Tissue

Tissues are groups of cell with a common structure and function. The term tissue is from a Latin word weave Tissues are classified into four main categories: Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue- binds and supports body parts Muscular Tissue-enables movement of structures within the body and movement of the entire person/animal Nervous Tissue- enables responses to stimuli and coordinates bodily functions Epithelial tissue (covering): Epithelial tissue is commonly called epithelium. Tight-joined closely packed cells forms the covering or lining of free body surfaces, both internal and external. Glands are also composed of epithelial tissue. The cells at the base of the barrier are attached to a basement membrane. It is Barrier against mechanical injury, invasive microorganisms and fluid loss. As a group, epithelial tissues perform a variety of functions, Absorb the lining of the small intestine Transport (e.g. kidney tubules)Excrete (e.g. sweat glands)Protect (e.g. the skin)And contain nerve cells for sensory reception (e.g. the taste buds in the tongue)The size, shape, and arrangement of epithelial cells directly related to these specific functions.

One surface of the tissue is free and the other adheres to a basement membrane. The photograph below shows kidney tubules. The cells lining the tubules are epithelial tissue. One surface is attached (the basal surface) and the other surface is free.

The apical surface of epithelial cells may have tiny projections called microvilli. These function to increase surface area. For example, microvilli on intestinal cells increase the surface area available for absorption.

Epithelial cells may have cilia. Cilia can be seen on the cells lining the trachea in the photograph below. They function to move mucus and trapped particles upward toward the mouth where it will be swallowed, thus keeping the trachea clear of foreign particles. Types of Epithelial tissue Covering and Lining Epithelial Tissue Classification by Cell Shape: Squamous (flat like floor tiles) Cuboidal (like bricks on end) cells appear square in side view with nucleus in a central position. Columnar (flat like floor tiles) cells appear rectangular in side view with the nucleus displaced toward the base of the cell.

 Transitional

Classification by Arrangement of Layers: Simple Epithelium Simple squamous epithelium- Cells very thin, much wider than they are thick. Air sacs of respiratory.Lining of blood vessels, heart and lymphatic tubes. Location: Lungs, blood vessels Shape: Flat and thin layer Function : Increase flow and absorption rate through tubes

 Simple cuboidal epithelium-These consist of cube-like cells, which are square in section but the free surface appears hexagonal. Found in kidney tubules and in glands. These tissues provide mechanical strength to the part where they occur and produce secretions.

Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium-Secretion of mucus, absorption of nutrients.

Ciliated simple columnar epithelium- These are cuboidal or columnar cells, the free surface, of which bear cilia capable of beating rhythmically. These cells are found lining the trachea or wind-pipe of vertebrates. The beating cilia help to keep unwanted particles from entering the lungs.

Stratified Epithelium Stratified squamous epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Stratified columnar epithelium

Transitional epithelium

 Pseudostratified columnar Epithelium Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Glandular Epithelial Tissue Endocrine Glands: Tissue of Endocrine Glands-Secrete products into tissue fluid or blood. Exocrine Glands: Tissue of Exocrine Glands-Secrete products into ducts that open into some internal or externally

Connective Tissue This is the most widespread and abundant type of tissue in the human body. Its function is primarily to support, anchor and connect various parts of the body. Although connective tissue exists in a number of forms, all types have three basic structural elements -- cells, fibres and intercellular substance (ground substance).

The most common cell types are fibroblasts, which produce fibres and other intercellular materials. The two most common types of fibres are: collagen (collagenous) and elastic. Collagen fibres are for strength while the elastic ones are for elasticity of the tissue. Both the cells and the fibres are embedded in the intercellular substance. The consistency of this substance is highly variable from gelatin-like to a much more rigid material. The proportions of the cells, fibres, and intercellular substance vary, depending on a particular nature and function of the connective tissue. For example, a strong connective tissue needs a greater proportion of the collagen fibres and fewer cells. An example would be a dense regular connective tissue, which is found in tendons and ligaments. On the other hand, a connective tissue composed of mostly cells would not be very strong. An example would be an adipose (fat) connective tissue. Characteristics of Connective Tissues Cells 1). Type specific immature (stem) cells 2). Fixed cells Classification of Connective Tissue Connective Tissue Proper -- encompasses all organs and body cavities connecting one part with another and, equally important, separating one group of cells from another. This is a very large and diverse group of tissues and includes adipose tissue (fat), areolar (loose) tissue, and dense regular tissue, among others. Specialized Connective Tissues -- this group includes cartilage, bone, and blood. Cartilage and bone form the skeletal framework of the body while blood is the vascular (transport) tissue of animals. A). Not adjacent to other cells B). Extra Cellular Matrix C). Common origin in embryonic development. D). Vary in degrees of vascularity E). Vary in degrees of regeneration F). Vary in degrees of innervation

 Loose Connective Tissue Areolar Connective Tissue- Areolar connective tissue is the most widespread connective tissue of the body. It is used to attach the skin to the underlying tissue. It also fills the spaces between various organs and thus holds them in place as well as cushions and protects them. It also surrounds and supports the blood vessels. o Gel like ground with both elastic and non-elastic fibers running though the ground in many directions.

