Chapter 8

Development

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Nature, Nurture, and Prenatal Development

Learning Outcomes
Compare and contrast the influence of nature versus nurture Describe developmental research techniques Discuss prenatal development

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Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture

Developmental psychology studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life.
The question is: How can we distinguish between the environmental causes of behavior (parents, siblings, family, etc.) and hereditary causes (based on genetic make-up)?

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Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture

Developmental psychologists agree that, in most instances, environmental factors play a critical role in enabling people to reach the potential capabilities that their genetic background makes possible. Nature refers to the hereditary factors and nurture refers to the environmental factors. Developmental psychologists today agree that both nature and nurture interact to produce specific developmental patterns and outcomes. Developmental psychologists typically take an interactionist position, suggesting that a combination of hereditary and environmental factors influence development. McGraw-Hill 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5

Nature, Nurture, and Prenatal Development (cont.)

Nature-nurture issue: the issue of the degree to which environment (nurture) and heredity (nature) influence behavior
No longer a question of nature versus nurture because both factors interact to produce developmental patterns and outcomes Now we ask, how and to what degree do nature and nurture produce their effects?

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 Developmental psychologists use several approaches to discuss the nature-nurture issue, or determine the relationship between genetic and environmental factors on behavior.
Nonhuman research Study of identical twins People raised in similar environments with different genetic backgrounds.
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Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture

Experimentally control genetic makeup of laboratory animals, then study environmental influences Identical twins (share 100% of their genetic makeup) and non-twin siblings raised apart: similarities as adults show importance of heredity Adopted children: similarities with biological children in same family show importance of environment
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Developmental Research Techniques

Cross-sectional research: comparing people of different ages at the same point in time Longitudinal research: studying the same people as they age Sequential research: combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal; considers different age groups, examined at several points in time

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For Women..
At birth, a girl have 2 million immature ova Follicle: Small sac in the ovary containing the immature ovum. Ovulation: The rupture of a mature follicle and expulsion of the ovum occurs about once every 28 days until menopause. Cilia: Tiny hair cells in the fallopian tubes that sweep the ovum along.

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For Men..
Sperm is produced in testicles (testes) in the form of semen and release in sexual climax called ejaculation. Deposited in the vagina and try to swim through the cervix - the opening of the uterus and into the fallopian tube.

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Fertilization
Will occur while the ovum is passing through the fallopian tube. If not occur, the sperm and the ovum die.
Sperm are absorbed by the womans white blood cells Ovum passes through the uterus and exits through the vagina.

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Stages of Prenatal Development

Stage Germinal Embryonic Duration Conception to 2 weeks 2 to 8 weeks

Fetal

8 weeks to birth

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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth

Basics of genetics
Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information; 23 pairs, one chromosome of each pair from the mother and one from the father
Each chromosome contains genessmaller units, through which genetic information is transmitted. Some genes control the development of systems common to all humans. Some genes are also responsible for a wide variety of personal characteristics.

Zygote: the new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm

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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (cont.)

Embryo: a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs (2 weeks after conception)
Embryonic stage

Fetus: a developing individual, from eight weeks after conception until birth
Fetal Stage

Age of viability: the point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely (about 22 weeks)
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Embryonic Stage

1 week

7 weeks

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Fetal Stage
3 months 3 months
4 months

5 months
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6 months

 7 months

8 months

9 months
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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (cont.)

Sensitive/critical periods: during prenatal development, time when the fetus is particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli At the end of 38 weeks of pregnancy, a fetus will weigh around 7 pounds and typically be about 20 inches in length. Preterm infants, born before week 38 (8 to 8.5 months), run a higher risk for illness, future problems and even death. Infants born after 30 (7.5 months) weeks have relatively good prospects.
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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (cont.)

