A. NOBLE GASES The noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable under standard conditions.

They were once labeled group 0 in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero, because the noble gases have full valence electron shells, meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds..

Element helium neon argon krypton xenon radon

No. of electrons/shell 2 2, 8 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 18, 8 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

2 10 18 36 54 86

Helium - He

Atomic number Atomic mass Electronegativity according to Pauling Density Melting point Boiling point Vanderwaals radius Ionic radius Isotopes Electronic shell Energy of first ionization Discovered by

2 4.00260 g.mol -1 unknown 0.178*10 -3 g.cm -3 at 20 C - 272.2 (26 atm) C - 268.9 C 0.118 nm unknown 2 1s 2 2372 kJ.mol -1
Sir Ramsey in 1895

Properties Gaseous chemical element, symbol: He, atomic number: 2 and atomic weight 4,0026 g/mol. Helium is one of the noble gases of group O in the periodic table. Its the second lightest element. The main helium source in the world is a series of fields of natural gas in the United States. Helium is a colourless, odourless, insipid and non-toxic gas. Its less soluble in water than any other gas. Its the less reactive element and doesnt essentially form chemical compounds. The density and viscosity of helium vapour are very low. The termic conductivity and the caloric content are exceptionally high. Helium can be liquefied, but its condensation temperature is the lowest among all the known substances. Applications: Helium has many unique properties: low boiling point, low density, low solubility, high thermal conductivity and inertness, so it is use for any application which can explioit these properties. Helium was the first gas used for filling balloons and dirigibles. This application goes on in altitude research and for meteorological balloons. The main use of helium is as an inert protection gas in autogenous welding. Its biggest potential is found in applications at very low temperatures. Helium is the only cooler which is capable of reaching temperatures lower than 15 K (-434F). The main application of ultralow temperature is in the development of the superconductivity state, in which the resistance to the electricity flux is almost zero. Other applications are its use as pressurizing gas in liquid propellants for rockets, in

helium-oxygen mixtures for divers, as working fluid in nuclear reactors cooled down by gas and as gas carrier in chemical analysis by gas chromatography. Helium in the environment: Helium is the second most abundant element in the known universe, after hydrogen. Helium constitutes the 23% of all elemental matter measured by mass. Helium is formed in The Earth by natural radioactive decay of heavier elements. Most of this helium migrates to the surface and enters the atmosphere. It could be logical to think that the helium concentration in the atmosphere was higher than it is (5,25 parts per million at sea level). Nevertheless, its low molecular weight allows it to escape to space at the same rate of its formation. There is an about 1000 km layer in the heterosphere at 600 miles where helium is the dominant gas (although the total pressure is very low). Natural gases contain higher helium concentrations than the atmosphere. Helium is the 71st most abundant element in the Earth's crust where it is found in 8 parts per billion (109 ). Health effects of helium: Effects of exposure: The substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation. Inhalation: High voice. Dizziness. Dullness. Headache. Suffocation. Skin: on contact with liquid: frostbite. Eyes: on contact with liquid: frostbite. Inhalation risk: On loss of containment this gas can cause suffocation by lowering the oxygen content of the air in confined areas. Check oxygen content before entering area. Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in human blood

Neon - Ne Atomic number: 10 Atomic mass: 20.179 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: unknown Density: 0.9*10 -3 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: -249 C Boiling point: -246 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.16 nm Ionic radius: unknown Isotopes: 3 Electronic shell: [ He ] 2s22p6 Energy of first ionization: 2080 kJ.mol -1 Energy o second ionization: 3952 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: 6122 kJ.mol -1 Date of Discovery: 1898 Discoverer: Sir William Ramsay Name Origin: Form the Greek word neos (new) Uses: lighting Obtained From: liquid air Properties: Neon is the second-lightest noble gas, its colour is reddish-orange in a vacuum discharge tube and in neon lamps. The the refrigerating capacity of helium is over 40 times the one of liquid helium and three times that of liquid hydrogen (on a per unit volume basis). It is a less expensive refrigerant than helium in most applications. Even though neon is for most practical purposes an inert element, it can form an exotic compound with fluorine in the laboratory. It is not known for certain if this or any neon compound exists naturally but some evidence suggests that this may be true. The ions, Ne+, (NeAr)+, (NeH)+, and (HeNe+) are have also been observed from optical and mass spectrometric research. In addition, neon forms an unstable hydrate. Applications: The reddish-orange color emitted in neon lights is widely used to make advertising signs. Neon is also used generically for these types of lights when in reality many other gases are used to produce different colors of light. Other uses of neon include high-voltage indicators, lightning arrestors, wave meter tubes and television tubes. Neon and helium are used to make

a type of gas laser. Liquefied neon is commercially used as an economical cryogenic refrigerant. Neon in the environment: Although neon is the forth most abundant element in the universe, only 0.0018% in volume of the earth's atmosphere is neon. Neon is usually found in the form of a gas with molecules consisting of a single Neon atom. Neon is a rare gas that is found in the Earth's atmosphere at 1 part in 65,000. Health effects of neon: Routes of exposure: The substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation. Inhalation risk: On loss of containment this liquid evaporates very quickly causing supersaturation of the air with serious risk of suffocation when in confined areas. Effects of exposure: Inhalation: Simple asphyxiant. Skin: On contact with liquid: frostbite. Eyes: On contact with liquid: frostbite. Inhalation: This gas is inert and is classified as a simple asphyxiant. Inhalation in excessive concentrations can result in dizziness, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, and death. Death may result from errors in judgment, confusion, or loss of consciousness which prevent self-rescue. At low oxygen concentrations, unconsciousness and death may occur in seconds without warning. The effect of simple asphyxiant gases is proportional to the extent to which they diminish the amount (partial pressure) of oxygen in the air that is breathed. The oxygen may be diminished to 75% of it's normal percentage in air before appreciable symptoms develop. This in turn requires the presence of a simple asphyxiant in a concentration of 33% in the mixture of air and gas. When the simple asphyxiant reaches a concentration of 50%, marked symptoms can be produced. A concentration of 75% is fatal in a matter of minutes. Symptoms: The first symptoms produced by a simple asphyxiant are rapid respirations and air hunger. Mental alertness is diminished and muscular coordination is impaired. Later judgment becomes faulty and all sensations are depressed. Emotional instability often results and fatigue occurs rapidly. As the asphyxia progresses, there may be nausea and vomiting, prostration and loss of consciousness, and finally convulsions, deep coma and death. Environmental effects of neon: Neon is a rare atmospheric gas and as such is non-toxic and chemically inert. Neon poses no threat to the environment, and can have no impact at all because it's chemically unreactive and forms no compounds. No known ecological damage caused by this element.

Argon - Ar Name: Argon Symbol: Ar Atomic Number: 18 Atomic Mass: 39.948 amu Melting Point: -189.3 C (83.85 K, -308.74 F) Boiling Point: -186.0 C (87.15 K, -302.8 F) Number of Protons/Electrons: 18 Number of Neutrons: 22 Classification: Noble Gas Crystal Structure: Cubic Density @ 293 K: 1.784 g/cm3 Color: Colorless Gas Date of Discovery: 1894 Discoverer: Sir William Ramsay Name Origin: From the Greek word argon (inactive) Uses: Lighting Obtained From: air Description: Argon was suspected to be present in air by Henry Cavendish in 1785 but wasn't discovered until 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay. Argon is the third noble gas, in period 8, and it makes up about 1% of the Earth's atmosphere. Argon has approximately the same solubility as oxygen and it is 2.5 times as soluble in water as nitrogen . This chemically inert element is colorless and odorless in both its liquid and gaseous forms. It is not found in any compounds. This gas is isolated through liquid air fractionation since the atmosphere contains only 0.94% argon. The Martian atmosphere in contrast contains 1.6% of Ar-40 and 5 ppm Ar-36. World production exceeds 750.000 tonnes per year, the supply is virtually inexhaustible. Applications: Argon does not react with the filament in a lightbulb even under high temperatures, so is used in lighting and in other cases where diatomic nitrogen is an unsuitable (semi-)inert gas. Argon is perticularly important for the metal industry, being used as an inert gas shield in arc welding and cutting. Other uses incude non-reactive blanket in the manufacture of titanium and other reactive elements and as a protective atmosphere for growing silicon and germanium crystals. Argon-39 has been used for a number of

applications, primarily ice coring. It has also been used for ground water dating. Argon is also used in technical SCUBA diving to inflate the drysuit, due to its nonreactive, heat isolating effect. Argon as the gap between the panes of glass provides better insulation because it is a poorer conductor of heat than ordinary air. The most exotic use of argon is in the tyre of luxury cars. Argon in the environment: In earth's atmosphere, Ar-39 is made by cosmic ray activity, primarily with Ar-40. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through neutron-capture by K-39 or alpha emission by calcium. Argon-37 is produced from the decay of calcium-40, the result of subsurface nuclear explosions. It has a half-life of 35 days. Argon is present in some potassium minerals because of radiactive decay of the isotope potassium-40 Health effects of argon: Routes of exposure: The substance can be absorbed into the body by inhalation. Inhalation risk: On loss of containment this liquid evaporates very quickly causing supersaturation of the air with serious risk of suffocation when in confined areas. Effects of exposure: Inhalation: Dizziness. Dullness. Headache. Suffocation. Skin: On contact with liquid: frostbite. Eyes: On contact with liquid: frostbite. Inhalation: This gas is inert and is classified as a simple asphyxiant. Inhalation in excessive concentrations can result in dizziness, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, and death. Death may result from errors in judgment, confusion, or loss of consciousness which prevent self-rescue. At low oxygen concentrations, unconsciousness and death may occur in seconds without warning. The effect of simple asphyxiant gases is proportional to the extent to which they diminish the amount (partial pressure) of oxygen in the air that is breathed. The oxygen may be diminished to 75% of it's normal percentage in air before appreciable symptoms develop. This in turn requires the presence of a simple asphyxiant in a concentration of 33% in the mixture of air and gas. When the simple asphyxiant reaches a concentration of 50%, marked symptoms can be produced. A concentration of 75% is fatal in a matter of minutes. Symptoms: The first symptoms produced by a simple asphyxiant are rapid respirations and air hunger. Mental alertness is diminished and muscular coordination is impaired. Later judgment becomes faulty and all sensations are depressed. Emotional instability often results and fatigue occurs rapidly. As the asphyxia progresses, there may be nausea and vomiting, prostration and loss of consciousness, and finally convulsions, deep coma and death. Environmental effects of argon: No known ecological damage caused by argon.

