1.

ionic bond:: NaBr, NaCl, MgCl, HCl, AgCl, PbCl2, MgPO3, NaPO3, CaSO4, ZnCl.

a form of noncovalent bonding; one atom accepts or donates its valence electrons -electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. cation, (usually a metal) and an anion, (nonmetal) Pure ionic bonding cannot exist-all ionic compounds have some degree of covalent bonding. (ionic character must be greater than the covalent character) The larger the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms, the more ionic (polar) the bond is. conduct electricity when molten or in solution, but not as a solid. generally have a high melting point and soluble in water. conduct electricity( molten)- the ions in these conditions are free to move and carry electrons between the anode and the cathode. Usually solid -cannot conduct-the electrons are held together too tightly for them to move. some ionic compounds can conduct electricity when solid- migration of the ions - influence of an electric field. 3. Covalent bonding atoms share electrons- stable electron configurations. molecular geometry around each atom is determined by VSEPR rules atoms have a similar tendency for electrons (to gain electrons). Ex. :two nonmetals bond together. both of them want to gain electrons, so they share electrons - to fill their valence shells. Ex. hydrogen atoms react with nearby hydrogen (H) atoms to form the compound H2. Atoms of hydrogen (H) have one valence electron in their first electron shell. The capacity of this shell is two electrons, each hydrogen atom want to pick up a second electron-forming one covalent bond. - both atoms share the stability of a full valence shell. covalent molecules are not strongly attracted to one another. move about freely, so they exist as liquids or gases Covalent bonds: CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, C5H12, C6H14 5. Structure of water molecule 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The bonding angle of the two hydrogens: 105 degrees dipolpositive and negative sideunique properties

hydrogen bonds - between adjacent molecules. van der Waals force- intermolecular force of electrostatic attraction

* ice is bulkier -less dense = floats on water. -high heat capacity =can absorb or can lose a lot of heat energy without changing its temperature very muchbuffers the environment against large, rapid temperature changes. Ex: The temp change of the ocean is much smaller compared to the diel temperature change of the surrounding air. Specific heat = the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1gm 1 degree C. expressed in calories. calorie - amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1gm liquid water 1 degree C. The specific heat of liquid water is 1.0 calories while it is 0.5 calories for ice. If we look at a graph of temperature versus heat input, we can follow the change from ice at -100C to water vapor at 150 degrees C. To change from liquid to water vapor at 100 degrees C requires an additional 540 calories. This is called the heat of evaporation or condensation. It explains why it seems to take so long to boil water on the stove when it seems about to boil. If we had a constant heat supply under a pot at the rate of heating raised to water from, say, 20 degrees C to 100 degrees C in 4 minutes, it would take another 6 minutes 45 seconds to boil the water. when water vapor condenses (as in rain), it gives up this energy.

high Surface tension - the highest surface tension of any common liquid except mercury. -tendency of water molecules to attract to each other or cohere to each other at the surface of any water. It can be demonstrated in the formation of a drop of water, of heavier than water objects floating on the surface or in capillary action in a glass tube. 6. Physical properties of water *Physical properties - can be observed without changing the identity of the substance. The general properties of matter such as color, density, hardness, are examples of physical properties. Phase is a physical property of matter and matter can exist in four phases solid, liquid, gas and plasma. Properties that describe how a substance changes into a completely different substance are called chemical properties. Ex. Flammability and corrosion/oxidation resistance Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. It is tasteless and odorless. The intrinsic colour of water and ice is a very slight blue hue, although both appear colorless in small quantities. Water vapour is essentially invisible as a gas

Water is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectrum. Thus aquatic plants can live in water because sunlight can reach them. Infrared light is strongly absorbed by the hydrogen-oxygen or OH bonds. Since the water molecule is not linear- the oxygen atom has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen atoms, it carries a slight negative charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. polar moleculeelectrical dipole moment. capillary action - tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. -relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees Water is a good solvent , universal solvent. Substances that dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases especially oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving), those that do not mix well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances. All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also dissolved in water. Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases significantly with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride. The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure. on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 C (154 F), compared to 100 C (212 F) at sea level. water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees and remain liquid. At 4181.3 J/(kgK), water has the second highest specific heat capacity of any known substance (after ammonia), as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65 kJmol1), hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 C (39.16 F).[17] It has the anomalous property of becoming less dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9% greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of ice floating on liquid water, as in icebergs. Its density is 1,000 kg/m3 liquid (4 C), weighs 62.4 lb/ft.3 (917 kg/m3, solid). It weighs 8.3454 lb/gal. (US, liquid).[18]

Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol (Miscibility property of liquids to mix in all proportions, forming a homogeneous solution)- water vapor is completely miscible with air. ( water and oils are immiscible=forming layers - increasing density from the top) Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen. Water is not a fuelThe energy required to split water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis is greater than the energy that can be collected when the hydrogen and oxygen recombine Elements more electropositive than hydrogen(Li, Ca, Na,K,P) displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides. hydrogen( flammable gas) given off the reaction of water with the more electropositive -violently explosive. 5. Structure and role of water in biological systems Biological life evolved from the water. The species that left the water still keep their cells bathed in it. Water is the main constituent of all organisms jellyfish are made up of up to 98% water and even humans consist of around 65% water. Metabolic role of water

Water is vital for a number of metabolic reactions. It is a raw material in photosynthesis, where energy from light is used to split water, removing hydrogen. The oxygen is given off as a waste product. Water is also used to hydrolyse many substances. It breaks the bond between amino acids in proteins and also the peptide link between monosaccharides in a polysaccharide. Essential to the diffusion of materials across surfaces -alveoli (Oxygen dissolved into the moisture and this aids its movement across the cell boundaries.) Water as a solvent Water readily dissolves other substrates and this attribute is used in transport through the body. fundamental component of blood plasma, tissue fluid and lymph and are used to dissolve a wide range of substances such as red blood cells that carry oxygen, platelets used for clotting, as well as minerals, which can then be easily transported and made available to the cells. Metabolic waste products such as ammonia and urea are removed from the body in a water solution. (because ammonia and urea are toxic - when undiluted. Nitrogen cycle must take place to dillutr. -digestive juices (salts and enzymes in solution), ex. tears (prevent eye infection) Water as a lubricant Waters properties, especially its viscosity, make it a useful lubricant. Water based lubricating fluids include Mucus This is used externally to aid movement in animals, (snails) or internally on the gut wall to aid the movement of food. Synovial fluid This lubricates movement in joints. Pericardial fluid This lubricates movement of the heart. Pleural fluid This lubricates movement of the lungs during breathing. Supporting role of water -Hydrostatic skeleton. Because of the structure of water, it is not easily compressed, making it a useful means of supporting organisms. Animals such as the earthworm are supported by the aqueous medium within them. -Herbaceous plants are supported by the osmotic influx of water into their cells. This keeps them turgid. The shape of the eye in vertebrates is maintained by the aqueous and vitreous humours within them. Both are largely made up of water. Miscellaneous(Consisting of a variety of ingredients or parts) functions of water -help maintain the bodys constant temp-cool down by evaporation (sweating) -medium for dispersal when plants and animals reproduce. - disperse the larval stages of some terrestrial organisms. The build up of osmotic pressure helps to disperse the seeds of the squirting cucumber. The spores of mosses and ferns can be carried by water. 6. Surface tension. The role of surfactant in medicine Surfactants organic compounds that are amphiphilic,(contain both hydrophobic groups (their tails) and hydrophilic groups (their heads))

Role; lower surface tension of a liquid, between two liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid. \ may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants. Surcacants in lungs Surfactant reduces surface tension, so that the alveoli in the lungs are able to expand. It is essentially a biological detergent. Surfactant reduces surface tension. Without surfactant, the wet surfaces of the alveoli in your lungs would stick together and your lungs would not be able to expand - so, you would not be able to breath. The alveoli are the tiny sacs in your lungs where oxygen is captured from inhaled air and absorbed into your bloodstream. They are very small and are have moist surfaces. Wet surfaces stick together due to surface tension, which is caused by the attraction that water has for itself. To demonstrate how strong surface tension is, take two small glass panes, wet them slightly and press them together until there is no air between them. Now try to pull them apart. It's extremely difficult (you usually have to slide them apart because they will not separate otherwise). However, if you mix dish detergent in the water first, it will be much easier to pull them apart, because the detergent is a surfactant - a substance which combines with water and by doing so reduces the surface tension of the water. About three to four weeks before birth, you lungs begin to produce surfactant. When you are born and take your first breath, you have to open the fluid-filled alveoli to allow air in. Without surfactant, this would be nearly impossible, which is which very premature infants have so much difficulty breathing. These very early preemies are given surfactant (either artificial or derived from calf lungs) down a tube going to their lungs, to help their alveoli open and allow air entry. Some medical conditions cause loss of surfactant. In pulmonary edema, fluid from the blood invades and floods the alveoli. Among other problems, this causes dilution and washout of the surfactant, so that alveoli are more likely to collapse. Inflammation of the lungs also causes reduced surfactant production, so again the alveoli collapse due to increased surfaced tension. In cystic fibrosis, excess mucus production displaces the surfactant (and mucus has an even higher surface tension than water). Patients with CF are given extra surfactant to make up for this loss and to provide enough surfactant that it can act on the mucus as well as the normal alveolar fluid. 7. Capillary Phenomena Capillarity - liquid flows in narrow spaces against external forces such as gravity. can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such as paper, in some non-porous materials such as liquified carbon fiber, or in a cell. It occurs because of inter-molecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid surrounding surfaces; If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container act to lift the liquid.[1] Discovered by Leonardo da Vinci (15th century), B. Pascal (17th century), and J. Jurin (18th century) in experiments with capillary tubes. The theory of capillary phenomena was developed in the works of T. Young (1805), P. Laplace (1806), S. Poisson (1831), J. Gibbs (1875), and I. S. Gromeka (1879, 1886). 8. Elastic properties In bodies

10. elastic properties of a material determine how much it will compress

under a given amount of external pressure. The ratio of the change in pressure to the fractional volume compression is called the bulk modulus of the material.

A representative value for the bulk modulus for steel is

and that for water is

The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility of the substance. The amount of compression of solids and liquids is seen to be very small. In solid influences the speed of sound and other mechanical waves. It also is a factor in the amount of energy stored in solid material in the Earth's crust. This buildup of elastic energy can be released violently in an earthquake, so knowing bulk moduli for the Earth's crust materials is an important part of the study of earthquakes. is a factor in the speed of seismic waves from earthquakes. water is an incompressible fluid.This is not strictly true, as indicated by its finite bulk modulus, but the amount of compression is very small. At the bottom of the Pacific Ocean at a depth of about 4000 meters, the pressure is about 4 x 107 N/m2. Even under this enormous pressure, the fractional volume compression is only about 1.8% and that for steel would be only about 0.025%. So it is fair to say that water is nearly incompressible.

Young's Modulus For the description of the elastic properties of linear objects like wires, rods, columns which are either stretched or compressed, a convenient parameter is the ratio of the stress to the strain, a parameter called the Young's modulus of the material. Young's modulus can be used to predict the elongation or compression of an object as long as the stress is less than the yield strength of the material.