In 2 to 5 percent of pregnancies, children are born with serious birth defects. A major cause of birth defects is faulty genes or chromosomal difficulties. Three common genetic and chromosomal difficulties are: Genetic influences on the fetus
Phenylketonuria (PKU): child cannot produce enzyme needed for normal development; causes intellectual disabilities Sickle-cell anemia: causes abnormally shaped red blood cells Down syndrome: zygote receives extra chromosome at moment of conception; one of the causes of mental retardation
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Prenatal Development: Conception to Birth (cont.)

Prenatal environmental influences
Teratogens: environmental agents (drugs, chemicals, etc.) that produce a birth defect Mothers nutrition Mothers illness Alcohol & nicotine use
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol effects (FAE)

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Infancy and Childhood

Learning Outcomes
Describe the major competencies of newborns Explain the milestones of physical, social, and cognitive development during childhood

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The Extraordinary Newborn

A newborn is known as a neonate. While a baby doesnt look like the perfect picture of a newborn right after birth, the neonate makes a remarkable change during the first two weeks after birth, as it takes on the more familiar appearance.

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The Extraordinary Newborn

Even more astounding are the capabilities the neonate displays from the moment of birth. These capabilities grow at an amazing rate over the ensuing months. Many of the reflexes that a neonate is born with are critical to survival and unfold naturally as part of an infants ongoing maturation.

The Extraordinary Newborn

Reflexes: automatic, involuntary responses to incoming stimuli
Neonate born with rooting, sucking, gag, startle, & Babinski reflexes

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Neonates are born with a number of reflexes:

Rooting reflex -turning the head towards things that touch their cheeks. Sucking reflex - sucking at things that touch their lips. Gag reflex - for clearing their throat. Startle reflex - response to sudden noise. Babinski reflex - the toes fan out when the inside edge of the sole of the foot is stroked.
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The Extraordinary Newborn

Sensory development: neonates can follow moving objects within their field of vision, show some depth perception, discriminate facial expressions, recognize their mothers voices at 3 days old, and recognize different tastes and smells
They raise their hands to block objects moving toward their face. By 2 days of age, infants can distinguish between their native tongue and a foreign language. They can discriminate different language sounds. They discriminate between sweet and unsweetened tastes.
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The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood

From infancy into middle childhood and the start of adolescence, children develop physically, socially, and cognitively in extraordinary ways. Physical growth provides the most obvious signs of development. The nature of a childs early social development provides the foundation for social relationships that will last a lifetime.

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

During infancy the most important form of social development is attachmentthe positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular person.
Developmental psychologists suggest that human attachment grows through the responsiveness of caregivers to the babys signals, such as crying. The greater the responsiveness, the more likely it is that the child will become securely attached.

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The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

Attachment: positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual, usually a caregiver (Harlows research with monkeys)
Classified as secure, avoidant, ambivalent, or disorganized-disoriented

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Psychologists have devised a way of measuring attachment. The Ainsworth strange situation consists of a sequence of events involving a child and (typically) his or her mother. Secure attachmentthe child explores independently, but returns to mother occasionally. When the mother leaves the child exhibits distress, but goes for her when she returns. Avoidant attachmentthe child does not cry when the mother leaves, but the child avoids her when she returns. Ambivalent attachmentthe child displays anxiety before separation, is upset when the mother leaves, but the child shows ambivalent reactions to her return. Disorganized-disorientated attachmentthe child shows inconsistent, often contradictory behavior.

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 As children grow, social interaction helps children interpret the meaning of others behavior and develop the capacity to respond appropriately.

Fathers Role
Fathers role: nature of attachment is similar to mothers, but type of play/interaction may be different (fathers engage in more physical activities, while mothers are more verbal)

 Child care outside the home can be beneficial, especially for children from disadvantaged homes, if it is a high-quality program The effect of childcare outside the home depends on several factors, but especially on the quality of the child care provided.

