IndianHistory: 3201990 I.GuptaKings: AculturalfloweringensuedundertheGuptakings,endingaperiodofseveral hundredyearsofunrestandchaos.ThedemiseofthepostAshokanMauryankings ledtofragmentationanddominationbyoutsideforces.TheGuptasbeginningin 320underChandraguptaandSamudraguptawillreinstallalineageofIndiankings toruleoverthesubcontinent.Theirrulewasmodeledverycloselyafterthe bureaucraticandfederalistsuccessofAshokasMauryans.Theempireestablished byunitingnorthernIndiaandreceivingtributefromIndusValleyandNepalese states.SamudraguptabroughtmuchofsouthernIndiaintothefoldandmade allianceswiththefrontierstatestoactasabufferagainstforeigninvaders,aproblem longplaguingtheIndians.

s.InvadersfromChinaandcentralAsiawerethwarted howevereventuallytheferocityoftheHunswastoomuchforIndiatohandleas theyturnedbackthemightynomads,howeverintheprocessdealtthemselvesafatal blow.By500theinvasionoftheHunsonly50yearsoldtheGuptashadlostcontrol tolocalities. II.Guptaculturalresurgence: TheGuptaemphasisonSanskritandtheliteratureoftheAryanssparkedacultural renaissanceinIndia.Epicpoetry,art,andreligionflourished.Buddhismwasina stateoftotaldeclineastheGuptassupportedHinduism.TheGuptaalso rejuvenatedScienceandlearning. III.DailyLifeinIndia: IndiansocietyduringtheGuptaageillustratedIndiasrelentingrelianceoncustom andvalues.FarmingthekeytoIndiandailylife.Badweatherandtaxesmadethis lifeasdifficultasitwasforNorthernEuropeanfarmers.Watersupplycrucial, famineiscommon,untiltheymastereddeepearthirrigationIndiastruggledvisvis farming.Cereals,beans,andricethemostcommonproducts.Livestockwereused forwhattheycouldproduceinlifeandnotindeath.Markets,towns,andcitiesthe centerofcommercewithmerchantsholdingahighplaceinsociety.Townsoften divideduponthebasisofprofessionwithmanyconstitutingtheoutcasterole.Most villageswereenclosedbywallsanddividedupintoquarters.TheCastesystemby thefifthcenturywascrystallizedintofourdistinctcastes.Marriagewasakey institutionwiththesolepurposebeingtheproductionandraisingofkids.Women hadavitalplaceinsocietybutwerenottreatedinthesamefashionasmen.Upon death,inasituationstillpracticedincertainareas,womenwereforcedtocommit Satithepracticeofawidowimmolatingherselfonthefuneralpyreofherhusband. IV.Indiasregionalimpact:SoutheastAsianHistory

GivenIndiasactivetradingcultureitwasnosurprisethatmanyfacetsofIndian cultureweregoingtospreadtotheworldofSoutheastAsia.Sanskritbecamea commonmodeofexpressionintheregionandthedemandsoftradeledtosmall Indiansettlementsthroughouttheregion.Thiscreatednotonlythecultural diffusionofideasbutalsoledtoablendingandassimilationofthedifferentcultural groups.Indiadidnotruletheregionbutcertainlyexertedtremendouscultural impactsuponthepeoplesofVietnam,Khmer,BurmaandMicronesia.Storieslike theRamayanaweremodifiedandarchitectureembraced.Vietnameseweretheleast influencedlivingsouthofChinafromwhomtheygainedindependencefromin939. TheThailivedtothewest,conqueringpartsofchinaeventuallyfallingtheMongols inthe13thcentury.KhmerswerethemostimportantoftheSEAsianminiempires. TheywereindigenoustotheregionofmodernCambodiaandcontrolledtheregion. ThemaritimeempireofSrivijaya(Java)originatedontheislandofSumatratheir wealthbasedonpiracyandtradeeventuallyfallingtotheChinesetradersofthe13th