Microscopic view of areolar connective tissue. Adipose Tissue (fat)- The cells of adipose (fat) tissue are characterized by a large internal fat droplet, which distends the cell so that the cytoplasm is reduced to a thin layer and the nucleus is displaced to the edge of the cell. These cells may appear singly but are more often present in groups. When they accumulate in large numbers, they become the predominant cell type and form adipose (fat) tissue Adipose tissue, in addition to serving as a storage site for fats (lipids), also pads and protects certain organs and regions of the body. As well, it forms an insulating layer under the skin which helps regulate body temperature.

Microscopic view of adipose connective tissue. Reticular Connective Tissue- Reticular connective tissue contains an abundance of reticular fibers. It provides a supporting framework for organs such as the lymph nodes, spleen, and liver

Dense Connective Tissues- The collagen fibers of dense connective tissue are more closely packed than those of loose connective tissue a). Regular Dense Connective Tissue- contains collagen fibers oriented in one direction to provide strength in that direction. It is found in tendons and ligaments. Tendons connect muscle to bone; ligaments connect bone to bone.

Irregular Dense Tissue- contains collagen fibers oriented in many different directions. It is found in the deep layers of the skin (dermis) and the tough capsules that surround many of the organs such as the kidneys, adrenal glands, nerves, bones, and the covering of muscles. It provides support and strength.

Fibers interwoven in different directions to pull in different directions

Elastic Connective Tissue

Branched bundles of elastic fibers that run parallel. Cartilage The cells of cartilage are embedded in a protein-containing matrix that is strong but flexible.It contains collagen and elastic fibers.It is resilient; it does not stretch and can resist compression. It is also flexible but maintains its shape.It is found in the ends of bones where it prevents friction within the joints. In the nose, external ear, and the walls of the trachea it functions to support the softer tissues.The intervertebral disks function as shock pads. The fetal skeleton of vertebrate animals is composed of cartilage before bone forms. The skeleton of cartilaginous fish is composed of cartilage. Fibers may be elastic or non-elastic, or a form of non-elastic called reticular(where the non-elastic fibers of very thin) Hyaline Cartilage-example on the ends of bones Elastic Cartilage- example ear cartilage Non-elastic Cartilage- example nose cartilage.

Hyaline Cartilage

fine collagen fibers give tissue a washed out appearance Chondroblasts are found in large lacuna. Elastic Cartilage

Elastic cartilage has visible elastic fibers Fibrocartilage

Bone- Bone forms when calcium salts are deposited around protein fibers. The calcium salts provide rigidity while the fibers provide elasticity and strength.

(Blood)Vascular Tissue Liquid matrix = plasma 90% water 10%Plasma proteins, electrolytes, hormones, oxygen, glucose etc. Blood consists of blood cells surrounded by a nonliving matrix of plasma made up of soluble protein fibers Formed elements o Erythrocytes -48billion(female) to 54 billion (male) cell / ml of blood in humans. Mammals are enucleated while rest of the vertebrates they have nuclei o Leukocytes -about 7.5 million / ml of blood o Platelets -blood clotting

Connective tissues

Muscle Tissue Muscle cells are highly specialized for contractions. Such contractions may result in the movement of the whole body or a portion of it, if the muscles are attached to a movable part of the skeleton. If the muscle is located in the wall of a hollow organ, its contractions may cause the contents of the organ to move, e.g. peristaltic movement of material through the digestive tract. Several specific terms are used exclusively for muscle tissue. For example, muscle cells are called fibres; their cytoplasm is termed sarcoplasm; and their cell membrane is referred to as sarcolemma. Three types of muscle tissue are distinguished on the basis of structural, functional and locational differences: o skeletal or striated, - which is striated and voluntary o smooth,- which is non striated and involuntary o cardiac.- which is striated and involuntary

Muscle function: contraction for locomotion and skeletal movement contraction for propulsion contraction for pressure regulation

Muscle classification: muscle tissue may be classified according to a morphological classification or a functional classification. There are two types of muscle based on the morphological classification system Functional classification There are two types of muscle based on a functional classification system Voluntary Involuntary. Striated Non striated or smooth.