Parenting Styles
Authoritarian: rigid, punitive, demand obedience, require a lot from their children Permissive: relaxed or inconsistent direction, require little from their children Authoritative: firm, set limits, use reasoning, explain things, encourage independence Uninvolved: show little interest, emotionally detached, believe parenting is only providing food, clothing, and shelter
Specific kinds of parenting styles may, in part, be brought about by the childs temperament (basic, innate disposition with which the child is born)

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Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development

Eriksons theory of psychosocial development: change in our interactions and understanding of each other and our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society; passing through each stage necessitates resolution of a crisis or conflict
Trust vs. mistrust (birth 1 ): develop trust if physical and psychological needs are met Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt (1 3): develop autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged
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Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development

Initiative vs. guilt (3 6): resolved positively if parents react positively to childrens attempts at independence Industry vs. inferiority (6 12): resolved positively if child shows increased competency in social interactions and academic skills

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The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

Erickson suggests that passage through each of the stages necessitates the resolution of a crisis or conflict. Although each crisis is never resolved entirely life becomes increasingly complex as we grow older it has to be resolved sufficiently to equip us to deal with demands during the following stage of development.
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The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

Cognitive development: the process by which a childs understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience; intellectual development

The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

Some theorists have suggested that children cannot understand certain ideas and concepts until they reach a particular stage of cognitive development. In contrast to the theories of physical and social development such as those of Erikson, theories of cognitive development seek to explain the quantitative and qualitative intellectual advances that occur during development.

Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development

No theory of cognitive development has had more impact than that of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget (1970) suggested that children around the world proceed through a series of 4 stages in a fixed order. He maintained that these stages differed not only in the quantity of the information acquired in each stage but in the quality of knowledge and understanding as well.

Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development

He suggested that movement from one stage to the next occurs when a child reaches an appropriate level of maturation and is exposed to relevant types of experiences. Without having such experiences, said Piaget, children cant reach their highest level of cognitive growth.

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

Sensorimotor Stage
birth to age 2 infants interact with and learn about their environments by relating their sensory experiences to their motor experiences object permanence
develops over a period of 9 months refers to the understanding that objects or events continue to exist even if they can no longer be heard, touched or seen
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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

Preoperational Stage
about age 2 to 7 years children learn to use symbols, such as words or mental images, to solve simple problems and to think or talk about things that are not present Conservation
refers to the fact that even though the shape of some object or substance is changed, the total amount remains the same refers to seeing and thinking of the world only from your own viewpoint and having difficulty appreciating 58

Egocentric thinking

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

Concrete Stage
about age 7 to 11 years children can perform a number of logical mental operations on concrete objects (physically present) Conservation
children gradually master the concept of conservation during the concrete operations stage ability to classify items by color and size for example children still have difficulty figuring out relationships among objects that are not present or imaginary 60 situations

Classification

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (CONT.)

Formal Operations Stage
about age 12 to adulthood adolescents and adults develop the ability to think about and solve abstract problems in a logical manner adolescents develop thinking and reasoning typical of adults ability to think in a logical, systematic, and abstract way is one of the major characteristics of the formal operations stage
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The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

Many psychologists believe changes in information processing (the way in which people take in, use, and store information) are how children develop their cognitive abilities
Metacognition: an awareness and understanding of ones own cognitive processes

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The Growing Child: Infancy Through Middle Childhood (cont.)

Vygotskys view of cognitive development
Culture in which we are raised significantly affects cognitive development Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own; if information falls within the ZPD, children can master it

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Adolescence: Becoming an Adult

Learning Outcomes
Summarize the major physical transitions that characterize adolescence Explain moral and cognitive development in adolescents Discuss social development in adolescents

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Adolescence
Adolescence: the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood. The physical changes that occur at the start of adolescence result largely from the secretions of various hormones, and they affect virtually every aspect of an adolescents life. Not since infancy has development been so dramatic. Weight and height increase rapidly because of a growth spurt that typically begins around age 10 for girls and age 12 for boys. Adolescents may grow as much as 5 inches in one year.

Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent

Puberty: the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls (start of menstruation) and 13 or 14 for boys (spermarche: first ejaculation)

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Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent

In Western cultures, the average age at which adolescents reach sexual maturity has been steadily decreasing over the last century, most likely because of improved nutrition and medical care. Sexual attraction to others begins even before the maturation of the sexual organs, at around age 10. Just as important as the physical changes, however, are the psychological and social changes that unfold during adolescence.