No adverse environmental consequences are expected. Argon gas occurs naturally in the environment. The gas will dissipate rapidly in well ventilated areas. The effects of argon on plants or animals is not currently known. It is not expected to harm aquatic life. Argon does not contain any ozone depleting chemicals and is not listed as a marine pollutant by DOT (Department of Transportation, USA).

Krypton - Kr Atomic number: 36 Atomic mass: 83.80 g.mol -1 Density: 3.73 10-3 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: - 157 C Boiling point: - 153 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.197 nm Isotopes: 15 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d10 4s2 4p6 Energy of first ionization: 1351 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 2350.4 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 3565 kJ.mol -1 Discovered by: Sir Ramsay in 1898 Description: Krypton is present in the air at about 1 ppm. The atmosphere of Mars contains a little (about 0.3 ppm) of krypton. It is characterised by its brilliant green and orange spectral lines. The spectral lines of krypton are easily produced and some are very sharp. In 1960 it was internationally agreed that the fundamental unit of length, the metre, should be defined as 1 m = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths (in vacuo) of the orange-red line of Kr-33. Under normal conditions krypton is colourless, odourless, fairly expensive gas. Solid krypton is a white crystalline substance with a face-centered cubic structure which is common to all the "rare gases". Krypton difluoride, KrF2, has been prepared in gram quantities and can be made by several methods. Other compounds are unstable, unless isolated in a matrix at very low temperatures. Applications: Krypton is used to fill electric lamp bulbs which are filled with a mixture of krypton and argon, and for various electronic devices. Krypton is also used in photographic projection lamps, in very high-powered electric arc lights used at airports and in some strobo-lamps, because it has an extremely fast respons to an electric current. A mixture of stable and unstable isotopes of krypton is produced by slow neutron fission of uranium in nuclear reactors as Kripron-85, its most stable isotope. It is used to detect leaks in sealed containers, to excite phosphors in light sources with no external source of energy, and in medicine to detect abnormal heart openings. Krypton in the environment

Krypton might be one of the rarest gases in the atmosphere, but in total there are more than 15 billion tonnes of this metal circulating in the planet, of which only about 8 tonnes a year are extracted, via liquid air. Health effects of krypton: Inhalation: This gas is inert and is classified as a simple asphyxiant. Inhalation in excessive concentrations can result in dizziness, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, and death. Death may result from errors in judgment, confusion, or loss of consciousness which prevent self-rescue. At low oxygen concentrations, unconsciousness and death may occur in seconds without warning. The effect of simple asphyxiant gases is proportional to the extent to which they diminish the amount (partial pressure) of oxygen in the air that is breathed. The oxygen may be diminished to 75% of it's normal percentage in air before appreciable symptoms develop. This in turn requires the presence of a simple asphyxiant in a concentration of 33% in the mixture of air and gas. When the simple asphyxiant reaches a concentration of 50%, marked symptoms can be produced. A concentration of 75% is fatal in a matter of minutes. Symptoms: The first symptoms produced by a simple asphyxiant are rapid respirations and air hunger. Mental alertness is diminished and muscular coordination is impaired. Later judgment becomes faulty and all sensations are depressed. Emotional instability often results and fatigue occurs rapidly. As the asphyxia progresses, there may be nausea and vomiting, prostration and loss of consciousness, and finally convulsions, deep coma and death. Environmental effects of krypton Krypton is a rare atmospheric gas and as such is non-toxic and chemically inert. The extreme cold temperature (-244oC) will freeze organisms on contact, but no long term ecological effects are anticipated. Disposal considerations: When disposal becomes necessary, vent gas slowly to a well-ventilated out door location remote from personnel work areas and building air intakes. Do not dispose of any residual gas in compressed gas cylinders. Return cylinders to the supplier with residual pressure, the cylinder valve tightly closed. Please be advised that state and local requirements for waste disposal may be more restrictive or otherwise different from federal regulations. Consult state and local regulations regarding the proper disposal of this material.

Xenon - Xe Atomic number: 54 Atomic mass: 131.29 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: unknown Density: 5.9*10-3g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: - 112 C Boiling point: - 107 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.217 nm Isotopes: 21 Electronic shell: [ Kr ] 4d10 5s25p6 Energy of first ionization: 1170 kJ.mol -1 Discovered by: Sir Ramsay 1898 Description: Xenon is a rare, odorless, colourless, tasteless, chamically unreactive gas. It was regarded as completely inert until, in 1962, Neil Barlett reported synthesis of xenon haxafluoroplatinate. In a gas filled tube xenon emits blue light when excited by electrical discharge. Applications: Xenon has relatively little commercial use. It is used in photographic flash lamps, stroboscopic lamps, high-intensitive arc-lamps for motion picture projection and high-pressure arc lamps to product ultraviolet light (solar simulators). Other uses are as general anaesthetic, xenon 'blue' headlights and fog lights are used on some vehicles and are said to be less tiring on the eyes. They illuminate road signs and markings better than conventional lights.

Xenon in the environment: Xenon si a trace gas in the Earth's atmosphere, occurring in 1 part in 20 million. The only commercial source of xenon is from industrial liquid-air plants. World production is less than 1 tonne per year, although reserved of xenon gas in the atmosphere amount to 2 billion tonnes. Health effects of xenon: Inhalation: This gas is inert and is classified as a simple asphyxiant. Inhalation in excessive concentrations can result in dizziness, nausea, vomiting, loss of consciousness, and death.

Death may result from errors in judgment, confusion, or loss of consciousness which prevent self-rescue. At low oxygen concentrations, unconsciousness and death may occur in seconds without warning. The effect of simple asphyxiant gases is proportional to the extent to which they diminish the amount (partial pressure) of oxygen in the air that is breathed. The oxygen may be diminished to 75% of it's normal percentage in air before appreciable symptoms develop. This in turn requires the presence of a simple asphyxiant in a concentration of 33% in the mixture of air and gas. When the simple asphyxiant reaches a concentration of 50%, marked symptoms can be produced. A concentration of 75% is fatal in a matter of minutes. Symptoms: The first symptoms produced by a simple asphyxiant are rapid respirations and air hunger. Mental alertness is diminished and muscular coordination is impaired. Later judgment becomes faulty and all sensations are depressed. Emotional instability often results and fatigue occurs rapidly. As the asphyxia progresses, there may be nausea and vomiting, prostration and loss of consciousness, and finally convulsions, deep coma and death. This agent is not considered a carcinogen. Effects \of xenon on the environment: Xenon is a rare atmospheric gas and as such is non-toxic and chemically inert. The extreme cold temperature (-244oC) will freeze organisms on contact, but no long term ecological effects are anticipated. Disposal considerations: When disposal becomes necessary, vent gas slowly to a well-ventilated out door location remote from personnel work areas and building air intakes. Do not dispose of any residual gas in compressed gas cylinders. Return cylinders to the supplier with residual pressure, the cylinder valve tightly closed. Please be advised that state and local requirements for waste disposal may be more restrictive or otherwise different from federal regulations. Consult state and local regulations regarding the proper disposal of this material.

Radon - Rn Atomic number: 86 Atomic mass: (222) g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: unknown Density: 9.96*10 -3g.cm3 at 20C Melting point: - 71 C Boiling point: - 62 C Vanderwaals radius: unknown Ionic radius: unknown Isotopes: 7 Electronic shell: [ Xe ] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p6 Energy of first ionization: 1037 kJ.mol -1 Discovered: Fredrich Ernst Dorn in 1898 Description: Radon is colorless at standard temperature and pressure and it is the most dense gas known. At temperature below it's freezing point is has a brilliant yellow phosphorescence. It is chemically unreactive, it is highly radioactive and has a short half life. Applications: Radon was sometimes used in hospitals to treat cancer and was produced as needed and delivered in sealed gold needles. Radon is used in hydrologic research, because of it's rapid loss to air. It is also used in geologic research and to track air masses. Radon in the environment: Radon can be found in some spring water and hot springs. There is anyway a detectable amount of radon in the atmosphere. Radon collects over samples of radium 226 at the rate of around 0.001 cm3/day per g of radium. Health effects of radon: Radon occurs in the environment mainly in the gaseous phase. Consequently, people are mainly exposed to radon through breathing air. Background levels of radon in outside air are generally quite low, but in indoor locations radon levels in air may be higher. In homes, schools and buildings radon levels are increased because radon enters the buildings through cracks in the foundations and basements. Some of the deep wells that supply us with drinking water may also contain radon. As a result a number of people may be exposed to radon through drinking water, as well as through breathing air. Radon levels in groundwater are

fairly high, but usually radon is quickly released into air as soon as the groundwater enters surface waters. Exposure to high levels of radon through breathing air is known to cause lung diseases. When long-term exposure occurs radon increases the chances of developing lung cancer. Radon can only cause cancer after several years of exposure. Radon may be radioactive, but it gives of little actual gamma radiation. As a result, harmful effects from exposure to radon radiation without actual contact with radon compounds are not likely to occur. It is not known whether radon can cause health effects in other organs besides the lungs. The effects of radon, which is found in food or drinking water, are unknown.

Environmental effects of radon: Radon is a radioactive compound, which rarely occurs naturally in the environment. Most of the radon compounds found in the environment derive from human activities. Radon enters the environment through the soil, through uranium and phosphate mines, and through coal combustion. Some of the radon that is located in the soil will move to the surface and enter the air through vaporization. In the air, radon compounds will attach to dust and other particles. Radon can also move downwards in the soil and enter the groundwater. However, most of the radon will remain in the soil. Radon has a radioactive half-life of about four days; this means that one-half of a given amount of radon will decay to other compounds, usually less harmful compounds, every four days.