Characteristics of skeletal muscle Skeletal muscle cells are elongated or tubular. They have multiple nuclei and these nuclei are located on the periphery of the cell. Skeletal muscle is striated. That is, it has an alternating pattern of light and darks bands. Skeletal muscles form the "flesh"; sometimes referred to as the "red meat" of an animal's body. They are attached to, and result in, the movement of the bones of the skeleton. For example, the biceps brachii and pectoralis are skeletal muscles. As the contraction of the skeletal muscles is under conscious control, they are also called voluntary muscles.

A typical skeletal muscle cell is a highly modified, giant, multi-nucleate cell (fibre). Each fibre is cylindrical in shape with blunt, rounded ends. The flattened nuclei are located mainly at the periphery of the cell, just inside the sarcolemma. The "cross-striped" (or striated) appearance of light and dark banding results from the arrangement of myofibrils, small protein contractile units embedded in the sarcoplasm

Characteristics of Cardiac muscle Cardiac muscle cells are not as long as skeletal muscles cells and often are branched cells. Cardiac muscle cells may be mononucleated or binucleated. In either case the nuclei are located centrally in the cell. Cardiac muscle is also striated. In addition cardiac muscle contains intercalated discs.

Characteristics of Smooth muscle Smooth muscle cell are described as spindle shaped. That is they are wide in the middle and narrow to almost a point at both ends. Smooth muscle cells have a single centrally located nucleus. Smooth muscle cells do not have visible striations although they do contain the same contractile proteins as skeletal and cardiac muscle, these proteins are just laid out in a different pattern.

Shapes of skeletal muscles: 1. Parallel or fusiform: as their name implies their fibers run parallel to each other. These muscles contract over a great distance and usually have good endurance but are not very strong. Examples: Sartorius muscle and rectus abdominus muscle. 2. Convergent: the muscle fibers converge on the insertion to maximize the force of muscle contraction. Examples: Deltoideus muscle and Pectoralis Major muscle. 3. pennate: many fibers per unit area. These types of muscles are strong but they tie or quickly. There are three types of pennate muscle. i. unipennate ii. bipennate iii. multipennete 4. Circular: the muscle fibers surrounded opening to act as a sphincter. Examples: Orbicularis oris and Orbicularis oculi muscles. 5. fusiform: some texts classify parallel muscles that are slightly wider in their middle (spindle shaped) as fusiform.

Muscle terminology myofiber or myocyte: a muscle cell sarcolemma: the plasma membrane of a muscle cell sarcoplasm: the cytoplasm of the muscle cell sarcoplasmic reticulum: the endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell sarcosome: the mitochondria of a muscle cell sarcomere: the contractile or functional unit of muscle

Muscles have three major areas: 1. a belly or Gaster 2. an origin: a tendinous connection of the muscle to a bone, usually the bone that is stabilized. 3. an insertion: a tendinous connection of the muscle to a bone, usually the bone to be moved. Skeletal muscle is designed as a bundle within a bundle arrangement. The entire muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue called the epimysium.

The muscle is made up of smaller bundles known as fascicles. Fascicles are actually bundles of individual muscle cells (myofibers or myocytes). These bundles are surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called the perimysium. Each fascicle is made up of several muscle cells known as myocytes. They may also be called myofibers or muscle fibers. Each muscle cell is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath known as the endomysium. This sheath is very important in the physiology of muscle contraction because it electrically insulates the individual muscle cells from each other.

Each muscle fiber (muscle cell) contains all of the organelles that we find in other cell types.Although these organelles are the same as in other cells they are given special names.

The nucleus contains the genetic material of the muscle cell. The sarcolemma is the name given to the plasma membrane of the muscle cell. There are specialized invaginations of the sarcolemma that run transversely across the cell. These invaginations are known as T tubules (short for transverse tubules). The T tubules are essential for carrying the depolarization brought to the cell by a motor nerve impulse down into the muscle cell where it can have an affect on the terminal cisternae.

The cytosol is the cytoplasm of the muscle cell. The sarcoplasmic reticulum is the endoplasmic reticulum of the muscle cell. There are sac-like regions of the sarcoplasmic reticulum known as terminal cisternae. The terminal cisternae act as calcium storage sites. The calcium ions stored in the terminal cisternae are essential in muscle contraction..NOTE: this is not calcium storage for use in general body physiology as we would see with bone tissue, but rather is calcium storage for muscle contraction. In skeletal muscle two terminal cisternae are associated with a T tubule to form a structure known as a triad. This differs from cardiac muscle where one terminal cisternae associates with one T tubule to form a diad. Mitochondria are sites of energy production (ATP synthesis) in the muscle cell as in all other cells of the body, except for mature red blood cells. A myofibril is a cylindrical bundle of contractile proteins found within the muscle cell. Note that there are several myofibrils within each muscle cell. It is the arrangement of the contractile proteins within the myofibril that cause the striated appearance of skeletal and cardiac muscle. Myofibrils are composed of individual contractile proteins called myofillaments. These myofilaments are generally divided into thick and thin myofilaments. The thin myofilaments are composed mainly of a protein known as actin. Actin filaments are anchored into the z-line of a sarcomere. The thick myofilaments are composed mainly of the protein myosin. It is the orderly overlapping of the actin and myosin filaments that give cardiac and skeletal muscle their striated appearance (light and dark bands). The A band is the dark band and corresponds to the length of a bundle of myosin filaments. Because muscle contraction is a sliding of the myofilaments past each other we do not see any of the myofilaments actually shorten. However the width of the banding patterns change as the degree of overlap changes. Because the A band corresponds to the length of the myosin filaments, and these filaments do not shorten, the width of the A band also does not shorten.