5. Stage in muscle contr action Muscle contractions occur by a sliding filaments actin sliding over the myosin filaments They would be impossible if the myosin molecules didnt have a hinge along the shaft that allows the ratchet movement of these tiny myosin heads toward the center- require a great deal of energy, required to break the bond between the myosin heads and the actin active sites, also removal of calcium from the cytoplasm by the use of a pump - sarcoplamic reticulum. The actual contaction of the muscle occurs in a three short steps. 1 - Excitation a) The sarcolemma is depolarized and the action potential propagates b) The action potential spreads inside along the T-tubules c) The signal is transmitted from T-tubule to terminal sacs of sarcoplasmic reticulum d) Calcium is released from sarcoplasmic reticulum into sarcoplasm 2 - Contraction a) Calcium binds to troponin b) Cooperative conformational changes take place in troponin-tropomyosin system c) The inhibition of actin and myosin interaction is released d) Crossbridges of myosin filaments are attached to actin filaments e) Tension is exerted, and/or the muscle shortens by the sliding filament mechanism The Animation of a Muscle Contraction

3 - Relaxation a) Calcium is pumped into sarcoplasmic reticulum b) Crossbridges are detached from the thin filaments c) Troponin-tropomyosin regulated inhibition of actin and myosin interaction is restored d) Active tension disappears and the rest length is restored

6. Work done by muscles Mechanics of Muscle Where a muscle is attached to bone or cartilage, the fibers end in blunt extremities upon the periosteum and do not come into direct relation with the osseous or cartilage. 1

Where muscles are connected with its skin, they lie as a flattened layer beneath it, and are connected with its areolar tissue(connective t.). variation in the arrangement of the fibers of certain muscles with reference to the tendons to which they are attached. In some muscles the fibers are parallel and run directly from their origin to their insertion; these are quadrilateral muscles, such as the Thyreohyoideus. A modification of these is found in the fusiform muscles, in which the fibers are not quite parallel, but slightly curved, so that the muscle tapers at either end; in their actions, however, they resemble the quadrilateral muscles. Secondly, in other muscles the fibers are convergent; arising by a broad origin, they converge to a narrow or pointed insertion. This arrangement of fibers is found in the triangular musclese. g., the Temporalis. In some muscles, which otherwise would belong to the quadrilateral or triangular type, the origin and insertion are not in the same plane, but the plane of 2 3

the line of origin intersects that of the line of insertion; such is the case in the Pectineus. Thirdly, in some muscles (e. g., the Peronei) the fibers are oblique and converge, like the plumes of a quill pen, to one side of a tendon which runs the entire length of the muscle; such muscles are termed unipennate. A modification of this condition is found where oblique fibers converge to both sides of a central tendon; these are called bipennate, and an example is afforded in the Rectus femoris. Finally, there are muscles in which the fibers are arranged in curved bundles in one or more planes, as in the Sphincters. The arrangement of the fibers is of considerable importance in respect to the relative strength and range of movement of the muscle. Those muscles where the fibers are long and few in number have great range, but diminished strength; where, on the other hand, the fibers are short and more numerous, there is great power, but lessened range. In the description of a muscle, the term origin is meant to imply its more fixed or central attachment; and the term insertion the movable point on which the force of the muscle is applied; but the origin is absolutely fixed in only a small number of muscles, such as those of the face which are attached by one extremity to immovable bones, and by the other to the movable integument; in the greater number, the muscle can be made to act from either extremity. 1. Mechanics of Muscle the individual muscle cannot always be treated as a single unit, since different parts of the same muscle may have entirely different actions, as with the Pectoralis major, the Deltoid, and the Trapezius where the nerve impulses control and stimulate different portions of the muscle in succession or at different times. Most muscles are, however, in a mechanical sense units. But in either case the muscle fibers constitute the elementary motor elements. 8 4 5

The Direction of the Muscle Pull.In those muscles where the fibers always run in a straight line from origin to insertion in all positions of the joint, a straight line joining the middle of the surface of origin with the middle of the insertion surface will give the direction of the pull.If, however, the muscle or its tendon is bent out of a straight line by a bony process or ligament so that it runs over a pulley-like arrangement, the direction of the muscle pull is naturally bent out of line. The direction of the pull in such cases is from the middle point of insertion to the middle point of the pulley where the muscle or tendon is bent. Muscles or tendons of muscles which pass over more than one joint and pass through more than one pulley may be resolved, so far as the direction of the pull is concerned, into two or more units or single-joint muscles (Fig. 362). The tendons of the Flexor profundus digitorum, for example, pass through several pulleys formed by fibrous sheaths. The direction of the pull is different for each joint and varies for each joint according to the position of the bones. The direction is determined in each case, however, by a straight line between the centers of the pulleys on either side of the joint (Fig. 363). The direction of the pull in any of the segments would not be altered by any

change in the position or origin of the muscle belly above the proximal pulley.

FIG. 362 No caption. (See enlarged image)

FIG. 363 No caption. (See enlarged image)

The Action of the Muscle Pull on the Tendon.Where the muscle fibers are parallel or nearly parallel to the direction of the tendon the entire strength of the muscle contraction acts in the direction of the tendon. In pinnate muscles, however, only a portion of the strength of contraction is efficient in the direction of the tendon, since a portion of the pull would tend to draw the tendon to one side, this is mostly annulled by pressure of surrounding parts. In bipinnate muscles this lateral pull is counterbalanced. If, for example, the muscle fibers are inserted into the tendon at an angle of 60 degrees (Fig. 364), it is easy to determine by the parallelogram of forces that the strength of the pull along the direction of the tendon is equal to one-half the muscle pull. T = tendon, m = strength and direction of muscle pull. t = component acting in the direction of the tendon. = angle of insertion of muscle fibers into tendon. cos = t/m cos &angle; 60 = 0.50000 0.5 = t/m t = 1/2 m If < = 72 30' < = 41 20' < = 90 < = 0 cos = 1/3 cos = 3/4 cos = 0 cos = 1

1 0 1 1

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6

The more acute the angle , that is the smaller the angle, the greater the component acting in the direction of the tendon pull. At 41 20 three-fourths of the pull would be exerted in the direction of the tendon and at 0 the entire strength. On the other hand, the greater the angle the smaller the tendon component; at 72 30 one-third the muscle strength would act in the direction of the tendon and at 90 the tendon component would be nil.

1 7

FIG. 364 No caption. (See enlarged image)

The Strength of Muscles.The strength of a muscle depends upon the number of fibers in what is known as the physiological cross-section, that is, a section which passes through practically all of the fibers. In a muscle with parallel or nearly parallel fibers which have the same direction as the tendon this corresponds to the anatomical cross-section, but in unipinnate and bipinnate muscles the physiological cross-section may be nearly at right angles to the anatomical cross-section as shown in Fig. 365. Since Huber has shown that muscle fibers in a single fasciculus of a given muscle vary greatly in length, in some fasciculi from 9 mm. to 30.4 mm., it is unlikely that the physiological cross-section will pass through all the fibers. Estimates have been made of the strength of muscles and it is probable that coarse-fibered muscles are somewhat stronger per square centimeter of physiological cross-section than are the fine-fibered muscles. Fick estimates the average strength as about 10 kg. per square cm. This is known as the absolute muscle strength. The total strength of a muscle would be equal to the number of square centimeters in its physiological cross-section x 10 kg.

1 8

FIG. 365 A, fusiform; B, unipinnate; C, bipinnate; P.C.S., physiological cross-section. (See enlarged image)

7. Mechano-reception- conversion of mechanical stimuli into neuronal signals:

Mechanoreceptors of the skin -cutaneous mechanoreceptors-touch. Tiny cells in the inner ear, called hair cells - hearing and balance. Rapidly Adapting and Slowly Adapting Mechanoreceptors Mechanoreceptors with large diameter and high myelination are called low-threshold mechanoreceptors. A fibers A fibers are characterized by thin axons and thin myelin sheaths conduct at a rate of up to 25 m/s. have large receptive fields

mechanosensation.-Response of an mechanism to mechanical stimul (senses of touch, hearing,balance,pain)

the most sensitive of known cutaneous mechanoreceptors. (low mechanical thresholds) C-fibers 60-70% of primary afferent neurons that innervate the skin. do not have a myelin sheath slow conduction - velocities of less than 1.3 m/s activated by both mechanical and thermal stimuli, respond to algesic (psinkiller) or capsaicin Molecular Mechanisms Each neuron receives an impulse and must pass it on to the next neuron and make sure the correct impulse continues on its path. Through a chain of chemical events, the dendrites (part of a neuron) pick up an impulse that's shuttled through the axon and transmitted to the next neuron. The entire impulse passes through a neuron in about seven milliseconds faster than a lightning strike. Here's what happens in just six easy steps: 1. Polarization of the neuron's membrane: Sodium is on the outside, and potassium is on the inside. Cell membranes surround neurons just as any other cell in the body has a membrane. When a neuron is not stimulated it's just sitting with no impulse to carry or transmit its membrane is polarized. Not paralyzed. Polarized. Being polarized means that the electrical charge on the outside of the membrane is positive while the electrical charge on the inside of the membrane is negative. The outside of the cell contains excess sodium ions (Na+); the inside of the cell contains excess potassium ions (K+). (Ions are atoms of an element with a positive or negative charge.) How can the charge inside the cell be negative if the cell contains positive ions? The answer is that in addition to the K+, negatively charged protein and nucleic acid molecules also inhabit the cell; therefore, the inside is negative as compared to the outside. Then, if cell membranes allow ions to cross, how does the Na+ stay outside and the K+ stay inside? If this thought crossed your mind, you deserve a huge gold star! The answer is that the Na+ and K+ do, in fact, move back and forth across the membrane. However, Mother Nature thought of everything. There are Na+/K+ pumps on the membrane that

pump the Na+ back outside and the K+ back inside. The charge of an ion inhibits membrane permeability (that is, makes it difficult for other things to cross the membrane). 2. Resting potential gives the neuron a break. When the neuron is inactive and polarized, it's said to be at its resting potential. It remains this way until a stimulus comes along. 3. Action potential: Sodium ions move inside the membrane. When a stimulus reaches a resting neuron, the gated ion channels on the resting neuron's membrane open suddenly and allow the Na+ that was on the outside of the membrane to go rushing into the cell. As this happens, the neuron goes from being polarized to being depolarized. Remember that when the neuron was polarized, the outside of the membrane was positive, and the inside of the membrane was negative. Well, after more positive ions go charging inside the membrane, the inside becomes positive, as well; polarization is removed and the threshold is reached. Each neuron has a threshold level the point at which there's no holding back. After the stimulus goes above the threshold level, more gated ion channels open and allow more Na+ inside the cell. This causes complete depolarization of the neuron and an action potential is created. In this state, the neuron continues to open Na+ channels all along the membrane. When this occurs, it's an all-or-none phenomenon. "All-or-none" means that if a stimulus doesn't exceed the threshold level and cause all the gates to open, no action potential results; however, after the threshold is crossed, there's no turning back: Complete depolarization occurs and the stimulus will be transmitted. When an impulse travels down an axon covered by a myelin sheath, the impulse must move between the uninsulated gaps called nodes of Ranvier that exist between each Schwann cell. 4. Repolarization: Potassium ions move outside, and sodium ions stay inside the membrane. After the inside of the cell becomes flooded with Na+, the gated ion channels on the inside of the membrane open to allow the K+ to move to the outside of the membrane. With K+ moving to the outside, the membrane's repolarization restores electrical balance, although it's opposite of the initial polarized membrane that had Na+ on the outside and K+ on the inside. Just after the K+ gates open, the Na+ gates close; otherwise, the membrane couldn't repolarize. 5. Hyperpolarization: More potassium ions are on the outside than there are sodium ions on the inside. When the K+ gates finally close, the neuron has slightly more K+ on the outside than it has Na+ on the inside. This causes the membrane potential to drop slightly lower than the resting potential, and the membrane is said to be hyperpolarized because it has a

greater potential. (Because the membrane's potential is lower, it has more room to "grow."). This period doesn't last long, though (well, none of these steps take long!). After the impulse has traveled through the neuron, the action potential is over, and the cell membrane returns to normal (that is, the resting potential). 6. Refractory period puts everything back to normal: Potassium returns inside, sodium returns outside. The refractory period is when the Na+ and K+ are returned to their original sides: Na+ on the outside and K+ on the inside. While the neuron is busy returning everything to normal, it doesn't respond to any incoming stimuli. It's kind of like letting your answering machine pick up the phone call that makes your phone ring just as you walk in the door with your hands full. After the Na+/K+ pumps return the ions to their rightful side of the neuron's cell membrane, the neuron is back to its normal polarized state and stays in the resting potential until another impulse comes along. The following figure shows transmission of an impulse.