B. HALOGEN GASES Owing to their high reactivity, the halogens are found in the environment only in compounds or as ions. Halide ions and oxoanions such as iodate(IO3) can be found in many minerals and in seawater. Halogenated organic compounds can also be found as natural products in living organisms. In their elemental forms, the halogens exist as diatomic molecules, but these only have a fleeting existence in nature and are much more common in the laboratory and in industry. At room temperature and pressure, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid and iodine and astatine are solids; Group 17 is therefore the only periodic table group exhibiting all three states of matter at room temperature.

Element

No. of electrons/shell

fluorine

2, 7

17

chlorine

2, 8, 7

35

bromine

2, 8, 18, 7

53

iodine

2, 8, 18, 18, 7

85

astatine

2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7

Fluorine - F Atomic number: 9 Atomic mass: 18.998403 g.mol-1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: 4 Density: 1.8*10-3 g.cm-3at 20C Melting point: -219.6 C Boiling point: -188 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.135 nm Ionic radius: 0.136 nm (-1) ; 0.007 (+7) Isotopes: 2 Electronic shell: [ He ] 2s22p5 Energy of first ionization: 1680.6 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 3134 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 6050 kJ mol-1 Standard potential: 2.87 V Discovered by: Moissan in 1886 Desciption: Fluorine is an univalent poisonous gaseous halogen, it is pale yellow-green and it is the most chemically reactive and electronegative of all the elements. Fluorine readily forms compounds with most other elements, even with the noble gases krypton, xenon and radon. It is so reactive that glass, metals, and even water, as well as other substances, burn with a bright flame in a jet of fluorine gas. In aqueous solution, fluorine commonly occurs as the fluoride ion F-. Fluorides are compounds that combine fluoride with some positively charged counterpart. Applications: Atomic fluorine and molecular fluorine are used for plasma etching in semiconductor manufacturing, flat panel display production and MEMs fabrication. Fluorine is indirectly used in the production of low friction plastics such as teflon and in halons such as freon, in the production of uranium. Fluorochlorohydrocarbons are used extensively in air conditioning and in refrigeration. Fluorides are often added to toothpaste and, somewhat controversially, to municipal water supplies to prevent dental cavities. Fore more information visit our page on mineral water.

Fluorine in the environment: Annual world production of the mineral fluorite in around 4 million tonnes, and there are around 120 million tonnes of mineral reserves. The main mining areas for fluorite are China, Mexico and Western Europe. Fluorine occurs naturally in the earth's crust where it can be found in rocks, coal and clay. Fluorides are released into the air in wind-blown soil. Fluorine is the 13th most aboundant element in the Earth's crust: 950 ppm are contanined in it. Soils contain approximatively 330 ppm of fluorine, ranging from 150 to 400 ppm. Some solis can have as much as 1000 ppm and contaminated solis have been found with 3500 ppm. Hydrogen fluorides can be released into air through combustion processes in the industry. Fluorides that are found in air will eventually drop onto land or into water. When fluorine is attached to very small particles it can remain in the air for a long period of time. In the atmosphere 0.6 ppb of fluorine are present as salt spray and organicochloride compounds. Up to 50 ppb has been recorded in city environments. Health effects of fluorine: Small amounts of fluorine are naturally present in water, air, plants and animals. As a result humans are exposed to fluorine through food and drinking water and by breathing air. Fluorine can be found in any kind of food in relatively small quantities. Large quantities of fluorine can be found in tea and shellfish. luorine is essential for the maintenance of solidity of our bones. Fluorine can also protect us from dental decay, if it is applied through toothpaste twice a day. If fluorine is absorbed too frequently, it can cause teeth decay, osteoporosis and harm to kidneys, bones, nerves and muscles. luorine gas is released in the industries. This gas is very dangerous, as it can cause death at very high concentrations. At low concentrations it causes eye and nose irritations.

Environmental effects of fluorine: When fluorine from the air ends up in water it will settle into the sediment. When it ends up in soils, fluorine will become strongly attached to soil particles. In the environment fluorine cannot be destroyed; it can only change form. luorine that is located in soils may accumulate in plants. The amount of uptake by plants depends upon the type of plant and the type of soil and the amount and type of fluorine found in the soil. With plants that are sensitive for fluorine exposure even low concentrations of fluorine can cause leave damage and a decline in growth. Too much fluoride, wheater taken in form the soil by roots, or asdorbed from the atmosphere by the leaves, retards the growth of plants and reduces crop yields. Those more affected are corns and apricots. Animals that eat fluorine-containing plants may accumulate large amounts of fluorine in their bodies. Fluorine primarily accumulates in bones. Consequently, animals that are exposed to high concentrations of fluorine suffer from dental

decay and bone degradation. Too much fluorine can also cause the uptake of food from the paunch to decline and it can disturb the development of claws. Finally, it can cause low birth-weights.

Chlorine - Cl Atomic number: 17 Atomic mass: 35.453 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: 3.0 Density: 3.21*10 -3 g.cm -3 at 20 C Melting point: -101 C Boiling point: -34.6 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.127 nm Ionic radius: 0.184 (-2) nm ; 0.029 nm (+6) Isotopes: 4 Electronic shell: [Ne] 3s23p5 Energy of first ionization: 1255.7 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 2298 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 3822 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: - 1.36 V Discovered by: Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1774 Description: The pure chemical element has the physical form of a diatomic green gas. The name chlorine is derived from chloros, meaning green, referring to the color of the gas. Chlorine gas is two and one half times as heavy as air, has an intensely disagreeable suffocating odor, and is exceedingly poisonous. In its liquid and solid form it is a powerful oxidizing, bleaching, and disinfecting agent. This element is a part of the halogen series forming salts. It is extracted from chlorides through oxidation and electrolysis. Chlorine gas is greenish-yellow and combines readily with nearly all other elements. Applications: Chlorine is an important chemical in water purification, in disinfectants, in bleach and in mustard gas. Chlorine is also used widely in the manufacture of many products and items directly or indirectly, i.e. in paper product production, antiseptic, dyestuffs, food, insecticides, paints, petroleum products, plastics, medicines, textiles, solvents, and many other consumer products. It is used to kill bacteria and other microbes from drinking water supplies. Chlorine is involved in beaching wood pulp for paper making, bleach is also used industrially to remove ink from recycle paper.

Chlorine often imparts many desired properties in an organic compound when it is substituted for hydrogen (synthetic rubber), so it is widely use in organic chemistry, in the production of chlorates, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and in the bromine extraction. Chlorine in the environment: In nature it is only found combined with other elements chiefly sodium in the form of common salt (NaCl), but also in carnallite, and sylvite. Chlorides make up much of the salt dissolved in the earth's oceans: about 1.9 % of the mass of seawater is chloride ions. The amount of chloride in soils varies according to the distance from the sea. The average in top soils is about 10 ppm. Plants contain various amount of chlorine; it is an essential microutrient for higher plants where is concentrates in the chloroplasts. Growth suffers if the amount of chloride in the soil fall below 2 ppm, but it rarely happens. The upper limit of tolerance varies according to the crop. Health effects of chlorine: Chlorine is a highly reactive gas. It is a naturally occurring element. The largest users of chlorine are companies that make ethylene dichloride and other chlorinated solvents, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins, chlorofluorocarbons, and propylene oxide. Paper companies use chlorine to bleach paper. Water and wastewater treatment plants use chlorine to reduce water levels of microrganisms that can spread disease to humans (disinfection).Exposure to chlorine can occur in the workplace or in the environment following releases to air, water, or land. People who use laundry bleach and swimming pool chemicals containing chlorine products are usually not exposed to chlorine itself. Chlorine is generally found only in industrial settings. Chlorine enters the body breathed in with contaminated air or when consumed with contaminated food or water. It does not remain in the body, due to its reactivity. Effects of chlorine on human health depend on how the amount of chlorine that is present, and the length and frequency of exposure. Effects also depend on the health of a person or condition of the environment when exposure occurs. Breathing small amounts of chlorine for short periods of time adversely affects the human respiratory system. Effects differ from coughing and chest pain, to water retention in the lungs. Chlorine irritates the skin, the eyes, and the respiratory system. These effects are not likely to occur at levels of chlorine that are normally found in the environment.Human health effects associated with breathing or otherwise consuming small amounts of chlorine over long periods of time are not known. Some studies show that workers develop adverse effects from repeat inhalation exposure to chlorine, but others will not.

Environmental effects of chlorine: Chlorine dissolves when mixed with water. It can also escape from water and enter air under certain conditions. Most direct releases of chlorine to the environment are to air and to surface water. Once in air or in water, chlorine reacts with other chemicals. It combines with inorganic material in water to form chloride salts, and with organic material in water to form chlorinated organic chemicals.Because of its reactivity chlorine is not likely to move through the ground and enter groundwater. Plants and animals are not likely to store chlorine. However, laboratory studies show that repeat exposure to chlorine in air can affect the immune system, the blood, the heart, and the respiratory system of animals. Chlorine causes environmental harm at low levels. Chlorine is especially harmful to organisms living in water and in soil.

