).

Oxidation - The conversion of alcohols to ketones or aldehydes can be effected by metal catalysts such as copper chromite. In the Oppenauer oxidation, hydrogen is transferred from one alcohol to another to bring about the oxidation.

Dehydrogenation of amines - amines can be converted to nitriles using a variety of reagents, such as IF5. Dehydrogenation of paraffins and olefins - paraffins like n-pentane and isopentane can be converted to pentene and isoprene using chromium (III) oxide as a catalyst at 500 degree C.

Dehydrogenation converts saturated fats to unsaturated fats. Enzymes that catalyze dehydrogenation are called dehydrogenases. Dehydrogenation processes are used extensively to produce styrene in the Fine Chemicals, Oleo Chemicals, Petrochemicals and Detergents Industries.

Likely feed stocks to be used in this dehydrogenation process include hydrocarbons such as:

Ethylbenzene; Methanol; Butane & Butene; and Cyclohexane

as well as inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulfide or hydrogen iodide.

Double Decomposition
Reaction between two chemical substances (usually salts in solution) that results in the exchange of a constituent from each compound to create two different compounds. For example, if silver nitrate solution is added to a solution of sodium chloride, there is an exchange of ions yielding sodium nitrate and silver chloride (which is precipitated).

Electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water (H2O) into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen gas (H2) due to an electric current being passed through the water.

Preparation
Esterification is the general name for a chemical reaction in which two reactants (typically an alcohol and an acid) form an ester as the reaction product. Esters are common in organic chemistry and biological materials, and often have a characteristic pleasant, fruity odor. This leads to their extensive use in the fragrance and flavor industry. Ester bonds are also found in many polymers. [edit]Esterification of carboxylic acids The classic synthesis is the Fischer esterification, which involves treating a carboxylic acid with an alcohol in the presence of a dehydrating agent: RCO2H + R'OH RCO2R' + H2O

The equilibrium constant for such reactions is about 5 for typical esters, e.g., ethyl acetate.[8] but the reaction is slow in the absence of a catalyst. Sulfuric acid is a typical catalyst for this reaction. Many other acids are also used such as polymeric sulfonic acids. Since esterification is highly reversible, the yield of the ester can be improved using Le Chatelier's principle: using the alcohol in large excess (i.e., as a solvent) using a dehydrating agent: Sulfuric acid not only catalyzes the reaction but sequesters water (a reaction product). Other drying agents like molecular sieves can also be used. removal of water by physical means such as distillation as a low-boiling azeotropes with toluene, in conjunction with a Dean-Stark apparatus.

Reagents are known that drive the dehydration of mixtures of alcohols and carboxylic acids. One example is the Steglich esterification, which is a method of forming esters under mild conditions. The method is popular in peptide synthesis, where the substrates are sensitive to harsh conditions like high heat. DCC (dicyclohexylcarbodiimide) is used to activate the carboxylic acid to further reaction. DMAP (4dimethylaminopyridine) is used as an acyl-transfer catalyst.[9]

Another method for the dehydration of mixtures of alcohols and carboxylic acids is the Mitsunobu reaction: RCO2H + R'OH + P(C6H5)3 + R2N2 RCO2R' + OP(C6H5)3 + R2N2H2 Carboxylic acids can be esterified using diazomethane: RCO2H + CH2N2 RCO2CH3 + N2 Using this diazomethane, mixtures of carboxylic acids can be converted to their methyl esters in near quantitative yields, e.g., for analysis by gas chromatography. The method is useful in specialized organic synthetic operations but is considered too expensive for large scale applications.

Fermentation