Transmission of a nerve impulse: Resting potential and action potential. Like the gaps between the Schwann cells on an insulated axon, a gap called a synapse or synaptic cleft separates the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron. Neurons don't touch. The signal must traverse the synapse to continue on its path through the nervous system. Electrical conduction carries an impulse across synapses in the brain, but in other parts of the body, impulses are carried across synapses as the following chemical changes occur:

1. Calcium gates open. At the end of the axon from which the impulse is coming, the membrane depolarizes, gated ion channels open, and calcium ions (Ca2+) are allowed to enter the cell. 2. Releasing a neurotransmitter. When the calcium ions rush in, a chemical called a neurotransmitter is released into the synapse. 3. The neurotransmitter binds with receptors on the neuron. The chemical that serves as the neurotransmitter moves across the synapse and binds to proteins on the neuron membrane that's about to receive the impulse. The proteins serve as the receptors, and different proteins serve as receptors for different neurotransmitters that is, neurotransmitters have specific receptors. 4. Excitation or inhibition of the membrane occurs. Whether excitation or inhibition occurs depends on what chemical served as the neurotransmitter and the result that it had. For example, if the neurotransmitter causes the Na+ channels to open, the neuron membrane becomes depolarized, and the impulse is carried through that neuron. If the K+ channels open, the neuron membrane becomes hyperpolarized, and inhibition occurs. The impulse is stopped dead if an action potential cannot be generated. If you're wondering what happens to the neurotransmitter after it binds to the receptor, you're really getting good at this anatomy and physiology stuff. Here's the story: After the neurotransmitter produces its effect, whether it's excitation or inhibition, the receptor releases it and the neurotransmitter goes back into the synapse. In the synapse, the cell "recycles" the degraded neurotransmitter. The chemicals go back into the membrane so that during the next impulse, when the synaptic vesicles bind to the membrane, the complete neurotransmitter can again be released. Neurons send messages electrochemically-chemicals cause an electrical signal. Chemicals in the body are "electrically-charged" -- when they have an electrical charge, they are called ions. The important ions in the nervous system are sodium and potassium (both have 1 positive charge, +), calcium (has 2 positive charges, ++) and chloride (has a negative charge, -). There are also some negatively charged protein molecules. It is also important to remember that nerve cells are surrounded by a membrane that allows some ions to pass through and blocks the passage of other ions. This type of membrane is called semipermeable. Resting Membrane Potential

When a neuron is not sending a signal, it is "at rest."and the inside of the neuron is negative .Although the concentrations of the different ions attempt to balance out on both sides of the membrane, they cannot because the cell membrane allows only some ions to pass through channels (ion channels). At rest, potassium ions (K+) can cross through the membrane easily. Also at rest, chloride ions (Cl-)and sodium ions (Na+) have a more difficult time crossing. The negatively charged protein molecules (A-) inside the neuron

cannot cross the membrane. In addition to these selective ion channels, there is a pump that uses energy to move three sodium ions out of the neuron for every two potassium ions it puts in. Finally, when all these forces balance out, and the difference in the voltage between the inside and outside of the neuron is measured, you have the resting potential. The resting membrane potential of a neuron is about -70 mV (mV=millivolt) - this means that the inside of the neuron is 70 mV less than the outside. At rest, there are relatively more sodium ions outside the neuron and more potassium ions inside that neuron. Action Potential

The resting potential tells about what happens when a neuron is at rest. An action potential occurs when a neuron sends information down an axon, away from the cell body. Neuroscientists use other words, such as a "spike" or an "impulse" for the action potential. The action potential is an explosion of electrical activity that is created by a depolarizing current. This means that some event (a stimulus) causes the resting potential to move toward 0 mV. When the depolarization reaches about -55 mV a neuron will fire an action potential. This is the threshold. If the neuron does not reach this critical threshold level, then no action potential will fire. Also, when the threshold level is reached, an action potential of a fixed sized will always fire...for any given neuron, the size of the action potential is always the same. There are no big or small action potentials in one nerve cell - all action potentials are the same size. Therefore, the neuron either does not reach the threshold or a full action potential is fired - this is the "ALL OR NONE" principle.

Action potentials are caused by an exchange of ions across the neuron membrane. A stimulus first causes sodium channels to open. Because there are many more sodium ions on the outside, and the inside of the neuron is negative relative to the outside, sodium ions rush into the neuron. Remember, sodium has a positive charge, so the neuron becomes more positive and becomes depolarized. It takes longer for potassium channels to open. When they do open, potassium rushes out of the cell, reversing the depolarization. Also at about this time, sodium channels start to close. This causes the action potential to go back toward -70 mV (a repolarization). The action potential actually goes past -70 mV (a hyperpolarization) because the potassium channels stay open a bit too long. Gradually, the ion concentrations go back to resting levels and the cell returns to -70 mV. And there you have it...the Action Potential Lipid Bilayer-mechanosensitive channels Hair Cells - in sensory epithelia of the inner ear auditory system(hearing) and vestibular system(balance) *FMI-43 is a dye which can be used to block mechanosensitive ion channels and therefore is a useful technique for studying mechanosensitive ion channels. For example, the blocking of certain subtypes results in a decrease in pain sensitivity, which suggest characteristics of that subtype with regard to mechanosensation. [ *A mechanoreceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion.

There are also mechanoreceptors in hairy skin, and the hair cells in the cochlea are the most sensitive mechanoreceptors, transducing air pressure waves into nerve signals sent to the brain. Cutaneous mechanoreceptors provide the senses of touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception and others. The Slowly Adapting type 1 (SA1) mechanoreceptor, with the Merkel cell end-organ, underlies the perception of form and roughness on the skin.[4] They have small receptive fields and produce sustained responses to static stimulation. The Slowly Adapting type 2 (SA2) mechanoreceptors respond to skin stretch, but have not been closely linked to either proprioceptive or mechanoreceptive roles in perception.[5] They also produce sustained responses to static stimulation, but have large receptive fields. The Rapidly Adapting (RA) mechanoreceptor underlies the perception of flutter[6] and slip on the skin.[7] They have small receptive fields and produce transient responses to the onset and offset of stimulation. Pacinian receptors underlie the perception of high frequency vibration.[8] They also produce transient responses, but have large receptive fields.

By rate of adaptation useful in sensing such things as texture or vibrations, whereas tonic receptors are useful for temperature and proprioception among others. Slowly adapting: Slowly adapting mechanoreceptors include Merkel and Ruffini corpuscle end-organs, and some free nerve endings. Slowly adapting type I mechanoreceptors have multiple Merkel corpuscle endorgans. Slowly adapting type II mechanoreceptors have single Ruffini corpuscle end-organs.

Intermediate adapting: Some free nerve endings are intermediate adapting. Rapidly adapting: Rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors include Meissner corpuscle endorgans, Pacinian corpuscle end-organs, hair follicle receptors and some free nerve endings. Rapidly adapting type I mechanoreceptors have multiple Meissner corpuscle endorgans. Rapidly adapting type II mechanoreceptors (usually called Pacinian) have single Pacinian corpuscle end-organs. 14. 15. Gravity center (CG) of human body=center of mass or barycenter

Center where the entire mass of a body is concentrated. In common usage, the center of mass is also called the center of gravity. -the average location of the mass distribution. In rigid body, the center of mass is fixed ,not always corresponds to the geometric center. The center of mass their positions, of a system of particles of total mass M is defined as the average of

, weighted by their masses, mi:[1]

For a continuous distribution with mass density

, the sum becomes an integral:[2]

If an object has uniform density then its center of mass is the same as the centroid of its shape.[3] Examples The center of mass of a two-particle system lies on the line connecting the particles (or, more precisely, their individual centers of mass). The center of mass is closer to the more massive object; for details, see below. The center of mass of a uniform ring is at the center of the ring; outside the material that makes up the ring. The center of mass of a uniform solid triangle lies on all three medians and therefore at the centroid, which is also the average of the three vertices. The center of mass of a uniform rectangle is at the intersection of the two diagonals. In a spherically symmetric body, the center of mass is at the geometric center.[4] This approximately applies to the Earth: the density varies considerably, but it mainly depends on depth and less on the latitude and longitude coordinates.

for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fixed point of that symmetry.
[5]

For any system with no external forces, the center of mass moves with constant velocity. This applies for all systems with classical internal forces, including magnetic fields, electric fields, chemical reactions, and so on. More formally, this is true for any internal forces that satisfy Newton's Third Law.[1] The total momentum for any system of particles is given by

where M indicates the total mass, and vcm is the velocity of the center of mass.[6] This velocity can be computed by taking the time derivative of the position of the center of mass. An analogue to Newton's Second Law is

where F indicates the sum of all external forces on the system, and acm indicates the acceleration of the center of mass. It is this principle that gives precise expression to the intuitive notion that the system as a whole behaves like a mass of M placed at R.[1] The angular momentum vector for a system is equal to the angular momentum of all the particles around the center of mass, plus the angular momentum of the center of mass, as if it were a single particle of mass M:[7]

This is a corollary of the parallel axis theorem.[8] Gravity

Diagram of an educational toy that balances on a point: the CM (C) settles below its support (P).

The suspending chair trick makes use of the human body's surprisingly high center of mass. Further information: Centers of gravity in non-uniform fields The center of mass is often called the center of gravity because any uniform gravitational field g acts on a system as if the mass M of the system were concentrated at the center of mass R. Specifically, the gravitational potential energy is equal to the potential energy of a point mass M at R,[9] and the gravitational torque is equal to the torque of a force Mg acting at R.[5] If the gravitational field acting on a body is not uniform, then the center of mass does not necessarily exhibit these convenient properties concerning gravity. A non-uniform gravitational field can produce a torque on an object about its center of mass, causing it to rotate.[5] The center of gravity seeks to model the gravitational torque as a resultant force at a point. Such a point may not exist, and if it exists, it is not unique. When a unique center of gravity can be defined, its location depends on the external field, so its motion is harder to determine than the motion of the center of mass; this problem limits its usefulness in applications.[10]

History The concept of a center of gravity was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, Archimedes of Syracuse. He showed that the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point their center of mass. In work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects of uniform density of various well-defined shapes. Newton's second law is reformulated with respect to the center of mass in Euler's first law.[18]

Applications Engineers try to design a sports car's center of mass as low as possible to make the car handle better.