Bromine - Br 35 79.904 g.mol -1 2.8 3.1 g.cm-3 at 20C - 7.2 C 58.8 C 0.165 nm 0.195 nm (-1) 10 [ Ar ] 3d10 4s2 4p5 1142.7 kJ.mol -1 1.08 V Anthoine Balard in 1826

Atomic number Atomic mass Electronegativity according to Pauling Density Melting point Boiling point Vanderwaals radius Ionic radius Isotopes Electronic shell Energy of first ionization Standard potential Discovered by

Description: At ambient temperature bromine is a brownish-red liquid. It has a similarly colored vapor with an offensive and suffocating odor. It is the only nonmetallic element that is liquid under ordinary conditions, it evaporates easily at standard temperature and pressures in a red vapor that has a strong disagreeable odor resembling that of chlorine. Bromine is less active chemically than chlorine and fluorine but is more active than iodine; its compounds are similar to those of the other halogens. Bromine is soluble in organic solvents and in water. Applications: Bromine is used in industry to make organobromo compounds. A major one was dibromoethane an agent for leaded gasoline, before they were largely phased out due to environmental considerations. Other organobromines are used as insecticides, in fire extinguishers and to make pharmaceuticals. Bromine is used in making fumigants, dyes, flameproofing agents, water purification compounds, sanitizes, medicinals, agents for photography and in brominates vegetable oil, used as emulsifier in many citrus-flavoured solft drinks. Bromine in the environment Bromine is a naturally occurring element that can be found in many inorganic substances. Humans however, have many years ago started the introduction of organic bromines in the environment. These are all compounds that are not natural and can cause serious harm to

human health and the environment.In diffuse crustal rock bromine naturally occurs as bromide salts. Bromine salts have accumulated in sea water (85 ppm), from which bromine is extracted. World production of bromine is more than 300.000 tonnes per year; the three main producing countries are US, Istrael and the UK. In this last case it is extracted from sea water at a plant on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. In diffuse crustal rock bromine naturally occurs as bromide salts. Bromine salts have accumulated in sea water (85 ppm), from which bromine is extracted. World production of bromine is more than 300.000 tonnes per year; the three main producing countries are US, Istrael and the UK. In this last case it is extracted from sea water at a plant on the coast of Anglesey, Wales. Health effects of bromine: Bromine is corrosive to human tissue in a liquid state and its vapors irritate eyes and throat. Bromine vapors are very toxic with inhalation. Humans can absorb organic bromines through the skin, with food and during breathing. Organic bromines are widely used as sprays to kill insects and other unwanted pests. But they are not only poisonous to the animals that they are used against, but also to larger animals. In many cases they are poisonous to humans, too. The most important health effects that can be caused by bromine-containing organic contaminants are malfunctioning of the nervous system and disturbances in genetic materials.But organic bromines can also cause damage to organs such as liver, kidneys, lungs and milt and they can cause stomach and gastrointestinal malfunctioning. Some forms of organic bromines, such as ethylene bromine, can even cause cancer. Inorganic bromines are found in nature, but whereas they occur naturally humans have added too much through the years. Through food and drinking water humans absorb high doses of inorganic bromines. These bromines can damage the nervous system and the thyroid gland. Environmental effects of bromine: Organic bromines are often applied as disinfecting and protecting agents, due to their damaging effects on microorganisms. When they are applied in greenhouses and on farmland they can easily rinse off to surface water, which has very negative health effects on daphnia, fishes, lobsters and algae. Organic bromines are also damaging to mammals, especially when they accumulate in the bodies of their preys. The most important effects on animals are nerve damage and next to that DNA damage, which can also enhance the chances of development of cancer. The uptake of organic bromine takes place through food, through breathing and through the skin. Organic bromines are not very biodegradable; when they are decomposed inorganic bromines will consist. These can damage the nerve system when high doses are absorbed. It has occurred in the past that organic bromines ended up in the food of cattle. Thousands of cows and pigs had to be killed in order to prevent contagion of humans. The

cattle suffered from symptoms such as liver damage, loss of sight and depletion of growth, decrease of immunity, decreasing milk production and sterility and malformed children.

Iodine - I

Atomic number Atomic mass Electronegativity according to Pauling Density Melting point Boiling point Vanderwaals radius Ionic radius Isotopes Electronic shell Energy of first ionisation Standard potential Discovered

53 126.9045 g.mol -1 2.5 4.93 g.cm-3 at 20C 114 C 184 C 0.177 nm 0.216 nm (-1) ; 0.05 nm (+7) 15 [ Kr ] 4d10 5s25p5 1008.7 kJ.mol -1 + 0.58 V ( I2 / I- ) Bernard Courtois in 1811

Description: Iodine is a non-metallic, dark-gray/purple-black, lustrous, solid element. Iodine is the most electropositive halogen and the least reactive of the halogens even if it can still form compounds with many elements. Iodine sublime easily on heating to give a purple vapour. Iodine dissolves in some solvents, such as carbon tetrachloride and it is only slightly soluble in water. Applications: Iodine is used in medical treatment as tincture and iodioform, it is employed in the preparation of certain drugs and in the manufacture of some printing inks and dyes. Silver iodine is used in photography. Iodine is added to almost all the table salt and is used as a supplement to animal feed. It is also an ingredient of water purification tablets that are used for drinking water preparation. For many of these uses iodine is turned into iodides. Iodine in the environment: Iodine is added to nearly any kind of salt that is applied. It is an ingredient of bread, sea fish and oceanic plants. Iodine is naturally present in the ocean and some sea fish and water plants will store it in their tissues. Iodine can be found naturally in air, water and soil. The most important sources of natural iodine are the oceans. About 400.000 tonnes of iodine escape from the oceans every year as

iodide in sea spray or as iodide, hydrichloric acid and methyl iodide, produced by marine organisms. Much of it is deposited on land where it may become part of the biocycle. There are some iodine-containing minerals, such as alutarite, found in Chile and iodargyte, found in Colorado, Nevada and New Mexico. World-wide industrial production of iodine is about 13.000 tonnes per year, mainly in Chile and Japan, plus small amounts in Russia and USA. Iodine is extracted from natural brines and oil brines, which have up to 100 ppm of the element or form chilean nitrate deposits. Known reserves of easily accessible iodine amount is around 2 million tonnes. Health effects of iodine: Many medicines and cleansers for skin wounds contain iodine. Iodine is a building material of thyroid hormones that are essential for growth, the nervous system and the metabolism. Humans that eat little to no bread can experience iodine shortages. The function of the thyroid gland will than slow down and the thyroid gland will start swelling up. This phenomenon is called struma. This condition is rare now as table salt is dosed with a little iodide. Large quantities of iodine can be dangerous because the thyroid gland will labour too hastily. This affects the entire body; it causes disturbed heartbeats and loss of weight. Elemental iodine, I2, is toxic, and its vapour irritates the eyes and lungs. The maximum allowable concentration in air when working with iodine is just 1 mg m-3. All iodides are toxic if taken in excess. Iodine 131 is one of the radionuclides involved in atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, which began in 1945, with a US test, and ended in 1980 with a Chinese test. It is among the long-lived radionuclides that have produced and will continue to produce increased cancers risk for decades and centuries to come. Iodine 131 increases the risk of cancer and possibly other diseases of the thyroid and those caused by thyroid hormonal deficiency. Environmental effects of iodine: Iodine in air can combine with water particles and precipitate into water or soils. Iodine in soils will combine with organic matter and remain in the same place for a long time. Plants that grow on these soils may absorb iodine. Cattle and other animals will absorb iodine when they eat these plants. Iodine in surface water will vaporize and re-enter the air as a result. Humans also add iodine gas to the air, by burning coal or fuel oil for energy. But the amount of iodine that enters the air through human activity is fairly small compared to the amount that vaporizes from the oceans. Iodine may be radioactive. The radioactive isotopes are formed naturally during chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Most radioactive isotopes of iodine have very short half-lives and will reshape into stable iodine compounds quickly. However, there is one radioactive form of iodine that has a half-live of millions of years and that is seriously harmful to the environment. This isotope enters the air from nuclear power

plants, where it is formed during uranium and plutonium processing. Accidents in nuclear power plants have caused the release of large amounts of radioactive iodine into air.

Astatine - At 85 (210) g.mol -1 2.2 unknown 302 C 337 C (estimation) unknown unknown 7 [ Xe ] 4f14 5d10 6s2 6p5 (926) kJ.mol -1 D.R. Corson 1940

Atomic number Atomic mass Electronegativity according to Pauling Density Melting point Boiling point Vanderwaals radius Ionic radius Isotopes Electronic shell Energy of first ionisation Discovered by

Description: Astatine is a highly radioactive element and it is the heaviest known halogen. Its chemical properties are believed to be similar to those of iodine. Is has been little researched because all its isotopes have short half lives. All that is known about the element has been estimated from knowing its position in the periodic table below iodine and by studying its chemistry in extreme diluted solutions. Applications: Astatine is never encountered outside nuclear facilities or research laboratories. Astatine in the environment: Total world production of astatine to date is estimated to be less than a millionth of a gram, and virtually all of this has now decayed away. Health effects of astatine: The total amount of astatine in the earth's crust at any particular time is less than 30 grams and only a few micrograms have ever been artificially produced. This, together with its short lifetime, leaves no reason for considering the effects of astatine on human health. Astatine is studied in a few nuclear research laboratories where its high radioactivity requires special handling techniques and precautions. Astatine is a halogen and possibly accumulates in the thyroid like iodine. From a chemical point of view, one can speculate that its toxicity would mimic that of iodine.

Environmental effects of astatine: Astatine does not occur to any significant extent in the biosphere and so normally never presents a risk.

C. TRANSITION METALS GROUP IVA

1 2

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn

Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc

Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal

[Ar] 3d 4s

[Ar] 3d2 4s2 [Ar] 3d 4s

5 5 3 2 1 2

[Ar] 3d 4s (*) [Ar] 3d 4s

[Ar] 3d6 4s2 [Ar] 3d 4s

9 7 2 1

[Ar] 3d 4s (*) [Ar] 3d10 4s1 (*) [Ar] 3d

10

4s

Scandium - Sc Atomic number: 21 Atomic mass: 44.9559 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: unknown Density: 3.0 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1541 C Boiling point: 2836 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.161 nm Ionic radius: 0.083 nm (+3) Isotopes: 7 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d1 4s2 Energy of first ionization: 640.5 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1233 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionistion: 2389 kJ.mol -1 Energy of fourth ionization: 7089 kJ.mol -1 Discovered by: Lars Nilson in 1879 Description: Scandium is a soft, silvery transition element which occurs in rare minerals from Scandinavia. It develops a slightly yellowish or pinkish cast when exposed to air. Scandium tarnished in air and burn easily, once it has been ignited. It reacts with water to form hydrogen gas and will dissolve in many acids. Pure scandium is produced by heating scandium fluoride (ScF3) with calcium metal. Applications: Scandium is one of the rare chemicals, that can be found in houses in equipment such as colour televisions, fluorescent lamps, energy-saving lamps and glasses. The use of scandium is still growing, due to the fact that it is suited to produce catalysers and to polish glass. The main application by volume is in aluminium-scandium alloys for the aerospace industry and for sports equipment (bikes, baseball bats, etc.) which rely on high performance materials. It has been shown to reduce solidification cracking during the welding of high strength aluminium alloys. Scandium in the environment: Scandium can rarely be found in nature, as it occurs in very small amounts. Scandium is usually found only in two different kinds of ores. Thortveitite is the primary source of scandium with uranium mill tailings by-products also being an important source. World

production amount to only 50 kg per year. There is no estimate of how much is potentially available. Scandium is only the 50th most abundant element on hearth, it is distributed widely, occurring in trace quantities in over 800 minerals. The blue color of the aquamarine variety of beryl is thought to be caused by scandium. Only about 3% of plants that were analysed for scandium shows its presence, and even those amounts were tiny, with vegetable having only 5 ppb although grass has 70 ppb. Health effects of scandium: Scandium has no biological role. Only trace amounts reach the food chain, so the average person's daily intake is less than 0.1 microgram. Scadium is not toxic, although there have been suggestions that some of its compounds might be cancerogenic. Scandium is mostly dangerous in the working environment, due to the fact that damps and gasses can be inhaled with air. This can cause lung embolisms, especially during long-term exposure. Scandium can be a threat to the liver when it accumulates in the human body.