century.IndiasgreatestculturalexporttotheregionwasthereligionofBuddhism, whichhasbeeninagreatstateofdeclinebutspreadrapidlyintheregionsof SoutheastAsia. V.Indiaundersiege: Between650and1400Indiaexperiencedturmoilandinvasionaswaveafterwaveof invaderssweptintothesubcontinent.Theinvasionscameinfourdistinctphases. MuslimArabsattackonSind(636713),Afghanistan(643870).Muslimsintothe Punjab(8701030)andtheGangesValley(11751206).MuslimTurksrecently convertedtoIslamwilleventuallyconquerNorthernIndia.Underaseriesof powerfulrulerstheMuslimswillbegintodominatepartsofIndia.Someofthese leaderssuchasMahmudshowedlittlerespectortoleranceofIndianpolytheismand destroyedHinduholyplacesandBuddhisttemples.UponthedeathofMahmud Indiaenjoyedaperiodofpeaceforroughly150yearswhenanewlineageofTurks hadariseninAfghanistanandreestablishedcontrolofNorthernIndia.Buddhists werehitparticularlyhardduringthistimeastheTurksbesiegedtheirstupasand universities,drivingmanyintotheHimalayanregionsofTibetandNepal.Turks begantoavoidassimilatingbybringinginoutsideMuslimstoaidthemintheirrule, fromasfaraswayasTurkey,andIran.Thesegroupsyieldedatremendouscultural influenceontheIndians.Thegreatestimpactofthetimeperiodwasthe establishmentandpenetrationofIslamasanIndianreligionintheIndusValley regionofpresentdayPakistan. VI.TheRuleoftheMughals: Bythe16thcenturyIndiahadbeendominatedbyforeignpowersfornearlya millennium.IslamicsultanateshadrulednorthernIndiaandcentralAsianhordes ledbysweptinandlootedIndia.AstimepassedinthewakeofTimerlaneand BaburtheruleofforeignershadbecomedestructiveasIndiawasconquered,looted, andbesiegedbyforeigninvaders.AkbarwillestablishMughalgreatnessandbring withhimthegreatestleadershipsincethedaysofAshokaandperhapsIndias greatestleadership.Hewasasuperbintellect,creativeforce,militarystrategist,and

personality.Headdedterritoryandeffectivelygovernedthoseterritoriesthathe controlled.Hismethodsincludedfederalism,efficientbureaucracyandwelltrained governmentofficials.FinanceswillcontrolledexplicitlybytheDiwanandtaxation wasfairandequitable.Perhapsmoststartlingabouthisreignwashisabilityto exploitthereligiousdiversitywithinhisempire,bringingtogetherIslamic,Christian, andHinduforcesinatimeofcooperation,peaceandprosperity.Akbarunderstood thegreatpowerofeachfaithaswellastheirdiversedivisionsandattemptedto bridgethosegapsthroughsulahkul.Hisreligiousbeliefsextendedintothedifferent branchesofIslamaswellasHinduism,yethewasadevoutMuslim. VI:PostAkbarDynasties Akbarssonbroughtaboutalonglineofableyetunspectacularemperorswho foughtMusliminsurgenceandEuropeanexpansion.Eachbuiltacapitaltoattempt tooutdotheirpredecessor,attemptingtocreategreatIslamiccities.Thisperiod alsosawanamazingsurgeinthequalityandquantityofIslamicartandarchitecture inIndiaincludingtheTajMahalbuiltforthedeceasedwifeofShahJahan(Mumtaz Jahan).ImperialsuccessionwasneversolvedbytheMughalswhostruggledwith competitionamongstsons,thiswasevidentafterthedeathofShahJahan.Hisson Aurangzebeventuallywinsthepowerstruggleafterexecutinghisfatherandlocking hisfatherawayuntildeathcamein1666.Hewasaruthlessskillfulgeneralwho conqueredmoreofIndiathananypriorMughalemperor.Heintroducedreformsto strengthenIslamiclawandforbidthelongheldpracticeofSuttee.Hisreignsawthe