Newtons law of universal gravitation, the earth exerts a force upon all objects on earth=gravity. weight.- resultant force from an objects mass and gravitational force is called its When an object is thrown in the air, its center of gravity would follow a parabolic path. The center of gravity also moves equal distances in equal time intervals (because no force/acceleration is acting upon the wrench). Locating the Center of MassEdit Irregular Shaped ObjectsEdit

Suspend the object from another location (not too close Select any irregularly shaped object to the original location) and draw another plumb line. and suspend it from an edge on a The intersection of the two plumb lines is the objects string. Mark the plumb line, the line center of mass. Note that the hearts center of mass (C) guided by the string, as reference. is closer to the top because its more massive than the bottom.

Center of Mass Outside of Physical Structure of ObjectEdit

The objects above have center of masses in mid-air. The center of mass of an object may exist where there is no mass. A donuts center of mass is at its center. This holds true for a hollow sphere such as a soccer ball. Other objects that have their center of gravity outside their physical structures include an empty pan or cup, a chair, or a boomerang. TopplingEdit

A box as it becomes toppled. Added by Yuany An object will topple (fall down)once its plumb line falls outside of its base of support. The figure to the right shows a block being toppled over once its plumb line falls outside the base of the box.essay writing ApplicationsEdit

Leaning Tower of Pisa

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is able to stand tilted without toppling over because the plumb line drawn from its center of mass is within the base of support. Animal Tails A monkey can reach farther by extending its tail, keeping its center of gravity within the support of its feet. By extending its tail, it can shift its center of gravity to maintain balance and stability. Dinosaurs such as the Brachiosaurus had massive tails to help them keep their center of gravity above their feet so they can extend their heads. The center of mass of a human body is at the pelvis area. The center of mass of the solar system (when all planets are aligned collinearly) is about 2 solar radii from the suns center. The center of mass of a rectangle is at the intersection of the two diagonals. Alexander Calder, the inventor of mobiles, is famous for his sculptures that allow gusts of wind to arrange their elements. The structures of his mobiles are rearranged but the center of gravity always falls within the base of support (i.e. the pivot point). Archimedes introduced the concept of center of gravity. He demonstrated that a single point on a lever is exerted the same amount of torque as weights resting at various points of the lever. He also developed methods to find centers of masses of regular shapes such as a triangle and hemisphere.

BrainteasersEdit

1. There are three trucks parked on a hill. The center of mass of each truck is marked with an x. Out of the three, which truck(s) would topple over?

2. A bottle rack that seems to defy common sense is shown in the figure. Where is the center of gravity of the rack and bottle? SolutionsEdit 1. Only the first truck will topple over. Draw a plumb line from the center of mass of each truck to the ground. Only the first trucks plumb line falls out of its base of support (i.e. the ground directly below the truck).

2. The center of gravity is at point of the bottle directly above the base of support of the rack on the table. The center of gravity is over where the rack stands. It does not tip over because there is a a support beneath it 16. levers in medicine -force applied to one end of the bone tends to rotate the bone in the direction opposite from that of the applied force The muscles of the body produce the forces that move the levers. The basic components of a lever are the fulcrum(starting point), the force arm, and the weight arm. A first-class lever; joint between the base of the skull and the first cervical vertebra, has a fulcrum between the weight and the applied force. -The body contains few second-class levers, which have the weight between the fulcrum and the force. A third-class lever, such as the forearm and elbow, has the force between the fulcrum and the weight. The body uses its third-class levers for speed and its first-class levers for either force or speed, depending on the force applied to the weight arm. What levers does your body use?

Mechanical advantage Muscles and bones act together to form levers. A lever is a rigid rod (usually a length of bone) that turns about a pivot (usually a joint). Levers can be used so that a small force can move a much bigger force. mechanical advantage. There are four parts to a lever lever arm, pivot, effort and load. In our bodies: bones act as lever arms joints act as pivots muscles provide the effort forces to move loads load forces are often the weights of the body parts that are moved or forces needed to lift, push or pull things outside our bodies.

Levers can also be used to magnify movement, for example, when kicking a ball, small contractions of leg muscles produce a much larger movement at the end of the leg... Types of levers

Pivot diagram of a Class 1 lever

Skull and neck Different classes of levers are identified by the way the joint and muscles attached to the bone are arranged. Class 1 lever nod your head The pivot is the place where your skull meets the top of your spine. Your skull is the lever arm and the neck muscles at the back of the skull provide the force (effort) to lift your head up against the weight of the head (load). When the neck muscles relax, your head nods forward. For this lever, the pivot lies between the effort and load. A see saw in a playground is another example of a Class 1 lever where the effort balances the load. Class 2 lever stand on tip toes

The pivot is at your toe joints and your foot acts as a lever arm. Your calf muscles and Achilles tendon provide the effort when the calf muscle contracts. The load is your body weight and is lifted by the effort (muscle contraction). The load is between the pivot and the effort (like a wheelbarrow). The effort force needed is less than the load force, so there is a mechanical advantage. This muscular movement at the back of your legs allows you to move your whole body a small distance. Class 3 lever bend your arm

The pivot is at the elbow and the forearm acts as the lever arm. The biceps muscle provides the effort (force) and bends the forearm against the weight of the forearm and any weight that the hand might be holding. The load is further away from the pivot than the effort. There is no mechanical advantage because the effort is greater than the load. However this disadvantage is compensated with a larger movement a small contraction of the biceps produces a large movement of the

forearm. This type of lever system also gives us the advantage of a much greater speed of movement. Many muscle and bone combinations in our bodies are of the Class 3 lever type. What is torque? In the examples above, the effort and load forces have acted in opposite rotation directions to each other. If a load tries to turn the lever clockwise, the effort tries to turn the lever anticlockwise. Forces acting on a lever also have different effects depending how far they are away from the pivot. For example when pushing a door open it is easier to make the door move if you push at the door handle rather than near to the hinge (pivot). Pushing on the door produces a turning effect, which causes rotation. This turning effect is called torque (or leverage). The formula for calculating the amount of torque is: torque = force x perpendicular distance to the pivot. The force is measured in newtons and the distance to the pivot is measured in metres or centimetres, so the unit for torque will be either newton metres (Nm) or newton centimetres (Ncm). You can increase the amount of torque by increasing the size of the force or increasing the distance that the force acts from the pivot. Thats why the door handle is far away from the hinge.

Hamstring Forces from our muscles produce torques about our joints in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions. If the torques are equal and opposite, the lever will not rotate. If they are unequal, the lever will rotate in the direction of the greater torque. In this diagram, the load and weight of the lower leg produce a clockwise torque about the knee. The lower leg will rotate in a clockwise direction. If the hamstring muscle at the back of the upper leg contracts with a strong force, it produces an anticlockwise torque that holds the leg up.

Lifting heavy weights In this diagram, lifting the weight like the person on the left produces a greater torque about the lower spine (pivot) the lifting force is at a greater perpendicular distance to the pivot. The back muscles must exert a huge force to provide a torque that balances the torque from the weight being lifted. It is important to lift a heavy weight close to your body to reduce the torque produced around your lower spine.

18.

Biological membrane structure

Structure Fluid mosaic model- biological membranes- two-dimensional liquid Lipid bilayer arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer. The yellow polar head groups separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments. Lipid bilayers form through the process of self-assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids which spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are isolated from the surrounding polar fluid, causing the more hydrophilic "head" regions to associate with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. Forces such as van der Waals, electrostatic, hyrdogen bonds, and noncovalent interactions, are all forces that contribute to the formation of the lipid bilayer. Overall, hydrophobic interactions are the major driving force in the formation of lipid bilayers. Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (e.g. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates. Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane. Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis. Membrane polarity

Integral membrane proteins Integral proteins are the most abundant type of protein to span the lipid bilayer. They interact widely with hydrocarbon chains of membrane lipids.

Peripheral membrane proteins Peripheral proteins are proteins that are bounded to the membrane by electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding with the hydrophilic phospholipid heads. Many of these proteins can be found bounded to the surfaces of integral proteins on either the cytoplasimic side of the cell or the extracellular side of the membrane. Some are anchored to the bilayer through covalent bond with a fatty acid. Membrane skeleton The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane.[4] Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage-like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule-based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin-based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and/or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb. Composition Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms: Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane (exocytosis) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles (endocytosis). If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously. Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases.

Lipids

Examples of the major membrane phospholipids and glycolipids: phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns), phosphatidylserine (PtdSer). The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterols. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant.[5] In RBC studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid. The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always cis. The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity[6] as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane. The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation. The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present. However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane.[2] Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles

Lipid vesicles or lisosomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer. These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability. Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed. These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions. Carbohydrates Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epithelia with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing, and many others. The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in the golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles. Proteins Proteins within the membrane are key to the functioning of the overall membrane. These proteins mainly transport chemicals and information across the membrane. Every membrane has a varying degree of protein content. Proteins can be in the form of peripheral or integral. The cell membrane plays host to a large amount of protein that is responsible for its various activities. The amount of protein differs between species and according to function, however the typical amount in a cell membrane is 50%.[6] These proteins are undoubtedly important to a cell: Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms.[5] The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cellcell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as antigens, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell-cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane. Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane. For this to occur, an N-terminus "signal sequence" of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane.

19.

Passive transport

Passive transport transport of substances across membranes. does not involve chemical energy, because, unlike in an active transport, the transport across membrane is always coupled with the growth of entropy of the system. The four of passive transport are diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis. Diffusion (Simple) from high to lower concentration gradient; until this gradient has been eliminated.*Osmosis is much like simple diffusion but it specifically describes the movement of water (not the solute) across a membrane until there is an equal concentration of water and solute on both sides of membrane Facilitated diffusion

=carrier-mediated diffusion;movement via special transport proteins that are embedded within the cellular membrane. large molecules(glucose-insoluble in lipids) too large to fit through the membrane pores bind with its specific carrier proteinscomplex bind to a receptor site movement through the cellular membrane. however, that facilitated diffusion is a passive process, and the solutes still move down the concentration gradient. Filtration occurs due to hydrostatic pressure generated by the cardiovascular system. Depending on the size of the membrane pores, only solutes of a certain size may pass through it. Ex. the membrane pores of the Bowman's capsule in the kidneys are very small, and only albumins, the smallest of the proteins, have any chance of being filtered through. the membrane pores of liver cells are extremely large, to allow a variety of solutes to pass through and be metabolized. Osmosis The net movement of water molecules through a partially permeable membrane from a solution of high water potential to an area of low water potential. 20.Active transport movement substance against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed primary active transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient. Ex. -uptake of glucose in the intestines in humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants. Examples of active transport include the transportation of sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell by the sodium-potassium pump. Active transport often takes place in the internal lining of the small intestine. Plants need to absorb mineral salts from the soil or other sources, but these salts exist in very dilute solution. Active transport enables these cells to take up salts from this dilute solution against the direction of the concentration gradient. Primary active transport

Other sources of energy for Primary active transport are redox energy and photon energy (light). An example of primary active transport using Redox energy is the mitochondrial electron transport chain that uses the reduction energy of NADH to move protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane against their concentration gradient. An example of primary active transport using light energy are the proteins involved in photosynthesis that use the energy of photons to create a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and also to create reduction power in the form of NADPH. Secondary active transport

In secondary active transport or co-transport, energy is used to transport molecules across a membrane; however, in contrast to primary active transport, there is no direct coupling of ATP; instead, electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions out of the cell is used.[4] An example is the glucose symporter SGLT1, which co-transports one glucose (or galactose) molecule into the cell for every two sodium ions it imports into the cell. This symporter is located in the small intestines, trachea, heart, brain, testis, and prostate. It is also located in the S3 segment of the proximal tubule in each nephron in the kidneys.[5] Its mechanism is exploited in glucose rehydration therapy and defects in SGLT1 prevent effective reabsorption of glucose, causing familial renal glucosuria.[6] Examples 23. Water, ethanol, and chloroform exemplify simple molecules that do not require active transport to cross a membrane. Metal ions, such as Na+, K+, Mg2+, or Ca2+, require ion pumps or ion channels to cross membranes and distribute through the body sodium-potassium pump = Na +/K+-ATPase In the epithelial cells of the stomach, gastric acid is produced by hydrogen potassium ATPase, an electrogenic pump[citation needed] Ion channel

*excitable cells- cells able to generate electrical signals - including neurons, muscle cells, and touch receptor cells all of them use ion channel receptors to convert chemical or mechanical messages into electrical signals. concentration differences outside/inside cell, create a small electrical potential across the plasma membrane. Then, when conditions are right, specialized channels in the plasma membrane open and allow rapid ion movement into or out of the cell, and this movement creates an electrical signal.