Effects of scandium on the environment: Scandium is dumped in the environment in many different places, mainly by petrol-producing industries. It can also enter the environment when household equipment is thrown away. Scandium will gradually accumulate in soils and water soils and this will eventually lead to increasing concentrations in humans, animals and soil particles. With water animals scandium causes damage to cell membranes, which has several negative influences on reproduction and on the functions of the nervous system.

Titanium - Ti Atomic number: 22 Atomic mass: 47.90 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: 1.5 Density: 4.51 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1660 C Boiling point: 3287 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.147 nm Ionic radius: 0.09 nm (+2) ; 0.068 nm (+4) Isotopes: 8 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d1 4s2 Energy of first ionization: 658 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1310 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 2652 kJ.mol -1 Energy of fourth ionization: 4175 kJ.mol -1 Discovered by: William Gregor in 1791 Description: Chemical element, Ti, atomic number 22 and atomic weight 47.90. Its chemical behavior shows many similarities with that or silica and zirconium, as an element belonging to the first transition group. Its chemistry in aqueous solution, especially in the lower oxidation states, has some similarities with that of chrome and vanadium. Titanium is a transition metal light with a white-silvery-metallic colour. It is stong, lustrous, corrosion-resistant. Pure titanium is not soluble in water but is soluble in concentrated acids. This metal forms a passive but protective oxide coating (leading to corrosion-resistance) when exposed to elevated temperatures in air but at room temperatures it resists tarnishing. The main oxidation state is 4+, although the states 3+ and 2+ are also known, but are less stable. This element burns in the air when its heated up to obtain the dioxide, TiO2, and when it is combined with halogens. It reduces the water vapor to form the dioxide and hydrogen, and it reacts in a similar way with hot concentrated acids, although it forms trichloride with chlorhydric acid. The metal absorbs hydrogen to give TiH2, and forms the nitride, TiN, and the carbide, TiC. Other known compounds are the sulfur TiS2, as well as the lowest oxides, Ti2O3 and TiO, and the sulfurs Ti2S3 and TiS. Salts are known in the three oxidation states.

Applications: The titanium dioxide is extensively used as a white pigment in outside paintings for being chemically inert, for its great coating power, its opacity to UV light damage and its autocleaning capacity. The dioxide was also used once as a bleaching and opicifying agent in porcelain enamels, giving them a final touch of great brightness, hardness and acid resistance. A typical lipstick contais 10% titanium. Titaium alloys are characterized by very high tensile strength even at high temperatures, light weight, high corrosion resistance, and ability to withstand extreme temperatures. ue to these properties they are principally used in aircraft, pipes for power plants, armour plating, naval ships, spacecraft and missiles. Titanium is as strong as steel but 45% lighter. In medicine titanium is used to make hip and knee replacements, pace-makers, bone-plates and screws and cranial plates for skull fractures. It has also been used to attach false theet. The alkaline earth titanates have some remarkable properties. The level of dielectric constants varies from 13 for the MgTiO3, to various milliards for solid solutions of SrTiO3 in BaTiO3. The barium titanate also has a dielectric constant of 10.000 close to 120C, which is its Curie point; it has low dielectric histeresis. The ceramic transductors that contain barium titanate are favorably compared with Rochelle salt in terms of thermal stability and with quartz in terms of the strength of the effect and the capacity to form the ceramics in various forms. The compound has bee used as ultrasonic vibrations generator and as a sound detector. Titanium in the environment: Althoug it is not found unbound to other elements in nature, titamuim is the ninth most abundant element in the Earth's crust (0.63% by mass) and is present in most igneous rocks and in sediments derived from them. Important titanium minerals are rutile, brookite, anatase, illmenite, and titanite. The chief mined ore, ilmenite, occurs as vast deposits of sand in Western Australia, Norway, Canada and Ukraine. Large deposits of rutile in North America and South Africa also contribute significantly to the world supply of titanium. World production of the metal is about 90.000 tonnes per year, and that of titanium dioxide is 4.3 million tonnes per year. The titanium dioxide, TiO2, is commonly found in a black or brownish form known as rutile. The natural forms that are less frequently found in nature are the anatasite and the brooquite. Both the pure rutile and the pure anatasite are white. The black basic oxide, FeTiO3, is found in the natural form as the natural mineral called ilmenite; this is the main commercial source of titanium.

Health effects of titanium: There is no known biological role for titanium. There is a detectable amount of titanium in the human body and it has been hestimated that we take in about 0.8 mg/day, but most passes through us without being adsorbed. It is not a poisoun metal and the human body can tolerate titanium in large dosis. Elemental titanium and titanium dioxide is of a low order of toxicity. Laboratory animals (rats) exposed to titanium dioxide via inhalation have developed small-localized areas of dark-colored dust deposits in the lungs. Excessive exposure in humans may result in slight changes in the lungs. Effects of overexposure to titanium powder: Dust inhalation may cause tightness and pain in chest, coughing, and difficulty in breathing. Contact with skin or eyes may cause irritation. Routes of entry: Inhalation, skin contact, eye contact. Carcinogenicity: The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has listed titanium dioxide within Group 3 (The agent is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.) Environmental effects of titanium: Low toxicity. When in a metallic powdered form, titanium metal poses a significant fire hazard and, when heated in air, an explosion hazard. No environmental effects have been reported

Vanadium - V Atomic number: 23 Atomic mass: 50.9414 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: 1.6 Density: 6.1 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1910 C Boiling point: 3407 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.134 nm Ionic radius: 0.074 nm (+3) ; 0.059 (+5) Isotopes: 5 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d3 4s2 Energy of first ionization: 649.1 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1414 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 2830 kJ.mol -1 Energy of fourth ionization: 4652 kJ.mol -1 Discovered by: Nils Sefstrom in 1830 Description: Vanadium is a rare, soft, ductile gray-white element found combined in certain minerals and used mainly to produce certain alloys. Vanadium resists corrosion due to a protective film of oxide on the surface. Common oxidation states of vanadium include +2, +3, +4 and +5. Applications: Most of the vanadium (about 80%) produced is used as ferrovanadium or as a steel additive. Mixed with aluminium in titanium alloys is used in jet engines and high speed air-frames, and steel alloys are used in axles, crankshafts, gears and other critical components. Vanadium alloys are also used in nuclear reactors because vanadium has low neutron-adsorption abilities and it doesn not deform in creeping under high temperatures. Vanadium oxide (V2O5) is used as a catalyst in manufacturing sulfuric acid and maleic anhydride and in making ceramics. It is added to glass to produce green or blue tint. Glass coated with vanadium dioxide (VO2) can block infrared radiation at some specific temperature. Vanadium in the environment: Vanadium is never found unbound in nature. Vanadium occurs in about 65 different minerals among which are patronite, vanadinite, carnotite and bauxite. Vanadium occurs in carbon containing deposits such as crude oil, coal, oil shale and tar sands.

Various vanadium ores are known but none is mined as such for the metal, which is generally obtained as a byproducts of other ores. The largest resources of vanadium are to be found in South Africa and in Russia. World production of vanadium ore is around 45.000 tonnes a year. Production of the metal itself comes to about 7000 tonnes per year. Watering is an important way in which vanadium is redistributed around the environment because venedates are generally very soluble. Vanadium is abundant in most soils, in variable amounts, and it is taken up by plants at levels that reflect its availability. In biology, a vanadium atom is an essential component of some enzymes, particularly the vanadium nitrogenase used by some nitrogen-fixing microorganisms. Health effects of vanadium: Vanadium compounds are not regarded as serious hazard, however, workers exposed to vanadium peroxide dust were found to suffer severe eye, nose and throat irritation. The uptake of vanadium by humans mainly takes place through foodstuffs, such as buckwheat, soya beans, olive oil, sunflower oil, apples and eggs.Vanadium can have a number of effects on human health, when the uptake is too high. When vanadium uptake takes places through air it can cause bronchitis and pneumonia. The acute effects of vanadium are irritation of lungs, throat, eyes and nasal cavities. Other health effects of vanadium uptake are: - Cardiac and vascular disease - Inflammation of stomach and intestines - Damage to the nervous system - Bleeding of livers and kidneys - Skin rashes - Severe trembling and paralyses - Nose bleeds and throat pains - Weakening - Sickness and headaches - Dizziness - Behavioural changes The health hazards associated with exposure to vanadium are dependent on its oxidation state. This product contains elemental vanadium. Elemental vanadium could be oxidized to vanadium pentoxide during welding. The pentoxide form is more toxic than the elemental form. Chronic exposure to vanadium pentoxide dust and fumes may cause severe irritation of the eyes, skin, upper respiratory tract, persistent inflammations of the trachea and bronchi, pulmonary edema, and systemic poisoning. Signs and symptoms of overexposure include;

conjunctivitis, nasopharyngitis, cough, labored breathing, rapid heart beat, lung changes, chronic bronchitis, skin pallor, greenish-black tongue and an allergic skin rash.