Moral Development
Developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg theorized that people move through a 3-level sequence of moral reasoning in a fixed order. However, he contended that few people ever reach the highest level of moral reasoning.

 The physical changes of adolescence are important, but there are psychological and social changes going on during adolescence. According to Lawrence Kohlberg, people pass through a series of stages in the evolution of their sense of justice and in the kind of reasoning they use to make moral judgments.

Levels of Morality
Preconventional moralitythe concrete interests of the individual are considered in terms of rewards and punishments. Conventional moralitypeople approach moral problems as members of society. They are interested in pleasing others. Postconventional moralitypeople use moral principles which are seen as broader than those of any particular society.

Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong

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 Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning

Three levels of moral reasoning 1.Self-Interest: Preconventional level
lowest level of moral reasoning

COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL CHANGES (CONT.)

stage 1, moral decisions are based primarily on fear of punishment or the need to be obedient stage 2, moral reasoning is guided most by satisfying ones self-interest may involve bargaining

Example
Stage 1
Dont steal the drug because youll be caught and go to jail.

Stage 2
You can steal the drug and save your best friend, but in return youll have to give up some freedom by going to jail.

 Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning

Three levels of moral reasoning 2.Social approval: Conventional level

COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL CHANGES (CONT.)

represents an intermediate level of moral reasoning

stage 3, moral decisions are guided most by conforming to the standards of others we value stage 4, moral reasoning is determined most by conforming to laws and society

Example
Stage 3
You should steal the drug since that is what your family would expect you to do.

Stage 4
You should not steal the drug because of what would happen to society if everybody took what they need.

 Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning

Three levels of moral reasoning 3.Abstract ideas: Postconventional level

COGNITIVE & EMOTIONAL CHANGES (CONT.)

stage 5, moral decisions are made after carefully thinking about all the alternatives and striking a balance between human rights and laws of society
Ex. One should steal the drug because life if important than money.

stage 6, has been omitted because few people have reached it

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Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World

Eriksons theory of psychosocial development: the last four stages
Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence): a time of major testing to determine ones unique qualities; an attempt to discover their identity (who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of) Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood): resolved positively if the person develops intimate relationships on physical, intellectual, and emotional levels
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Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World (cont.)

Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood): taking stock of ones contributions to family and society; resolved successfully if the person feels positive about the continuity of life Ego-integrity vs. despair (later adulthood until death): reviewing lifes accomplishments and failures; resolved successfully if one feels a sense of accomplishment and has no regrets

Most young people go through adolescence without the stereotypical turmoil

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Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World (cont.)

Suicide is the third-leading cause of death for adolescents in the U.S.
Males are five times more likely to commit suicide than females, but females attempt suicide more often Rate higher among whites than nonwhites Possible causes: depression, social anxiety, family background, adjustment difficulties, parental conflict, alcohol and drug abuse
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Adulthood
Learning Outcomes
Explain physical development in adulthood Discuss social development in adulthood State the impact of marriage, children, and divorce on families Discuss the later years of adulthood Explain the physical changes that occur in late adulthood Identify the cognitive changes that occur in late adulthood Discuss the social aspects of late adulthood Describe how people can adjust to death

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Physical Development: The Peak of Health

For most people, early adulthood marks the peak of physical health. From about 18 25 years of age, peoples strength is greatest, their reflexes are quicker, and their chances of dying from disease are quite slim. In addition, reproductive capabilities are at their highest level. During middle adulthood, people gradually become aware of changes in their bodies. People often experience weight gain, the sense organs become less sensitive, and reactions to stimuli are slower.

 The major biological change that occurs in middle adulthood pertains to reproductive capabilities. On average, during their late 40s or early 50s, women begin menopause, during which they stop menstruating and are no longer fertile. For men, the aging process during middle adulthood is somewhat more subtle. No male menopause exists and in fact, men remain fertile and are capable of fathering children until well into late adulthood.