What Are Ion Channel Receptors? Ion channel receptors are usually multimeric proteins located in the plasma membrane. Each of these proteins arranges itself so that it forms a passageway or pore extending from one side of the membrane to the other. These passageways, or ion channels, have the ability to open and close in response to chemical or mechanical signals. When an ion channel is open, ions move into or out of the cell in single-file fashion. Individual ion channels are specific to particular ions, meaning that they usually allow only a single type of ion to pass through them. Both the amino acids that line a channel and the physical width of the channel determine which ions are able to wiggle through from the cell exterior to its interior, and vice versa. The opening of an ion channel is a fleeting event. Within a few milliseconds of opening, most ion channels close and enter a resting state, where they are unresponsive to signals for a short period of time (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: An example of ion channel receptor activation An acetylcholine receptor (green) forms a gated ion channel in the plasma membrane. This receptor is a membrane protein with an aqueous pore, meaning it allows soluble materials to travel across the plasma membrane when open. When no external signal is present, the pore is closed (center). When acetylcholine molecules (blue) bind to the receptor, this triggers a conformational change that opens the aqueous pore and allows ions (red) to flow into the cell.

How Are Electrical Signals Propagated?

Figure 2: Comparing the activation of an ion channel receptor with that of a G-proteincoupled receptor Activation of both a G-protein-coupled receptor (a) and an ion channel receptor (b) cause a conformational change in the receptor protein. G protein activation can lead to multiple intracellular events through a variety of intracellular proteins, and this signaling can take seconds to minutes. When a G protein activates transcription, this can take up to 20 minutes. In contrast, ion channel receptors open pores in the cell membrane, causing the formation of electrical current. This receptor activation therefore causes a much faster response within the cell, on the order of milliseconds. The opening of ion channels alters the charge distribution across the plasma membrane. Recall that the ionic composition of the cytoplasm is quite different from that of the extracellular environment. For instance, the concentration of sodium ions in the cytoplasm is far lower than that in the cell's exterior environment. Conversely, potassium ions exist at higher concentrations within a cell than outside it. Such differences create a so-called electrochemical gradient, which is a combination of a chemical gradient and a charge gradient. The opening of ion channels permits the ions on either side of the plasma membrane to flow down this dual gradient. The exact direction of flow varies by ion type, and it depends on both the concentration difference and the voltage difference for each variety of ion. This ion flow results in the production of an electrical signal. The actual number of ions required to change the voltage across the membrane is quite small. During the short times that an ion channel is open, the concentration of a particular ion in the cytoplasm as a whole does not change significantly, only the concentration in the immediate vicinity of the channel.

In excitable cells, the electrical signal initiated by ion channel receptor activity travels rapidly over the surface of the cell due to the opening of other ion channels that are sensitive to the voltage change caused by the initial channel opening. Electrical signals travel much more rapidly than chemical signals, which depend on the process of molecular diffusion. As a consequence, excitable cells respond to signals much more rapidly than cells that rely solely on chemical signals (Figure 2). In fact, an electrical signal can traverse the entire length of a human nerve cell a distance of as much as one meter within only milliseconds. How Do Different Types of Excitable Cells Work? the receptors that respond to chemical signals are generally located at synapses or points of near contact between adjacent cells. Of the various types of excitable cells that respond to chemical signals, neurons are perhaps the most familiar. When electrical signals reach the end of neurons, they trigger the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Each neurotransmitter then diffuses from its point of release on one side of the synapse to the cell on the other side of the synapse. If the neurotransmitter binds to an ion channel receptor on the target cell, the related ion channel opens, and an electrical signal propagates itself along the length of the target cell. Neurons have ion channel receptors specific to many kinds of neurotransmitters. Some of these neurotransmitters act in an excitatory capacity, bringing their target cells ever closer to signal propagation. Other neurotransmitters exert an inhibitory effect, counteracting any excitatory input and lessening the chance that the target cell will fire. Skeletal muscle cells also rely on chemical signals in order to generate electrical signals. These cells have synapses that are packed with receptors for acetylcholine, which is the primary neurotransmitter released by motor neurons. When acetylcholine binds to the receptors on a skeletal muscle cell, ion channels in that cell open, and this launches a sequence of events that results in contraction of the cell. In contrast to neurons and skeletal muscle cells, some excitable cells have ion channels that open in response to mechanical stimuli rather than chemical signals. These include the hair cells of the mammalian inner ear and the touch receptor cells of both human finger pads and Venus fly traps. Cells that respond to touch have their ion channel receptors clustered at the position where contact usually occurs. Conclusion Excitable cells, such as fast-acting neurons and muscle cells, have specialized channels that open in response to a signal and permit rapid ion movement across the cell membrane. The opening of just a single ion channel alters the electrical charge on both sides of the membrane. The resulting charge differential then causes adjacent voltage-sensitive channels to open in chain-reaction fashion, creating a self-propagating electrical signal that travels down the entire length of the cell. Sometimes, this sequence of events is triggered when a chemical signal such as a neurotransmitter binds to an ion channel receptor on cell's surface. Other times, a cell's ion channels open in response to mechanical (rather than chemical) stimuli.

23.

Cell surface receptors (membrane receptors)

-specialized integral membrane proteins (communication between the cell and the outside.) - signaling molecules (usually hormones, neurotransmitters, cytokines, growth factors or cell recognition molecules)

attach to the receptor, triggering changes in the function of the cell. This process is called signal transduction: The binding initiates a chemical change on the intracellular side of the membrane. In this way the receptors play a unique and important role in cellular communications and signal transduction. -composed of two or more protein subunits which operate - ex. glycoprotein and lipoprotein. Almost all are transmembrane proteins. - a receptor's main function is to recognize and respond to a specific ligand, for example, a neurotransmitter or hormone (although certain receptors respond also to changes in transmembrane potential), and in many receptors these ligands bind to the extracellular domain. *Extracellular domain -part of the receptor that sticks out of the membrane on the outside of the cell

E = extracellular space P = plasma membrane I = intracellular space

G protein-coupled receptors are involved in many diseases, and are also the target of around half of all modern medicinal drugs.[12] *G protein -coupled receptors comprise a large protein family transmembrane receptors. They are found only in eukaryotes.The ligands that bind and activate these receptors include light-sensitive compounds, odors, pheromones, hormones, and neurotransmitters, disorder of the receptor may b induced by the change in the genes that encode the receptor protein. Recently found that the membrane receptor TM4SF5 has something to do with the migration ability of hepatic cells and hepatoma.[14] and that the cortical NMDA receptor properties and membrane fluidity are altered in Alzheimer's disease. Also, when the cell is infected by nonenveloped virus, the virus first binds with certain membrane receptors and then somehow the virus or some subviral component ends up on the cytoplasmic side of a cellular membrane, the plasma membrane for some viruses or the membrane of an endosomal vesicle for others. In the case of poliovirus, it is known that interactions with receptors in vitro will lead to conformational rearrangements of the virion that result in the release of one of the virion proteins, called VP4.The N terminal of VP4 is myristylated and thus hydrophobicmyristic acid=CH3(CH2)12COOH. It is proposed that the conformational changes induced by receptor binding result in the insertion of the myristic acid on VP4 into the cell membrane and the formation of a channel through which the RNA can enter the cell. 26. Image formation by diverging lens Negative lenses diverge parallel incident light rays and form a virtual image by extending traces of the light rays passing through the lens to a focal point behind the lens. In general, these lenses have at least one concave surface and are thinner in the center than at the edges. This interactive tutorial utilizes ray traces to explore how images are formed by the three primary types of diverging lenses, and the relationship between the object and the image formed by the lens as a function of distance between the object and the focal points.

The tutorial initializes with an object (represented by the larger vertical gray arrow on the far left-hand side of the lens) positioned approximately twice the distance of the focal length away from a simple thin bi-concave lens. Ray traces emanating from the point of the object arrow (Object) pass through various points on the lens and are diverged away from ray extensions traced back to the focal point (F). Three of the rays are illustrated in red: the Principal Ray, which passes through the center of the lens, and two additional characteristic rays. One of the characteristic rays travels towards the lens rear focal point (F'), but is diverted in a direction parallel to the Optical Axis after passing through the lens. The other characteristic ray travels toward the lens parallel to the optical axis and diverges sharply away from the axis after passing through the lens. Extensions drawn from any two of these three rays can be utilized to determine the size and placement of the Virtual Image formed by the lens. In order to operate the tutorial, use the Object Position slider to translate the object arrow back and forth along the optical axis of the lens. As the object is moved closer to the lens, the virtual image size increases and also moves closer to the lens. In a similar manner, as the object is moved away from the lens, the virtual image moves away from the lens and grows smaller. The distance between the lens and the object (Object Distance, (p)) and image (Image Distance, (q)) are continuously updated in the lower left-hand corner of the tutorial window. The bi-concave lens can be changed to either a Negative Meniscus or Plano-Concave element by selecting the appropriate choice using the pull-down menu. When a negative lens is placed between an object and the eye, it does not form a real image, but reduces (or demagnifies) the apparent size of the object by forming a virtual image. The distinction between a real and a virtual image is an important concept when imaging specimens through a lens or mirror system, regardless of whether the system consists of a single or multiple components. In general, images are defined by the regions where light rays (and their extensions) become convergent as the result of refraction by a lens or reflection by a mirror. In cases where the light rays intersect at a focal point, the image is real and can be viewed on a screen, recorded on film, or projected onto the surface of a sensor such as a CCD or CMOS placed in the image plane. When the light rays diverge, but project imaginary extensions that converge to a focal point, the image is virtual and cannot be viewed on a screen or recorded on film. In order to be visualized, a real image must be formed on the retina of the eye. When viewing specimens through the eyepieces of a microscope, a real image is formed on the retina, but it is actually perceived by the observer to exist as a virtual image located approximately 10 inches (25 centimeters) in front of the eye. Negative lens elements are the bi-concave (Figure 1(a)), plano-concave (Figure 1(b); with a single planar surface), and concave-meniscus (also termed a negative meniscus lens; Figure 1(c)), which also has concave and convex surfaces, but with the center of the lens being thinner than the edges. For both positive and negative meniscus lenses, the distances between the surfaces and their focal planes are unequal, but their focal lengths are equal. The line passing through the center of the lens curved surfaces in Figure 1(a) is known as the optical axis of the lens. Simple lenses having a symmetrical shape (bi-convex or biconcave) have principal planes that are equally spaced with respect to each other and the lens surfaces. The lack of symmetry in other lenses, such as the meniscus lenses and the plano negative and positive lenses, causes the locations of the principal planes to vary according to lens geometry. Plano-convex and plano-concave lenses have one principal plane that intersects the optical axis, at the edge of the curved surface, and the other plane buried inside the glass. The principal planes for meniscus lenses lie outside the lens surfaces.