Effects of vanadium on the environment: Vanadium can be found in the environment in algae, plants, invertebrates, fishes and many other species. In mussels and crabs vanadium strongly bioaccumulates, which can lead to concentrations of about 105 to 106 times greater than the concentrations that are found in seawater. Vanadium causes the inhibition of certain enzymes with animals, which has several neurological effects. Next to the neurological effects vanadium can cause breathing disorders, paralyses and negative effects on the liver and kidneys. Laboratory tests with test animals have shown, that vanadium can cause harm to the reproductive system of male animals, and that it accumulates in the female placenta. Vanadium can cause DNA alteration in some cases, but it cannot cause cancer with animals.


Chromium - Cr Atomic number: 24 Atomic mass: 51.996 g.mol -1 Electronegativity: 1.6 Density: 7.19 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1907 C Boiling point: 2672 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.127 nm Ionic radius: 0.061 nm (+3) ; 0.044 nm (+6) Isotopes: 6 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d5 4s1 Energy of first ionization: 651.1 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1590.1 kJ.mol -1 Energy of first ionization: 2987 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: - 0.71 V (Cr3+ / Cr ) Discovered by: Vaughlin in 1797 Description: Chromium is a lustrous, brittle, hard metal. Its colour is silver-gray and it can be highly polished. It does not tarnish in air, when heated it borns and forms the green chromic oxide. Chromium is unstable in oxygen, it immediately produces a thin oxide layer that is impermeable to oxygen and protects the metal below. Applications:

Chromium main uses are in alloys such as stainless steel, in chrome plating and in metal ceramics. Chromium plating was once widely used to give steel a polished silvery mirror coating. Chromium is used in metallurgy to impart corrosion resistance and a shiny finish; as dyes and paints, its salts colour glass an emerald green and it is used to produce synthetic rubies; as a catalyst in dyeing and in the tanning of leather; to make molds for the firing of bricks. Chromium (IV) oxide (CrO2 ) is used to manufacture magnetic tape. Chromium in the environment: Chromium is mined as chromite (FeCr2O4) ore. Chromium ores are mined today in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Finland, India, Kazakihstan and the Philippines. A total of 14 million tonnes of chromite ore is extracted. Reserves are hestimated to be of the order of 1 billion tonnes with unexploited deposits in Greenland, Canada e USA. Health effects of chromium: People can be exposed to chromium through breathing, eating or drinking and through skin contact with chromium or chromium compounds. The level of chromium in air and water is generally low. In drinking water the level of chromium is usually low as well, but contaminated well water may contain the dangerous chromium(IV); hexavalent chromium. For most people eating food that contains chromium(III) is the main route of chromium uptake, as chromium(III) occurs naturally in many vegetables, fruits, meats, yeasts and grains. Various ways of food preparation and storage may alter the chromium contents of food. When food in stores in steel tanks or cans chromium concentrations may rise. Chromium(III) is an essential nutrient for humans and shortages may cause heart conditions, disruptions of metabolisms and diabetes. But the uptake of too much chromium(III) can cause health effects as well, for instance skin rashes. Chromium(VI) is a danger to human health, mainly for people who work in the steel and textile industry. People who smoke tobacco also have a higher chance of exposure to chromium .Chromium(VI) is known to cause various health effects. When it is a compound in leather products, it can cause allergic reactions, such as skin rash. After breathing it in chromium(VI) can cause nose irritations and nosebleeds. Other health problems that are caused by chromium(VI) are: - Skin rashes - Upset stomachs and ulcers - Respiratory problems - Weakened immune systems - Kidney and liver damage - Alteration of genetic material - Lung cancer - Death

The health hazards associated with exposure to chromium are dependent on its oxidation state. The metal form (chromium as it exists in this product) is of low toxicity. The hexavalent form is toxic. Adverse effects of the hexavalent form on the skin may include ulcerations, dermatitis, and allergic skin reactions. Inhalation of hexavalent chromium compounds can result in ulceration and perforation of the mucous membranes of the nasal septum, irritation of the pharynx and larynx, asthmatic bronchitis, bronchospasms and edema. Respiratory symptoms may include coughing and wheezing, shortness of breath, and nasal itch. Carcinogenicity- Chromium and most trivalent chromium compounds have been listed by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) as having inadequate evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals. According to NTP, there is sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in experimental animals for the following hexavalent chromium compounds; calcium chromate, chromium trioxide, lead chromate, strontium chromate,and zinc chromate. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has listed chromium metal and its trivalent compounds within Group 3 (The agent is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.) Chromium is not regulated as a carcinogen by OSHA (29 CFR 1910 Subpart Z). ACGIH has classified chromium metal and trivalent chromium compounds as A4,not classifiable as a human carcinogen.


Manganese - Mn Atomic number: 25 Atomic mass: 54.9380 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: 1.5

Density: 7.43 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1247 C Boiling point: 2061 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.126 nm Ionic radius: 0.08 nm (+2) ; 0.046 nm (+7) Isotopes: 7 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d5 4s2 Energy of first ionization: 716 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1489 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: - 1.05 V ( Mn2+/ Mn ) Discovered: Johann Gahn in 1774 Description: Manganese is a pinkinsh-gray, chemically active element. It is a hard metal and is very brittle. It is hard to melt, but easily oxidized. Manganese is reactive when pure, and as a powder it will burn in oxygen, it reacts with water (it rusts like iron) and dissolves in dilute acids. Applications: Manganese is essential to iron and steel production. At present steel making accounts 85% to 90% of the total demand, most of the total demand. Manganese is a key component of low-cost stainless steel formulations and certain widely used alumimum alloys. Manganese dioxide is also used as a catalyst. Manganese is used to decolorize glass and make violet coloured glass. Potassium permanganate is a potent oxidizer and used as a disinfectant. Other compound that find application are Manganese oxide (MnO) and manganese carbonate (MnCO3 ): the first goes into fertilizers and ceramics, the second is the starting material for making other manganese compounds. Manganese in the environment: Manganese is one of the most abundant metals in soils, where it occurs as oxides and hydroxides, and it cycles through its various oxidation states. Manganese occurs principally as pyrolusite (MnO2), and to a lesser extent as rhodochrosite (MnCO3). More than 25 million tonnes are mined every year, representing 5 million tons of the metal, and reserves are estimated to exeed 3 billion tonnes of the metal. The main mining areas for manganese ores are South Africa, Russia, Ukraine, Georgia, Gabon and Australia. Manganese is an essential element for all species. Some organisms, such as diatoms, molluscs and sponges, accumulate manganese. Fish can have up to 5 ppm and mammals up to 3 ppm in their tissue, although normally they have around 1 ppm.

Health effects of manganese: Manganese is a very common compound that can be found everywhere on earth. Manganese is one out of three toxic essential trace elements, which means that it is not only necessary for humans to survive, but it is also toxic when too high concentrations are present in a human body. When people do not live up to the recommended daily allowances their health will decrease. But when the uptake is too high health problems will also occur. The uptake of manganese by humans mainly takes place through food, such as spinach, tea and herbs. The foodstuffs that contain the highest concentrations are grains and rice, soya beans, eggs, nuts, olive oil, green beans and oysters. After absorption in the human body manganese will be transported through the blood to the liver, the kidneys, the pancreas and the endocrine glands. Manganese effects occur mainly in the respiratory tract and in the brains. Symptoms of manganese poisoning are hallucinations, forgetfulness and nerve damage. Manganese can also cause Parkinson, lung embolism and bronchitis. When men are exposed to manganese for a longer period of time they may become impotent. A syndrome that is caused by manganese has symptoms such as schizophrenia, dullness, weak muscles, headaches and insomnia.Because manganese is an essential element for human health shortages of manganese can also cause health effects. These are the following effects: - Fatness - Glucose intolerance - Blood clotting - Skin problems - Lowered cholesterol levels - Skeleton disorders - Birth defects - Changes of hair colour - Neurological symptoms Chronic Manganese poisoning may result from prolonged inhalation of dust and fume. The central nervous system is the chief site of damage from the disease, which may result in permanent disability. Symptoms include languor, sleepiness, weakness, emotional disturbances, spastic gait, recurring leg cramps, and paralysis. A high incidence of pneumonia and other upper respiratory infections has been found in workers exposed to dust or fume of Manganese compounds. Manganese compounds are experimental equivocal tumorigenic agents. Iron - Fe Atomic number: 26 Atomic mass: 55.85 g.mol -1 Electronegativity according to Pauling: 1.8

Density: 7.8 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1536 C Boiling point: 2861 C Vanderwaalsradius: 0.126 nm Ionic radius: 0.076 nm (+2) ; 0.064 nm (+3) Isotopes: 8 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d6 4s2 Energy of first ionization: 761 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1556.5 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 2951 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: - o.44 V (Fe2+/ Fe ) ; 0.77 V ( Fe3+/ Fe2+ ) Discovered by: The ancients Description: Iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable, silver-gray metal (group VIII of the periodic table). It is known to exist in four distinct crystalline forms. Iron rusts in dump air, but not in dry air. It dissolves readily in dilute acids. Iron is chemically active and forms two major series of chemical compounds, the bivalent iron (II), or ferrous, compounds and the trivalent iron (III), or ferric, compounds. Applications: Iron is the most used of all the metals, including 95 % of all the metal tonnage produced worldwide. Thanks to the combination of low cost and high strength it is indispensable. Its applications go from food containers to family cars, from scredrivers to washing machines, from cargo ships to paper staples. Steel is the best known alloy of iron, and some of the forms that iron takes include: pig iron, cast iron, carbon steel, wrought iron, alloy steels, iron oxides. Iron in the environment: Iron is believed to be the tenth most abundant element in the universe. Iron is also the most abundant (by mass, 34.6%) element making up the Earth; the concentration of iron in the various layers of the Earth ranges from high at the inner core to about 5% in the outer crust. Most of this iron is found in various iron oxides, such as the minerals hematite, magnetite, and taconite. The earth's core is believed to consist largely of a metallic iron-nickel alloy. Iron is essential to almost living things, from micro-organisms to humans. World production of new iron is over 500 million tonnes a year, and recycled iron add other 300 million tonnes. Economically workable reserves of iron ores exceed 100 billion tonnes.

