1. Which are the different defence mechanisms in the human body? How does it function?

Tear Ear wax Mucus It moistens and frequently washes eye. It contains a germicide, lysozyme. It destroys germs if present in the ear canal. The inner membrane of nose is wet due to mucus and germs are eliminated through the mucus. It destroys the germs that enter through food and water into stomach. It is water proof and oily. It acts as a covering against germs.

HCl Skin

Coughing, sneezing, vomiting, diarrhoea 2. How does the skin act as a protective layer? *Skin consists of different layers *Keratin layer prevent the entry of microorganisms *Sweat and sebum act as insecticides. *Sebum prevents the sticking of water on skin * Hairs protect the body from cold *Mucus membrane protects from germs 3. What is the relation between human body temperature and bacterial multiplication? Normal body temperature is 36.9 C. This is the most suitable temp for bacterial multiplication. So bacteria multiply and infect human being very easily. 4. What is the reason for fever if tonsillitis or wound occurs? Normal body temperature is 36.9 C. This is the most suitable temperature for bacterial multiplication. If tonsillitis or wound occurs body tries to reduce the bacterial multiplication by increasing body temperature. This is the reason for fever. 5. What is phagocytosis? When microorganisms enter our body, white blood cells like neutrophils and monocytes destroy germs by engulfing them. This process is known as phagocytosis. 6. Write down the different steps of phagocytosis. Neutrophil reaches near the bacterium, it encircles the bacterium using its false foot, bacterium is put inside the cell, the cell produces lysozyme and destroys the bacterium.

7. What is swelling response (Inflammation)? When a wound occurs in hand or leg, more blood is flown to that area to destroy the microorganisms if present there. Then that area swells. This is called inflammation. 8. Write down the different steps of inflammation. Germs enter through wound, capillaries around the wound expand, blood flow through the capillaries increases, more WBCs come out of the capillaries, WBCs destroy the germs by phagocytosis. 9. How does blood clot? Blood vessels near the wound contracts, platelets and damaged cells produce a lipoprotein called thromboplastin ,thromboplastin along with Ca ions produce an enzyme prothrombin, prothrobin changes to thrombin, thrombin breaks fibrinogen - a plasma protein into fibrin, fibrin filaments form fine network and traps RBCs. Thus blood clot is formed. 10. What are lymphocytes? How do they fight germs? Certain WBCs are called lymphocytes. They destroy pathogens both directly and by antibodies. 11. What is immunity? Immunity is the capacity of our body to deal with foreign substances that enter our body and to render them harmless. It is of two types, innate immunity and acquired immunity. Innate immunity or natural immunity is by virtue of genetic constitutional makeup. Acquired immunity is the resistance to a disease which an individual acquires during his lifetime. 12. What are antibodies? Antibodies are special chemicals found in the blood which act against the germs or their secretions. 13. Who tested vaccination for the first time? It was Edward Jenner who first tested vaccination against small pox. He noticed that the rate of death due to small pox was higher among the urban population when compared to rural cattle raring farmers. He also observed that all these villagers were cured of cowpox. He thought of using cowpox virus to destroy small pox virus. After a lot of experiments he developed the first vaccine. 14. What are the contributions of Louis Pasteur? Louis Pasteur put forward the germ theory (diseases are caused by microorganisms), pasteurisation (preservation of milk, wine etc.), and invention of rabies vaccine.

15. What is vaccination? Vaccination is the introduction of any kind of dead or weakened germs into the body of a living being to develop immunity against respective disease. 16. Which are the different categories of vaccines? 1). killed germs. eg. TAB vaccine for Typhoid, SALKS vaccine for Polio and RABIES vaccine for Dog-bite. 2). living weakened germs. eg. MMR vaccine for Measles, BCG for Tuberculosis 3). living fully virulent germs. eg. COW POX virus for Small pox 4). toxoids. eg. DTaP vaccine for Diphtheria, TT for Tetanus 17. What is immunisation? It is a process of developing resistance to disease producing germs or their toxins by introducing killed germs or germ substance to induce for production of specific antibodies. 18. What are the reasons for the emergence of new diseases? The reasons are the decrease in our natural immunity due to changes in the natural environmental conditions and life style, and the increase in resistance of germs. 19. What are autoimmune disorders? Give an example. Lymphocytes are cells which have a special ability to recognize own body cells. However in some individuals, lymphocytes identify the body cells as antigens, and react against them. Such conditions are called autoimmune disorders. Eg. Rheumatic fever 20. What are the after effects of the hyperactivity of immune system? As a result of hyper activity, many factors such as dust, pollen grain, some food items etc. which are commonly found around us act as antigens in our body. In some people the body reacts excessively to these factors, causing many problems. Eg. Asthma, Allergy etc. 21. What is the necessity of using immune suppressants during organ transplantation operations? When organ transplantation is done, the newly grafted organ is a foreign body as far as the body is concerned. The body may react against the grafted organ. So immune suppressants are used to prevent such reactions. 22. Write a note on AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome is caused by Human Immuno Virus. It spreads through body fluids, unprotected sexual contact, unsterilized injection needle, blood

transfusion etc. For a long time after infection no specific symptoms appear. But immunity gradually decreases since lymphocytes are destroyed. Even minor diseases become critical and may lead to death. 22. What makes AIDS different from other diseases? Lymphocytes are the chief warriors to protect the body from many diseases. However AIDS virus (HIV) are capable of destroying the lymphocytes themselves. As a result the immune system of the body is destroyed. 23. Which are the different modes of treatment? Ayurveda, Homeopathy, Allopathy, Unani, Naturopathy etc.