Bi-concave lenses (Figure 1(a)) are primarily utilized for diverging light beams and image size reduction, as well as increasing optical system focal lengths and collimating converging light beams. Often termed the double-concave lens, this optical element refracts parallel input rays so that they diverge away from the optical axis on the output side of the lens, forming a negative focal point in front of the lens. Although the output light rays do not actually unite to form a focal point, they do appear to be diverging from a virtual image located on the object side of the lens. Bi-concave lenses can be coupled to other lenses to reduce optical system focal lengths. The plano-concave lens illustrated in Figure 1(b) is a divergent element that has a negative focal point and produces a virtual image. When a collimated light beam is incident on the curved surface of a plano-concave lens element, the exit side will form a divergent beam. This beam will appear to emerge from a smaller virtual point source than if the planar lens surface had faced the collimated light beam. Plano-concave lenses, which feature minimal spherical aberration when the concave surface is facing the longest conjugate distance, are employed to expand light beams or to increase focal lengths in existing optical systems. Also referred to as a convexo-concave lens, the negative (divergent) meniscus lens (Figure 1(c)) can be designed to reduce or eliminate additional spherical aberration or coma in optical systems to which the lens is coupled. Meniscus lenses (both positive and negative) are often employed to shorten the focal length of a doublet (two lens elements cemented together) or a plano-convex lens operating at an infinite conjugate ratio (illuminated by parallel light rays). The desired focal length of the final system determines the particular dimensions and character of the meniscus lens that should be added. Planoconvex/meniscus lens combinations display up to four times greater resolution than a planoconvex lens working alone. ray diagrams were constructed in order to determine the location, size, orientation, and type of image formed by double concave lenses (i.e., diverging lenses). The ray diagram constructed earlier for a diverging lens revealed that the image of the object was virtual, upright, reduced in size and located on the same side of the lens as the object. But will these always be the characteristics of an image produced by a double concave lens? Can convex lenses ever produce real images? Inverted images? Magnified Images? To answer these questions, we will look at three different ray diagrams for objects positioned at different locations along the principal axis. The diagrams are shown below. (Note that only two sets of incident and refracted rays were used in the diagram in order to avoid overcrowding the diagram with rays.)

The diagrams above show that in each case, the image is located on the object' side of the lens a virtual image an upright image reduced in size (i.e., smaller than the object)

Unlike converging lenses, diverging lenses always produce images that share these characteristics. The location of the object does not affect the characteristics of the image. As such, the characteristics of the images formed by diverging lenses are easily predictable. Another characteristic of the images of objects formed by diverging lenses pertains to how a variation in object distance affects the image distance and size. The diagram below shows five different object locations (drawn and labeled in red) and their corresponding image locations (drawn and labeled in blue).

The diagram shows that as the object distance is decreased, the image distance is decreased and the image size is increased. So as an object approaches the lens, its virtual image on the same side of the lens approaches the lens as well; and at the same time, the image becomes larger. 27. Convergent lenses Image Formation with Converging Lenses Positive, or converging, thin lenses unite incident light rays that are parallel to the optical axis and focus them at the focal plane to form a real image. This interactive tutorial utilizes ray traces to explore how images are formed by the three primary types of converging lenses, and the relationship between the object and the image formed by the lens as a function of distance between the object and the focal points.

The tutorial initializes with an object (represented by a vertical gray arrow on the left-hand side of the lens) positioned more than twice the distance of the focal length away from a simple thin bi-convex lens. Ray traces emanating from the point of the object arrow (Object) pass through various points on the lens and are reunited at the apex of an inverted arrow (the Real Image) on the opposite, or image, side of the lens. Three of the rays are illustrated in red: the Principal Ray, which passes through the center of the lens, and two additional characteristic rays. One of the characteristic rays passes through the lens front focal point (F), while the other travels toward the lens parallel to the Optical Axis and crosses the axis at the rear focal point (F'). Any two of these three rays can be utilized to determine the size and placement of the image formed by the lens. In order to operate the tutorial, use the Object Position slider to translate the object arrow back and forth along the optical axis of the lens. As the object is moved closer to the lens, the image size increases and moves farther away from the lens. In contrast, as the object is

moved away from the lens, the image moves closer to the lens and grows smaller. The distance between the lens and the object (Object Distance, (p)) and image (Image Distance, (q)) are continuously updated in the lower left-hand corner of the tutorial window. The bi-convex lens can be changed to either a Positive Meniscus or Plano-Convex element by selecting the appropriate choice using the pull-down menu. As shown in Figure 1, positive lenses have one or two convex surfaces and are thicker in the center than at the edges. A common characteristic of positive lenses is that they magnify objects when they are placed between the object and the human eye. The primary lens geometries for the positive lens elements illustrated in Figure 1 are bi-convex (Figure 1(a)) and plano-convex (Figure 1(b); having one planar or flat surface). In addition, the convexmeniscus (Figure 1(c)) lens has both convex and concave surfaces with similar curvatures, but is thicker in the center than at the edges. Bi-convex lenses are the simplest magnifying lenses, and have a focal point and magnification factor that is dependent upon the curvature angle of the surfaces. Higher angles of curvature lead to shorter focal lengths due to the fact that light waves are refracted at a greater angle with respect to the optical axis of the lens. The symmetric nature of bi-convex lenses minimizes spherical aberration in applications where the image and object are located symmetrically. When a bi-convex optical system is fully symmetric (in effect, a 1:1 magnification), spherical aberration is at a minimum value and coma and distortion are equally minimized or cancelled. Generally, bi-convex lenses perform with minimum aberrations at magnification factors between 0.2x and 5x. Convex lenses are primarily employed for focusing applications and for image magnification.

Typical plano-convex lenses (Figure 1(b)) have one positive convex face and a flat (plano) face on the opposite side of the lens. These lens elements focus parallel light rays into a focal point that is positive and forms a real image that can be projected or manipulated by spatial filters. The asymmetry of plano-convex lenses minimizes spherical aberration in applications where the object and image lie at unequal distances from the lens. The optimum case for reduction of aberration occurs when the object is placed at infinity (in effect, parallel light rays enter the lens) and the image is the final focused point. However, the plano-convex lens will produce minimum aberration at conjugate ratios up to approximately 5:1. When the curved surface of a plano-convex lens is oriented toward the object, the sharpest possible focus is achieved. Plano-convex lenses are useful for collimating diverging beams and to apply focus to a more complex optical system. The positive meniscus lens (Figure 1(c)) has an asymmetric structure with one face shaped as a convex radius, while the opposite face is slightly concave. Meniscus lenses are often employed in conjunction with another lens to produce an optical system having either a longer or shorter focal length than the original lens. As an example, a positive meniscus lens can be positioned after a plano-convex lens to shorten the focal length without decreasing

optical system performance. Positive meniscus lenses have a greater curvature radius on the concave side of the lens than on the convex side, enabling formation of a real image. 28. about eye http://cfao.ucolick.org/EO/resources/Learn_optics_AO.pdf http://www.optics.arizona.edu/opti510l/references/eye%20models.pdf 29. Visual acuity (VA) is acuteness or clearness of vision, -ability to resolve two separated points or lines, dependson : the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain six metres, is essentially infinity from an optical perspective in an eye exam, lenses of varying powers are used to precisely correct for refractive errors, using a pinhole will largely correct for refractive errors and allow VA to be tested in other circumstances. Letters are normally used as most people will recognise them but other symbols (such as a letter E facing in different directions) can be used instead. In the term "20/20 vision", the numerator refers to the distance in feet between the subject and the chart. The denominator indicates the size of the letters, specifically it denotes the separation at which the lines that make up those letters would be separated by a visual angle of 1 arc minute, which for the lowest line that is read by an eye with no refractive error (or the errors corrected) is usually 20 feet (6.1 m). The metric equivalent is 6/6 vision where the distance is 6 metres. This means that at 20 feet or 6 metres, a typical human eye, able to separate 1 arc minute, can resolve lines with a spacing of about 1.75mm. 20/20 or 6/6 vision can be considered nominal performance for human distance vision; 20/40 or 6/12 vision can be considered half that acuity for distance vision and 20/10 or 6/3 vision would be twice normal acuity.[2] The 20/x number does not directly relate to the eyeglass prescription required to correct vision, because it does not specify the nature of the problem corrected by the lens, only the resulting performance. Instead an eye exam seeks to find the prescription that will provide the best corrected visual performance achievable. This may be greater or lesser than 6/6 for many reasons. Pupil reflexes (PR): The diameter of the pupil in a constant illumination condition is never the same. It is always oscillating with alternating constrictions and dilations of an amplitude up to 0.5mm (roughly up to 4% of iris diameter) and a frequency of 0.1-2 oscillations per second. Spontaneous pronounced oscillations of pupils are called hippus. Amplitude is decreased in bright illumination and is the largest in the average pupil size when the iris has maximum freedom of movement. An increase of oscillation amplitude of more than 1mm (that is, more than 8% of iris diameter) is observed in a number of vascular, inflammatory, degenerative and traumatic diseases of the nervous system. Often this is an early symptom of disseminated sclerosis. A decrease in spontaneous oscillations of pupils (stone pupils) is observed in severe neurogenic, mental, visceral and infectious diseases and also in terminal states (syncope, shock, sepsis, coma).

Unexpected, almost momentary dilations of the pupil, independent from external conditions, alternately in one or other eye, are called jumping pupils. In such cases, all the other reactions (concerning light, accommodation, convergention and the action of

pharmacological agents) are still normal. This phenomenon takes place rarely, mostly in neurasthenia, epilepsy, myelitis, progressive paralyses, and Basedow's disease. Pupil reaction to light Among the various pupil reactions, the most important is the pupil reaction to light, direct and associated. Constriction of an illuminated pupil is called a direct reaction. Constriction of the pupil when illuminating the other eye is called an associated reaction. The time of pupillary reaction is known as the pupillary cycle, consisting of four parameters: latent period of pupil constriction, time of pupil constriction, latent period of pupil dilation and time of pupil dilation.

A number of violations of pupil reactions, which are the components of the classic syndromes of modern neuropathology, are described. Some of them are mentioned below.