The main mining areas are China, Brazil, Australia, Russia and Ukraine, with sizeable amounts mined in the USA, Canada, Venezuela, Sweeden and India. Health effects of iron: Iron can be found in meat, whole meal products, potatoes and vegetables. The human body absorbs iron in animal products faster than iron in plant products. Iron is an essential part of hemoglobin; the red colouring agent of the blood that transports oxygen through our bodies. Iron may cause conjunctivitis, choroiditis, and retinitis if it contacts and remains in the tissues. Chronic inhalation of excessive concentrations of iron oxide fumes or dusts may result in development of a benign pneumoconiosis, called siderosis, which is observable as an x-ray change. No physical impairment of lung function has been associated with siderosis. Inhalation of excessive concentrations of iron oxide may enhance the risk of lung cancer development in workers exposed to pulmonary carcinogens. LD50 (oral, rat) =30 gm/kg. (LD50: Lethal dose 50. Single dose of a substance that causes the death of 50% of an animal population from exposure to the substance by any route other than inhalation. Usually expressed as milligrams or grams of material per kilogram of animal weight (mg/kg or g/kg).) A more common problem for humans is iron deficency, which leads to anaemia. A man needs an average daily intake pf 7 mg of iron and a woman 11 mg; a normal diet will generally provided all that is needed. Environmental effects of iron: Iron (III)-O-arsenite, pentahydrate may be hazardous to the environment; special attention should be given to plants, air and water. It is strongly advised not to let the chemical enter into the environment because it persists in the environment.

Cobalt Co Atomic number: 27 Atomic mass: 58.9332 g.mol -1

Electronegativity according to Pauling: 1.8 Density: 8.9 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1495 C Boiling point: 2927 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.125 nm Ionic radius: 0.078 nm (+2) ; 0.063 nm (+3) Isotopes: 8 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d7 4s2 Energy of first ionization: 757 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1666.3 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 3226 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: - 0.28 V ( Co2+/ Co ) ; +1.84 V ( Co3+/ Co2+ ) Discovered by: George Brandt in 1737 Description: Cobalt is a hard ferromagnetic, silver-white, hard, lustrous, brittle element. It is a member of group VIII of the periodic table. Like iron, it can be magnetized. It is similar to iron and nickel in its physical properties. The element is active chemically, forming many compounds. Cobalt is stable in air and unaffected by water, but is slowly attacked by dilute acids. Applications Cobalt is used in many alloys (superalloys for parts in gas turbine aircrafr engines, corrosion resistant alloys, high-speed steels, cemented carbides), in magents and magnetic recording media, as catalysts for the petroleum and chemical industries, as drying agents for paints and inks. Cobalt blue is an important part of artists' palette and is used bu craft workers in porcelain, pottery, stained glass, tiles and enamel jewellery. The radioactive isotopes, cobalt-60, is used in medical treatment and also to irradiate food, in order to preserve the food and protect the consumer. Cobalt in the enviroment Most of the Earth's cobalt is in its core. Cobalt is of relatively low abundance in the Earth's crust and in natural waters, from which it is precipitated as the highly insoluble cobalt sulfine CoS. Although the average level of cobalt in soils is 8 ppm, there are soils with as little as 0.1 ppm and others with as much as 70 ppm. In the marine environment cobalt is needed by blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and other nitrogen fixing organisms. Cobalt is not found as a free metal and is generally found in the form of ores. Cobalt is usually not mined alone, and tends to be

produced as a by-product of nickel and copper mining activities. The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot, and skutterudite. The world's major producers of cobalt are the Democratic Republic of the Congo, mainland China, Zambia, Russia and Australia. It is also found in Finland, Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan. World production is 17.000 tonnes per year. Health effects of cobalt As cobalt is widely dispersed in the environment humans may be exposed to it by breathing air, drinking water and eating food that contains cobalt. Skin contact with soil or water that contains cobalt may also enhance exposure. Cobalt is not often freely available in the environment, but when cobalt particles are not bound to soil or sediment particles the uptake by plants and animals is higher and accumulation in plants and animals may occur. Cobalt is beneficial for humans because it is a part of vitamin B12, which is essential for human health. Cobalt is used to treat anaemia with pregnant women, because it stimulates the production of red blood cells. The total daily intake of cobalt is variable and may be as much as 1 mg, but almost all will pass through the body unadsorbed, except that in vitamine B12. However, too high concentrations of cobalt may damage human health. When we breathe in too high concentrations of cobalt through air we experience lung effects, such as asthma and pneumonia. This mainly occurs with people that work with cobalt. When plants grow on contaminated soils they will accumulate very small particles of cobalt, especially in the parts of the plant we eat, such as fruits and seeds. Soils near mining and melting facilities may contain very high amounts of cobalt, so that the uptake by humans through eating plants can cause health effects. Health effects that are a result of the uptake of high concentrations of cobalt are: - Vomiting and nausea - Vision problems - Heart problems - Thyroid damage Health effects may also be caused by radiation of radioactive cobalt isotopes. This can cause sterility, hair loss, vomiting, bleeding, diarrhoea, coma and even death. This radiation is sometimes used with cancer-patients to destroy tumors. These patients also suffer from hair loss, diarrhea and vomiting. Cobalt dust may cause an asthma-like disease with symptoms ranging from cough, shortness of breath and dyspnea to decreased pulmonary function, nodular fibrosis, permanent disability, and death. Exposure to cobalt may cause weight loss, dermatitis, and respiratory hypersensitivity. LD 50 (oral, rat)- 6171 mg/kg. (LD50 = Lethal dose 50 = Single dose of a substance that causes the death of 50% of an animal population from exposure to the substance by any route other than inhalation. LD50 is usually expressed as milligrams or

grams of material per kilogram of animal weight (mg/kg or g/kg).) Carcinogenicity- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) haslisted cobalt and cobalt compounds within group 2B (agents which are possibly carcinogenic to humans). ACGIH has placed cobalt and inorganic compounds in category A3 (Experimental animal carcinogen- the agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s), histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that are not considered relevant to worker exposure.) Cobalt has been classified to be carcinogenic to experimental animals by the Federal Republic of Germany.

Environmental effects of cobalt Cobalt is an element that occurs naturally in the environment in air, water, soil, rocks, plants and animals. It may also enter air and water and settle on land through wind-blown dust and enter surface water through run-off when rainwater runs through soil and rock containing cobalt. Humans add cobalt by releasing small amounts into the atmosphere from coal combustion and mining, processing of cobalt-containing ores and the production and use of cobalt chemicals. The radioactive isotopes of cobalt are not present in the environment naturally, but they are released through nuclear power plant operations and nuclear accidents. Because they have relatively short half-lives they are not particularly dangerous. Cobalt cannot be destroyed once it has entered the environment. It may react with other particles or adsorb on soil particles or water sediments. Cobalt will only mobilize under acidic conditions, but ultimately most cobalt will end up in soils and sediments. Soils that contain very low amounts of cobalt may grow plants that have a deficiency of cobalt. When animals graze on these grounds they suffer from lack of cobalt, which is essential for them. On the other hand, soils near mining and melting facilities may contain very high amounts of cobalt, so that the uptake by animals through eating plants can cause health effects. Cobalt will accumulate in plants and in the bodies of animals that eat these plants, but cobalt is not known to bio magnify up the food chain. Because of this fruits, vegetables, fish and other animals we eat will usually not contain very high amounts of cobalt.

Nickel - Ni Atomic number: 28 Atomic mass: 58.71 g.mol -1

Electronegativity according to Pauling: 1.8 Density: 8.9 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1453 C Boiling point: 2913 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.124 nm Ionic radius: 0.069 nm (+2) ; 0.06 nm (+3) Isotopes: 10 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d8 4s2 Energy of first ionization: 735 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1753 kJ.mol -1 Energy of third ionization: 3387 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: - 0.25 V Discovered by: Alex Constedt 1751 Description: Nickel is silvery-white. hard, malleable, and ductile metal. It is of the iron group and it takes on a high polish. It is a fairly good conductor of heat and electricity. In its familiar compounds nickel is bivalent, although it assumes other valences. It also forms a number of complex compounds. Most nickel compounds are blue or green. Nickel dissolves slowly in dilute acids but, like iron, becomes passive when treated with nitric acid. Finely divided nickel adsorbs hydrogen. Applications The major use of nickel is in the preparation of alloys. Nickel alloys are characterized by strength, ductility, and resistance to corrosion and heat. About 65 % of the nickel consumed in the Western World is used to make stainless steel, whose composition can vary but is typically iron with around 18% chromium and 8% nickel. 12 % of all the nickel consumed goes into super alloys. The remaining 23% of consumption is divided between alloy steels, rechargeable batteries, catalysts and other chemicals, coinage, foundry products, and plating. Nickel is easy to work and can be drawn into wire. It resist corrosion even at high temperatures and for this reason it is used in gas turbines and rocket engines. Monel is an alloy of nickel and copper (e.g. 70% nickel, 30% copper with traces of iron, manganese and silicon), which is not only hard but can resist corrosion by sea water, so that it is ideal for propeller shaft in boats and desalination plants. Nickel in the environment Most nickel on Earth is inaccessible because it is locked away in the planet's iron-nickel molten core, which is 10 % nickel. The total amount of nickel dissolved in the sea has been calculated to be around 8 billion tons. Organic matter has a strong ability to absorb the metal