Physical Development: The Peak of Health

Menopause: usually occurring in late 40s or early 50s, the period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile
Symptoms can be treated through hormone therapy (HT), replacing estrogen and progesterone, but it can be dangerous: increased risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary heart disease

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Social Development: Working at Life

In early adulthood, people usually leave their childhood homes, launch careers, marry and begin families. Midlife transition: for some, a time of questioning their lives, they are influenced by the idea that life will end & question past accomplishments; generally happens in early 40s Some experience a midlife crisis (dissatisfaction with life), but most go through middle age relatively smoothly
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Social Development: Working at Life

Many people find their forties and fifties a rewarding period where they can focus on the present and their families. During the last stages of adulthood, people become more accepting of others and become less concerned about issues or problems that once bothered them. People accept the fact that death is inevitable and try to understand their accomplishments in the broader meaning of life.

Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties

In the typical fairy tale, a dashing young man and a beautiful young woman marry, have children, and live happily ever after. In the twenty-first century, however, things are very different. Households made up of unmarried couples have increased over the last two decades. The risk of divorce is high, especially for younger couples. Almost 25% of households are now single parent households. For children in minority households, the single parent percentage increases. In most single parent households, children reside with the mother.
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 One of the major changes in family life in the last two decades has been the evolution of men/ and womens roles.
More women are acting in multiple roles: mother, wage earner, wife. Almost 75% of married women with school-age children are employed outside the home.

The Later Years of Life: Growing Old

Gerontology: the study of older adults & aging Gerontologists focus on the period of life that starts around age 65. They are making important contributions to clarifying the capabilities of older adults. Their work is demonstrating that significant developmental processes continue even during old age.
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Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body

Many physical changes are brought about by the aging process. The most obvious are those in appearance: hair thinning and turning grey; skin wrinkling and folding, and sometimes a slight loss of height as the spine grows more fragile. More subtle changes also occur in the bodys biological functioning. For example, sensory capabilities decrease as a result of aging: vision, hearing, smell, and taste become less sensitive. Reaction time slows, and physical stamina changes.

Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body

Genetic preprogramming theories of aging: human cells have a built-in time limit to their reproduction; after a certain time they are no longer able to divide Wear-and-tear theories of aging: mechanical functions of the body stop working efficiently as you age

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Cognitive Changes: Thinking About and During Late Adulthood

In the past, many gerontologists would have agreed that older adults are forgetful and confused. Because of more sophisticated research techniques, however, we now know that this belief is inaccurate. There are some declines in intellectual functioning in later adulthood, although the pattern of age differences is not uniform for different types of cognitive abilities.

Cognitive Changes: Thinking About and During Late Adulthood

Fluid intelligence (information-processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving) shows decline in late adulthood, but crystallized intelligence (accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience) remain steady Memory loss is not inevitable with aging Alzheimers disease: progressive brain disorder that leads to gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old but Not Alone

Just as the view that old age predictably means mental decline has proved to be wrong, so has the view that late adulthood inevitably brings loneliness. People in late adulthood most often see themselves as functioning members of society, with only a small number reporting that loneliness is a serious problem.

The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old but Not Alone

Late adulthood brings significant challenges. People whove spent their adult lives working enter retirement. Many people must face the death of their spouse. There are also significant changes in economic well-being. There is no single way to age successfully. People in late adulthood are not just marking time until death. Rather, old age is a time of continued growth and development, as important as any other period in life.

The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old but Not Alone

Disengagement theory of aging: aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels Activity theory of aging: successful aging means maintaining the interests and activities you had during middle age Life review: process by which people examine and evaluate their lives
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Adjusting to Death
Elisabeth Kubler-Rosss five stages of dealing with ones own impending death
Denial: resist the idea they are dying Anger: angry at people in good health around them, at medical professionals, at God Bargaining: trying to postpone death Depression: bargaining will not work; preparatory grief for their own death Acceptance: made peace with themselves; usually unemotional and uncommunicative
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