There are three anatomical types of pupil immobility and one reflex type. Anatomical types of pupil immobility: 1. Amaurotic immobility of pupils. In this type of immobility, both direct and associated reactions to light of both pupils do not exist, but accommodation and pupil reaction on closing an eye can still be present. Bilateral amaurotic immobility of pupils takes place as a result of the injury of both retinas or optical tract (both sides) before the primary visual centers. In such cases, double-sided blindness occurs. This is associated with considerable dilation of the pupils. If the retina or optical tract of only one eye is injured, then, in its illumination, there is no direct and associated reaction in it. When the healthy eye is illuminated, however, the direct and associated reactions are present in the blind pupil. An accommodation reaction

can also still be present. It should be taken into consideration that the pupil of the blind eye is always wider. As a rule, the amaurotic immobility of a pupil develops after neuritis and atrophy of the optical nerves.

2. Hemianoptic immobility of pupils. Wernicke's is caused by the injury of the optical tract before the lateral geniculated body. Illumination of the blind areas of the retina does not cause any direct or associated reaction of the pupil. Such reaction takes place when the intact parts of the retina are illuminated. If hemianopsy is a result of the injury, located after branching out of the pupil-motor trunk from the optical one, then hemianoptic immobility of the pupils is not present. Thereby, hemianoptic immobility of pupils occurs at the injury of the optical tract, in which the fibers of the optical nerve and light reflexes of the pupil come together.

3. Absolute immobility of pupil is characterized by the simultaneous absence of pupil reactions to light (direct and associated) and accommodation. In most cases, it is unilateral and is accompanied by mydriasis. This immobility originates in the injury of the locomotory oculomotor part of the pupil arch, starting from the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve and reaching the sphincter.

Reflex immobility of the pupils (Argylle-Robertson's Syndrome) can be uni- or bilateral. This includes the absence of pupil reaction to light (direct and associated), more obvious than in the normal state, pupillary reaction in case of accommodation, miosis, anisocoria, smoothed relief of the iris and its partial depigmentation, sector-shaped atrophy of the iris and deformation of pupils. At the different stages of the disease, this syndrome is pronounced unequally and to different extents. First of all, pupil reaction to light is violated and its latent period is prolonged. It goes more slowly than in a normal state, and the pupils are less constricted. In some sectors of the iris, the constrictions are pronounced much strongly while in the other they are insignificant. Hyper-reflexia eventually increases and finally the reaction to light disappears completely. There are patients in which the reaction to light and other symptoms undergoes remission, but after some time, aggravation occurs. Besides the true Argylle-Roberson's syndrome of syphilitic origin, there is the false non-specific one, observed in brain tumors, encephalitis, cranio-cerebral trauma, disseminated sclerosis, alcoholism, and so on.

Paradoxical reaction of the pupils is the dilation of the pupil at illumination and the constriction of pupils in darkness. Injury to the cortical processes of inhibition, predominantly

of the paradoxical phase, is the basis of this phenomenon, which is observed in the injury of upper cervical ganglion, paralyses of the oculomotor nerve and hemorrhage to the brain ventricles.

Myotonic pupil reaction is a slowed constriction during accommodation and convergence after repeated fixing of the eyes on a remote point or a weak pupil reaction to light or its absence. Usually it is observed in one eye in disseminated sclerosis, diabetes, brain tumors and cranio-cerebral trauma.

Neurotonic pupil reaction is slowed constriction during illumination followed by slowed dilation after the light is turned off. It can be observed in vegetative neurosis, alcoholism, heavy smoking, and progressive paralysis.

Pupillotonia (Adie's Syndrome) is a weak pupil reaction to light or its absence, a slowed accommodation reaction and slow pupil dilation up to initial size during a lengthy stay in darkness. Usually it is accompanied with anisocoria, unilateral violations as a rule and cholinegic drug sphincter hypersensitivity.

Pupil intravegetative stupor syndrome is the prolongation of the latent period of dilation. On the pupillogram, it appears like a specific plateau in the place of a parasymphatic activity transition to symphatic activity. The constriction is due to the light action and a frozen pupil is its iridologic sign. Apparently, the pathogenetic background is the weakening of the cholinergic component and reduction of parasympathetic tonus in chronic alcoholism.

Pupil reactions Besides the reflex reactions to light, the following pupil reactions are also of interest: The Cheyne-Stokes respiration pupil reactions are the absence of reactions during pauses in respiration, continuously increased dilation of pupils in forced inhalation and consequent fast return to a normal average size when decreasing the depth of breathing. Pupil reaction on accommodation is pupil constriction when looking at objects close to the face and their dilation when looking far away. (Accommodation at a small distance is accompanied with eye convergence). Pupil reaction on convergence is the constriction of pupils when eyes are adducted inwards, which is usually caused by a fixed look at the approach of an object. (The adduction is maximal when the object is at a 10-15cm distance from the eyes).

Pupil reaction to pain is their dilation in response to the pain or irritation. (The reflex center for transmission of these irritations to the muscle that dilates the pupil is the subthalamic ganglion, which gets impulses from the spinal-thalamic tract). Trigeminal pupil reflex is characterized by small pupil dilation through irritation of the cornea, conjunctive eyelids or tissues surrounding the eye, which is rapidly followed by pupil constriction (present due to the connection of Y pair cranial nerves with subcortical sympathetic pupil center and additional parasympathetic ganglion of III pair nerves). Galvanic pupil reflex is pupil constriction in response to galvanic current (the anode is placed over the eye or in the temporal area and a cathode is placed in the back part of the neck). Cochlea-pupil reflex is bilateral pupil dilation in reaction to irritation of the vestibular apparatus (rotation etc.) Pharyngeal pupil reflex is pupil dilation in the case of irritation of the posterior pharyngeal wall. (The reflex arc includes glosso-pharyngeal and upper laryngeal nerves.) Pupil dilation can take place when a person is imagining night and darkness (Piltz syndrome) and constriction when imagining sunlight or a bright flame (Gaab's syndrome); these reactions are considered to be cortical reflex reactions. 30. Myopia -incoming light rays are refracted or bent by the cornea and lens of the eye to a focal point in front of the retina. Distant images are perceived as being blurred while vision up close is clear. Myopia can be corrected with spectacles and contact lenses. When myopia reaches a high level and shows typical internal ocular degenerative characteristics it becomes a pathological or diseased condition of the eye. This high myopia is often progressive and can be destructive to important internal ocular structures and is the fourth leading cause of blindness in the United States. The importance of this condition is heightened by the fact that it is often underreported as a source of blindness with conditions secondary to the myopia being reported as a source of vision loss. High myopia ia associated with retinal and vitreous degenerations. Forty percent of all retinal detachments occur in patients with high myopia. Glaucoma also has a high incidence of occurrence in high myopia and the damage that glaucoma causes to the eye occurs at lower pressures than in other groups of patients. Unfortunately, the standard of care in the treatment of high myopia is almost a casual and passive therapy consisting of eyeglasses or soft contact lenses. Eyeglasses and soft contact lenses will not prevent the progression of myopia. A number of university studies have shown that rigid contact lenses will slow down or halt the progression of myopia. A non-surgical procedure known as orthokeratology is used to halt and reverse this condition. Special contact lenses are used to gently and safely reshape the front surface of the eye. Continued lens changes are made over the following weeks and months to bring

about further vision improvement. This procedure has been done successfully on thousands of patients in the United States over the past forty years and is extremely safe and effective. At the end of the therapeutic program a retainer contact lens must be worn for a specified number of hours per day or week to maintain the improved vision. A word about transient or temporary myopia. The causes of this condition are: 1. Diabetes with sudden increase of blood sugar 2. Medications such as sulfonamide and acetazolamide 3. Age-related cataracts 4. Injury to the eye

33.

Long-sightedness

- defect of vision caused by an imperfection in the eye (power of the cornea and lens is insufficient, image will appear blurred) - eyeball is too short or the lens is not round enough,(too flat cornea) -difficulty focusing on near objects, *As an object moves toward the eye, the eye must increase its optical power to keep the image in focus on the retina. Long-sightedness - convex lens.

36. Structure and function of photoreceptor cell -specialized neuron in the retina The function of the photoreceptor cell is to convert the light energy of the photon into a form of energy communicable to the nervous system and readily usable to the organism: This conversion is called signal transduction. * absorb photons, triggering a change in the cell's membrane potential. TYPES OF PHOTORECEPTORS rods (shape&movement) cones photosensitive ganglion cells.

-night vision sensitive (respond to

even 1 photon) wider , cylindrical shape

-require 100 photones

discovered-1990s4,5 mln -not contribute to sight directly, but support pupillary reflex.

90 million in the retina LightActivation of photopigmentshyperpolarizatio n the rod cellreleasing its transmitter at-ganglion synapse and exciting the synapse. Disorder deficiency of vitamin A (lack of rhodopsin)
colors cannot be seen at darkonly rods are active.

There are about 1.3 million ganglion cells in the human visual system; 1 to 2% of them are photosensitive.

Humans

Normalized human photoreceptor absorbances for different wavelengths of light[7]

37. Theories of Colour Vision Trichromatic Theory = Young-Helmholtz theory - comes from colour matching and colour mixing studies. -individuals adjusted the relative intensity of 1,2, or 3 light sources of different wavelengths so that the resulting mixture field matched an adjacent test field composed of a single wavelength. - Individuals with normal colour vision needed three different wavelengths (i.e., primaries) to match any other wavelength in the visible spectrum. This finding led to the hypothesis that normal colour vision is based on the activity of three types of receptors, each with a different peak sensitivity. Consistent with the trichromatic theory, we now know that the overall balance of activity in S (short wavelength), M (medium wavelength), and L (long wavelength) cones determines our perception of colour as shown in the figure below.

Opponent-Process Theory -Ewald Hering(1920/1964), - cone photoreceptors are linked together to form three opposing colour pairs: blue/yellow, red/green, and black/white.

-Activation of one member of the pair inhibits activity in the other. (no two members of a pair can be seen at the same location, which explains why we don't experience such colours as "bluish yellow" or "reddish green".

You can see the opponent relationships between red and green, and blue and yellow. View the four-colour patch afterimage stimuli below for 30 seconds. Then remove the colour stimuli by moving your cursor mouse over the image causing it to become a blank white field. When you fixate at the dot in the center of the field you should notice that the original colours are all reversed - where you saw red it is now green and vice versa. Likewise for blue and yellow. Trichromatic Theory or Opponent-Process Theory? In fact, as you have seen, both theories are needed to explain what is known about colour vision. The trichromatic theory explains colour vision phenomena at the photoreceptor level; the opponent-process theory explains colour vision phenomena that result from the way in which photoreceptors are interconnected neurally.

38. DENSITY

-property of matter, unique for each compound density is mass per unit volume 41. Hydrostatic pressure is what is exerted by a liquid when it is at rest. The height of a liquid column of uniform density is directly proportional to the hydrostatic pressure.

hydrostatic pressure is influenced by: -Density of liquid -local gravity Formula: Hydrostatic pressure= height x density x gravity Pa (N/m2)=m x kg/m3 x m/s2 Density of a liquid varies w/ changes in temp eg. Water in 4 deg C
42, Pascal principle Pascal's Principle : pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure ratio (initial difference) remains the same."

where P is the hydrostatic pressure (given in pascals in the SI system), or the difference in pressure at two points within a fluid column, due to the weight of the fluid; is the fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter in the SI system); g is acceleration due to gravity (normally using the sea level acceleration due to Earth's gravity in metres per second squared); h is the height of fluid above the point of measurement, or the difference in elevation between the two points within the fluid column (in metres in SI). The intuitive explanation of this formula is that the change in pressure between two elevations is due to the weight of the fluid between the elevations. Note that the variation with height does not depend on any additional pressures. Therefore Pascal's law can be interpreted as saying that any change in pressure applied at any given point of the fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid. Equation: (P1)(V1) = (P2)(V2) A change in pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every point of the fluid & the walls of the container . APPLICATIONS ON PASCALS PRINCIPLE :

THE HYDRAULIC PRESS

The ideal press consists of two pistons of areas ( a , A ) enclosed between them incompressible liquid as in figure

When a small force ( f ) acts on the small piston ( a ) , it exerts a pressure ( p = f/a ).