which is why coal and oil contain considerable amounts. The nickel content in soil can be as low as 0.2 ppm or as high as 450 ppm in some clay and loamy soils. The average is around 20 ppm. Nickel occurs in some beans where it is an essential component of some enzymes. Another relatively rich source of nickel is tea which has 7.6 mg/kg of dried leaves. Nickel occurs combined with sulphur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral niccolite, and with arsenic and sulphur in nickel glance. Most ores from which nickel is extracted are iron-nickel sulphides, such as pentlandite. The metal is mined in Russia, Australia, New Caledonia, Cuba, Canada and South Africa. Annual production exceeds 500.000 tons and easily workable reserves will last at least 150 years. Health effects of nickel Nickel is a compound that occurs in the environment only at very low levels. Humans use nickel for many different applications. The most common application of nickel is the use as an ingredient of steal and other metal products. It can be found in common metal products such as jewelry. Foodstuffs naturally contain small amounts of nickel. Chocolate and fats are known to contain severely high quantities. Nickel uptake will boost when people eat large quantities of vegetables from polluted soils. Plants are known to accumulate nickel and as a result the nickel uptake from vegetables will be eminent. Smokers have a higher nickel uptake through their lungs. Finally, nickel can be found in detergents. Humans may be exposed to nickel by breathing air, drinking water, eating food or smoking cigarettes. Skin contact with nickel-contaminated soil or water may also result in nickel exposure. In small quantities nickel is essential, but when the uptake is too high it can be a danger to human health. An uptake of too large quantities of nickel has the following consequences: - Higher chances of development of lung cancer, nose cancer, larynx cancer and prostate cancer - Sickness and dizziness after exposure to nickel gas - Lung embolism - Respiratory failure - Birth defects - Asthma and chronic bronchitis - Allergic reactions such as skin rashes, mainly from jewelry - Heart disorders Nickel fumes are respiratory irritants and may cause pneumonitis. Exposure to nickel and its compounds may result in the development of a dermatitis known as nickel itch in sensitized individuals. The first symptom is usually itching, which occurs up to 7 days before skin eruption occurs. The primary skin eruption is erythematous, or follicular, which may be followed by skin ulceration. Nickel sensitivity, once acquired, appears to persist indefinitely. Carcinogenicity- Nickel and certain nickel compounds have been listed by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) as being reasonably anticipated to be carcinogens. The

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has listed nickel compounds within group 1 (there is sufficient evidence for carcinogenicity in humans) and nickel within group 2B (agents which are possibly carcinogenic to humans). OSHA does not regulate nickel as a carcinogen. Nickel is on the ACGIH Notice of Intended Changes as a Category A1, confirmed human carcinogen. Effects of nickel on the environment Nickel is released into the air by power plants and trash incinerators. It will than settle to the ground or fall down after reactions with raindrops. It usually takes a long time for nickel to be removed from air. Nickel can also end up in surface water when it is a part of wastewater streams. The larger part of all nickel compounds that are released to the environment will adsorb to sediment or soil particles and become immobile as a result. In acidic ground however, nickel is bound to become more mobile and it will often rinse out to the groundwater. There is not much information available on the effects of nickel upon organisms other than humans. We do know that high nickel concentrations on sandy soils can clearly damage plants and high nickel concentrations in surface waters can diminish the growth rates of algae. Micro organisms can also suffer from growth decline due to the presence of nickel, but they usually develop resistance to nickel after a while. For animals nickel is an essential foodstuff in small amounts. But nickel is not only favorable as an essential element; it can also be dangerous when the maximum tolerable amounts are exceeded. This can cause various kinds of cancer on different sites within the bodies of animals, mainly of those that live near refineries. Nickel is not known to accumulate in plants or animals. As a result nickel will not bio magnify up the food chain.

Copper - Cu Atomic number: 29 Atomic mass: 63.546 g.mol -1

Electronegativity according to Pauling: 1.9 Density: 8.9 g.cm-3 at 20C Melting point: 1083 C Boiling point: 2595 C Vanderwaals radius: 0.128 nm Ionic radius: 0.096 nm (+1) ; 0.069 nm (+3) Isotopes: 6 Electronic shell: [ Ar ] 3d10 4s1 Energy of first ionization: 743.5 kJ.mol -1 Energy of second ionization: 1946 kJ.mol -1 Standard potential: + 0.522 V ( Cu+/ Cu ) ; + 0.345 V (Cu2+/ Cu ) Discovered by: The ancients Description: Copper is a reddish metal with a face-centered cubic crystalline structure. It reflects red and orange light and absorbs other frequencies in the visible spectrum, due to its band structure, so it as a nice reddish color. It is malleable, ductile, and an extremely good conductor of both heat and electricity. It is softer than zinc and can be polished to a bright finish. It is found in group Ib of the periodic table, together with silver and gold. Copper has low chemical reactivity. In moist air it slowly forms a greenish surface film called patina; this coating protects the metal from further attack. Applications Most copper is used for electrical equipment (60%); construction, such as roofing and plumbing (20%); industrial machinery, such as heat exchangers (15%) and alloys (5%). The main long established copper alloys are bronze, brass (a copper-zinc alloy), copper-tin-zinc, which was strong enough to make guns and cannons, and was known as gun metal, copper and nickel, known as cupronickel, which was the preferred metal for low-denomination coins. Copper is ideal for electrical wiring because it is easily worked, can be drawn into fine wire and has a high electrical conductivity.

Copper in the environment Copper is a very common substance that occurs naturally in the environment and spreads through the environment through natural phenomena. Humans widely use copper. For

instance it is applied in the industries and in agriculture. The production of copper has lifted over the last decades. Due to this, copper quantities in the environment have increased. The world's copper production is still rising. This basically means that more and more copper ends up in the environment. Rivers are depositing sludge on their banks that is contaminated with copper, due to the disposal of copper-containing wastewater. Copper enters the air, mainly through release during the combustion of fossil fuels. Copper in air will remain there for an eminent period of time, before it settles when it starts to rain. It will then end up mainly in soils. As a result soils may also contain large quantities of copper after copper from the air has settled. Copper can be released into the environment by both natural sources and human activities. Examples of natural sources are wind-blown dust, decaying vegetation, forest fires and sea spray. A few examples of human activities that contribute to copper release have already been named. Other examples are mining, metal production, wood production and phosphate fertilizer production. Because copper is released both naturally and through human activity it is very widespread in the environment. Copper is often found near mines, industrial settings, landfills and waste disposals. Most copper compounds will settle and be bound to either water sediment or soil particles. Soluble copper compounds form the largest threat to human health. Usually water-soluble copper compounds occur in the environment after release through application in agriculture. World production of copper amounts to 12 million tons a year and exploitable reserves are around 300 million tons, which are expected to last for only another 25 years. About 2 million tons a year are reclaimed by recycling. Today copper is mined as major deposits in Chile, Indonesia, USA, Australia and Canada, which together account for around 80% of the world's copper. The main ore is a yellow copper-iron sulfide called chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).

Zinc - Zn

Atomic number Atomic mass

30 65.37 g.mol -1 7.11 g.cm-3 at 20C 420 C 907 C 0.138 nm 0.074 nm (+2) 10 [ Ar ] 3d10 4s2 904.5 kJ.mol -1 1723 kJ.mol -1 - 0.763 V Andreas Marggraf in 1746

Electronegativity according to Pauling 1.6 Density Melting point Boiling point Vanderwaals radius Ionic radius Isotopes Electronic shell Energy of first ionisation Energy of second ionisation Standard potential Discovered

Description: Zinc is a lustrous bluish-white metal. It is found in group IIb of the periodic table. It is brittle and crystalline at ordinary temperatures, but it becomes ductile and malleable when heated between 110C and 150C. It is a fairly reactive metal that will combine with oxygen and other non-metals, and will react with dilute acids to release hydrogen. Applications It is used principally for galvanizing iron, more than 50% of metallic zinc goes into galvanizing steel, but is also important in the preparation of certain alloys. It is used for the negative plates in some electric batteries and for roofing and gutters in building construction. Zinc is the primary metal used in making American pennies, is used in die casting in the automobile industry. Zinc oxide is used as a white pigment in watercolours or paints, and as an activator in the rubber industry. As a pigment zinc is used in plastics, cosmetics, photocopier paper, wallpaper, printing inks etc, while in rubber production its role is to act as a catalyst during manufacture and as a heat disperser in the final product. Zinc metal is included in most single tablet, it is believed to possess anti-oxidant properties, which protect against premature aging of the skin and muscles of the body.

Zinc in the environment

Zinc is a very common substance that occurs naturally. Many foodstuffs contain certain concentrations of zinc. Drinking water also contains certain amounts of zinc, which may be higher when it is stored in metal tanks. Industrial sources or toxic waste sites may cause the zinc amounts in drinking water to reach levels that can cause health problems. Zinc occurs naturally in air, water and soil, but zinc concentrations are rising unnaturally, due to addition of zinc through human activities. Most zinc is added during industrial activities, such as mining, coal and waste combustion and steel processing. Some soils are heavily contaminated with zinc, and these are to be found in areas where zinc has to be mined or refined, or were sewage sludge from industrial areas has been used as fertilizer. Zinc is the 23rd most abundant element in the Earth's crust. The dominant ore is zinc blende, also known as sphalerite. Other important zinc ores are wurzite, smithsonite and hemimorphite. The main zinc mining areas are Canada, Russia, Australia, USA and Peru'. World production exceeds 7 million tonnes a year and commercially exploitable reserves exceed 100 million tonnes. More than 30% of the world's need for zinc is met by recycling. Effects of zinc on the Environment The world's zinc production is still rising. This basically means that more and more zinc ends up in the environment. Water is polluted with zinc, due to the presence of large quantities of zinc in the wastewater of industrial plants. This wastewater is not purified satisfactory. One of the consequences is that rivers are depositing zinc-polluted sludge on their banks. Zinc may also increase the acidity of waters. Some fish can accumulate zinc in their bodies, when they live in zinc-contaminated waterways. When zinc enters the bodies of these fish it is able to bio magnify up the food chain. Large quantities of zinc can be found in soils. When the soils of farmland are polluted with zinc, animals will absorb concentrations that are damaging to their health. Water-soluble zinc that is located in soils can contaminate groundwater. Zinc cannot only be a threat to cattle, but also to plant species. Plants often have a zinc uptake that their systems cannot handle, due to the accumulation of zinc in soils. On zinc-rich soils only a limited number of plants has a chance of survival. That is why there is not much plant diversity near zinc-disposing factories. Due to the effects upon plants zinc is a serious threat to the productions of farmlands. Despite of this zinc-containing manures are still applied. Finally, zinc can interrupt the activity in soils, as it negatively influences the activity of microrganisms and earthworms. The breakdown of organic matter may seriously slow down because of this.