The light bands are known as I bands. The I bands are composed mainly of actin filaments. Each I band is bisected by a protein disc known as the Z-line. Actin filaments are anchored into the Z-line. During muscle contraction the actin filaments slide over the myosin filaments which results in a shortening of the I band. In the middle of the A band is a somewhat lighter area known as the H zone. This zone corresponds to the area where we have myosin not overlapped by actin (the area between the thin filaments). During muscle contraction the actin sliding over the myosin encroaches into this area so that the H zone shortens. In the middle of the H zone we see a dark band known as the M line. The M line is comprised of protein fibers that function to anchor the myosin filaments. The area between two Z lines is known as a sarcomere. The sarcomere is the functional or contractile unit of muscle. Muscles contract when they receive a motor impulse from a motor nerve. These nerve impulses serve only a limited number of muscle fibers. The muscle fibers served by a single motor neuron make up a structure known as a motor unit. Motor units allow for selective contraction of muscle fibers so that we may control the strength and extent of muscle contraction. Without motor units a nerve impulse to the muscle would result in the entire muscle contracting to its full extent. That would make every motion that we make an all or none motion. This type of movement would make life nearly impossible.

Note that this diagram shows a neuromuscular junction of one motor neuron with one muscle fiber. In a motor unit the motor neuron branches to form neuromuscular junctions with several muscle fibers. To repeat, a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it supplies is called a MOTOR UNIT. Nervous Tissue

The basic cell of the nervous system is called a neuron. Structurally, a neuron consists of: (1) the cell body, containing the nucleus and synthetic organelles; (2) the axon, a long cytoplasmic process associated with the cell body used to communicate with target organs; and (3) the dendrites, shorter cytoplasmic processes off the cell body used to communicate between neurons.

Nerve tissue is composed of

nerve cells called neurons and glial cells.

Senses stimuli and transmits signals called nerve impulses from one part of an animal to another. Consists of a cell body and long extensions called dendrites (towards cell body) and axons (towards another cell or an effector) Neurons Neurons are specialized for the conduction of nerve impulses. A typical neuron consists of

a cell body which contains the nucleus; a number of short fibers dendrites extending from the cell body a single long fiber, the axon.

The nerve impulse is conducted along the axon. Glia Glial cells surround neurons. Once thought to be simply support for neurons (glia = glue), they turn out to serve several important functions. There are three types:

Schwann cells. These produce the myelin sheath that surrounds many axons in the peripheral nervous system. Oligodendrocytes. These produce the myelin sheath that surrounds many axons in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). Astrocytes. These often star-shaped cells are clustered around synapses and the nodes of Ranvier where they perform a variety of functions: o stimulating the formation of new synapses; o modulating the activity of neurons [An example] [Another example]; o supplying neurons with materials (e.g. glucose and lactate) as well as some signaling molecules; o regulating the flow of blood to their region of the brain. It is primarily the metabolic activity of astrocytes that is being measured in brain imaging by positron-emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

In addition, the central nervous system contains many microglia mobile cells (macrophages) that respond to damage (e.g., from an infection) by

engulfing cell debris secreting inflammatory cytokines like tumor necrosis factor (TNF-) and interleukin-1 (IL-1)

Microglia are also active in the healthy brain, at least in young mice, where they engulf synapses thus reducing the number of synapses in the developing brain.

Tissue Type Cell Shape

Epithelial Flattened, cuboidal, columnar

Connective Irregular or round

Muscle Elongated

Nerve Cell appendages branched

Cell Arrangement Location

Single multilayered Body covering or lining organs or cavities

Scattered in matrix Supports other organs

In sheets or bundles Lining internal organs, make skeletal muscles

Isolated or networked Concentrated in brain and spinal cord + all over the body

Surface Feature of Cells Matrix Type

Cilia, microvilli

Basement membrane

Varied protein fibers + liquid, gelatinous, firm to calcified

Matrix Amount Unique Feature

Minimal No direct blood supply, except for glands

Extensive Cartilage has no blood supply

Absent Can generate electrical signals, force and movement

Absent Can generate electrical signal