The increase in pressure P is equally transmitted to every part of the liquid & to the walls of the container according to Pascal's Principle till it acts on the large piston ( A ) to produce . very large force ( F = P x A ) causes the load to rise 44. Archimedes law There is a force exerted by a fluid that opposes an object's weight. In a column of fluid, pressure increases with depth as a result of the weight of the overlying fluid. T hus a column of fluid, or an object submerged in the fluid, experiences greater pressure at the bottom of the column than at the top. Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered this law in 212 B.C His treatise, On floating bodies, proposition 5 states: Any floating object displaces its own weight of fluid. Archimedes of Syracuse[3] Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Archimedes of Syracuse

yields the formula below. The density of the immersed object relative to the density of the fluid can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes:

Example: A helium balloon in a moving car. In increasing speed or driving a curve, the air moves in the opposite direction of the car's acceleration. The balloon however, is pushed due to buoyancy "out of the way" by the air, and will actually drift in the same direction as the car's acceleration. 46.

48. Densitometry
measure the density of a substance by exposing the material to different types of electromagnetic radiation, such as visible light or X-rays. Techniques:transmission or reflection Transmission instruments measure how transparent a substance is to visible light or X-rays. Reflection devices measure the amount of reflected visible light.

Bone Densitometry We may pass either X-rays or ultrasound waves through the bone. X-ray: X-rays are invisible waves similar to radio or television waves. When they pass through our bones, some of the X-rays are absorbed by calcium atoms in the bone. Measuring how many X-rays are absorbed indicates the bone density.

QUS: Quantitative Ultrasound (QUS) is a high frequency sound wave. We may measure how quickly sound travels through bone(velocity) which is measured as metres per second (m s-1), or how much sound is absorbed by the bone, generally referred to as Broadband Ultrasound Attenuation (BUA, dB MHz-1).

50. Bernoulli Trials = Binomial Probability Distribution - binomial probability of obtaining exactly "r" events in "n" trials: n = number of trials r = number of specific events you wish to obtain p = probability that the event will occur q = probability that the event will not occur (q = 1 - p, the complement of the event) If you enter the formula directly on the home screen, be careful to use parentheses when entering the exponent of n - r (or do the subtraction mentally and enter your calculation). Consider a problem where n = 6, r = 3, and p = 50% (so, p = .5 and q = .5, where q = 1 - p) (Remember, the function nCr is found under MATH PRB #3 nCr and requires that the first value, n, be entered before the function is called.) The easiest way to utilize the calculator to solve this formula is to engage the binompdf function: binomial distribution probability density function, which is: binompdf( where (When using this built-in function there is no need to type in the formula - YEA!!)

Consider, again, a problem where n = 6, r = 3, and p = 50% (Remember, the function binompdf is found under DISTR (2nd VARS), arrow down to #0 binompdf and the parameters are: binompdf (number of trials, probability of occurrence, number of specific events) 58. The role of the heart pump

The human heart is a remarkable organ. Slightly larger than a human fist the heart must continuously beat over person's lifetime. Beating 80,000 to 100,000 times and pumping approximately 2,000 gallons a day the heart will have beat 2-3 billion times and pumped 50-65 million gallons of blood over a 70-90 year lifespan. The human heart is made of specialized muscle capable of sustaining continuous beating. This muscle is different than skeletal muscle that powers the arms and legs.

The human heart is made up of four chambers, valves, and joining blood vessels: Chambers: right atrium (RA), right ventricle (RV), left atrium (LA), left Ventricle (LV) Vessels: inferior (IVC) & superior vena cava (SVC), aorta, pulmonary artery (PA), pulmonary veins (PV) Valves: tricuspid (Tv), aortic (Ao), mitral (MV), pulmonic (Po)

For the heart to function properly, the four chambers must beat in an organized manner. The four heart chambers fill with and pump blood. The right and left atria pump blood to the right and left ventricles respectively. The four heart valves are: 1. the tricuspid valve, located between the right atrium and right ventricle; 2. the pulmonary or pulmonic valve, between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery; 3. the mitral valve, between the left atrium and left ventricle; and 4. the aortic valve, between the left ventricle and the aorta. Each valve has a set of flaps (also called leaflets or cusps). The mitral valve has two flaps; the others have three. Under normal conditions, the valves permit blood to flow in only one direction. Blood flow occurs only when there's a difference in pressure across the valves that causes them to open. Blood returning to the heart from the body (venous blood that has already had oxygen taken from it) enters the right atrium. Blood flows and is pumped from the right atrium across the open tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. As the right ventricle starts to contract the tricuspid valve closes (blood can only be pumped forward) the pulmonic valve opens and blood pumped into the pulmonary arteries. These arteries carry blood to the lungs to be oxygenated. Oxygenated blood is returned to the heart by pulmonary veins. This oxygenated blood enters the left atrium. Blood from the left atrium flows across an open mitral valve to enter the left ventricle. As the left ventricle starts to contract the mitral valve closes and the aortic valve opens as blood is pumped across it into the aorta.The aorta and arteries that branch from it carry blood to the entire body. The left ventricle is the largest and most forcefully contracting chamber of the heart. It must pump oxygen rich blood to the whole body. The heartbeat cycle consists of two components: diastole and systole Diastole occurs when the heart is relaxed and not contracting. During diastole blood fills each of the atria and begins filling the ventricles. Systole occurs when electrical impulse traveling down specialized conducting fibers trigger the heart to contract. The left and right atria contract at nearly the same time pumping remaining blood into the left and right ventricle. Systole continues as the right and left ventricle contract, pumping blood to the lungs and body, several tenths of a second after the right and left atria have contracted.

Systole and diastole continuously alternate as long as the heart continues to beat.

59. LaPlace's Law The larger the vessel radius, the larger the wall tension required to withstand a given internal fluid pressure.

For a given vessel radius and internal pressure, a spherical vessel will have half the wall tension of a cylindrical vessel. 61. Blood viscosity - measure of how thin or thick the blood fluid is. When blood is thin, it flows smoothly and the transport of nutrients and body wastes is faster. When blood is thick, blood flow is sluggish and there is a tendency for cholesterol to get deposited in the walls of the blood vessels contributing further to more health problems like cardiovascular problems, eye problems, internal bleeding, headache, vertigo, seizures and coma. Blood composition, temperature and stress contribute to the thickening of the blood or hyperviscosity. The amount of fluid in the blood especially in the plasma affects its viscosity. More than normal red blood cell count and fats can make the blood thick and cause blood clots to form. Blood clots can be fatal. High blood viscosity may be remedied by medicines that can reduce hyperviscosity and break up blood clots. Low temperatures also affect the viscosity of the blood. Blood flow slows down during prolonged exposure in temperatures lower than the body. This can lead to hypothermia and other cold-related problems like frostbite. To help restore normal blood circulation, slowly warm up the body by wrapping patient with a blanket or embracing the person. The warmth will slowly increase blood flow until normal. This can be painful but better that losing the body part or worse heart failure, lung failure and ultimately death. Blood transfusions are also done to remedy hyperviscosity. 64. how is the blood pressure measured? The doctor measures the maximum pressure (systolic) and the lowest pressure (diastolic) made by the beating of the heart. The systolic pressure is the maximum pressure in an artery at the moment when the heart is beating and pumping blood through the body. The diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure in an artery in the moments between beats when the heart is resting.

To take a blood pressure reading, you need to be relaxed and comfortably seated, with your arm well supported. Alternatively, you can lie on an examination couch.

A cuff that inflates is wrapped around your upper arm and kept in place with Velcro. A tube leads out of the cuff to a rubber bulb. Another tube leads from the cuff to a reservoir of mercury at the bottom of a vertical glass column. Whatever pressure is in the cuff is shown on the mercury column. The mercury is held within a sealed system only air travels in the rubber tubing and the cuff. Air is then blown into the cuff and increasing pressure and tightening is felt on the upper arm. The doctor puts a stethoscope to your arm and listens to the pulse while the air is slowly let out again. The systolic pressure is measured when the doctor first hears the pulse. This sound will slowly become more distant and finally disappear. The diastolic pressure is measured from the moment the doctor is unable to hear the sound of the pulse. The blood pressure is measured in terms of millimetres of mercury (mmHg).

Blood pressure can be measured in other ways, such as using an automatic blood pressure gauge that can also be used at home. Electronic measuring devices Electronic blood pressure measuring devices are becoming the norm now mercury is being phased out because of its hazardous nature. Most of these are now accurate enough for routine clinical use and are relatively inexpensive. They eliminate many of the errors in blood pressure measurement that human beings can generate. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) involves measuring your blood pressure for 24 hours as you go about your daily routine and when asleep. You wear a device that measures your blood pressure at regular intervals. The information is recorded on a chip in the device and allows the doctor to get a detailed picture of blood pressure variation in a normal environment. Average daytime ABPM blood pressure is lower than equivalent blood pressure readings. A high reading using ABPM is: above 135/85 for the general population above 130/80 for people with diabetes. when blood pressure levels show unusual variability when high blood pressure is resistant to drug treatment three or more drugs when symptoms suggest the possibility of low blood pressure due to over-treatment to aid the diagnosis of high blood pressure related to anxiety in the clinical setting, known as 'white coat hypertension'.

ABPM may be used:

When your blood becomes too thick it requires more pressure to move it through your blood vessels. This pressure leads to damage of your arteries. caused by friction and the lining of the blood vessels are eroded . To protect itself from erosion, your arteries patch themselves

with plaque which in turn narrows the arteries and thereby increases the pressure which leads to more damage, and the vicious cycle is repeated over and over again. Seven other risk factors related to blood viscosity which contribute to heart disease. 1. Smoking which increases fibrogen and inflammation and thickens the blood. 2. Obesity increases blood viscosity and fibrogen. 3. Diabetes stiffens red blood cells making the blood thicker. 4. Cholesterol. High LDL equals thicker blood, High HDL makes blood thinner. 5. Blood Pressure. More friction, more injury to arteries. 6. Age and Blood count. Young red blood cells are more flexible than older damaged cells. 7. Gender. Women are protected by monthly loss of blood which leads to more young flexible blood cells. Some of the factors involved in blood viscosity; Composition of the blood. More fluid makes thinner blood. High red blood cell count increases viscosity. Fats circulating in blood increases thickness. Temperature. Low temperature makes blood more sluggish.

Thinner blood moves more smoothly throughout the body while higher viscosity blood can lead to adhesions and possibly even blood clots in the veins. This makes it necessary for the heart to work harder. This increases the possibility of heart failure. Physicians may prescribe medicines to help thin out the blood. One of these is coumadin which requires periodic monitoring. As with most medicines there are risks and side effects involved. The Mayo clinic states that Warfarin (a.k.a. Coumadin) can have dangerous side effects or interactions that place you at risk for bleeding.