destructionofHinduidolsandunequaltaxationforreligiousgroups.His intoleranceandpietyextendedsofartocriticizetheeternaltombofhismotherfor beingagainstIslamandtooextravagant.Spenthisentirereignattemptingtobring downHindumilitantsresistinghisrule(Maratha).Itwastheproblemscreatedby thegreatAurangzebthateventuallywillsinkhisfollowers. VII.EuropeanRivalryfortheIndianTrade EuropehadlongsincebeeninterestedinIndiantradeforitswidearrayofmineral wealthandincrediblediversificationofspices.Portugalisthefirsttogetinvolvedas theyarrivedatGoain1510andestablishedaheadquartersfortradeandmissionary activity.TheDutchwillfollowtheleadandattempttorustlethetraderoutesfrom thePortuguese.TheBritishwillthenorganizetheBritishEastIndiaCompany,the BritishwillbegrantedconcessionsbytheIndiansinexchangeforBritishconcessions (Bribes).ThesetradingfortswilleventuallybecomemoderncitiessuchasMadras, BombayandCalcutta.Eventuallythesetradingcenterswillgrabtheattentionofthe restoftheEuropeanworld,namelytheBritishrivalFrance.TheFrenchandBritish beganbattlingovercontrolofIndiaduringtheirperiodofextensiverivalrythat endedwiththeTreatyofParis1763.Britainwillgraduallyemergeastheleading forceinIndiaevolvingfromeconomicleadershiptocommercialleadershipto politicalandsocialleadership.Britainbeganenforcingchangesthroughitsown parliamentsuchastheRegulatingActof1773,whichestablishedpoliticalauthority overtheterritory.GraduallythegoalwillbecometoAnglonizetheIndian

populacethrougheducationalreformsdesignedtosocializetheminanEnglish manner.ThehopewasajointAngloIndiancivilservicethatwouldensurepolitical stabilityinIndia.AuthorslikeRudyardKiplingportrayedtherelationshipina paternalfashionexaminingtheroleofBritaininthesamewayonemightexaminea father,someoneyouneed.GraduallyIndiabecomesAnglizedwiththe establishmentofregimentscalledSepoysorBritishtrained/Indianbornmembers ofthemilitarydesignedtocombatIndianmilitancy.Theproblemwiththistypeof relationshipisevidentintheSepoyRebellionof1857duringwhichthemusketballs thattheSepoyswereforcedtobitetheendsoffwerelaterlearnedtobemadeofCow fat!AnobviousencroachmentontherightsofdevoutHindus,cooperationdoesnot meanunderstanding.Arebellionensues,whichtheEnglishcrush. VIII.TheBritishPerceptionofIndia: TheEnglishviewedIndiaastheirjewel,theperfectcolonyonethatiseasytogovern andextraordinarilyprofitable.Theyhadestablishedsomerudimentaryformsof cooperationbetweenthegroups,whichmadegovernanceeasier.Bythemid19th centuryIndiaistotallycontrolledbytheBritish.Troublesbeganin1857withthe aforementionedSepoyRebellionorMutinyastheEnglishcallit.Ironicallyenough themovementwascrushedbyDravidianforcesfromIndiassouthernhalf.This insurrectionactuallycausedIndiatoberuledabsolutelybyBritainandlimited cooperation.Discriminationandprejudicebecamecommon.Pictureon904tellsit all.Britishsuperiorityactuallyhadsomepositiveimpactsastheyinsistedonhigher qualityroads,schoolsandotherengineeringissues.Thegovernmentwaswell organizedwithanEnglishspeakingbureaucracy.Thiseducationinacertainsense backfiredonEnglandastheIndiansbegantoexperienceapoliticalenlightenment anddesireforindependencegrewleadingtosuchinstitutionsastheIndianNational Congress. IX.TowardSelfRuleinIndia: ThenationalistmovementinIndiagrewoutoftheclashinculturesthatwas Hindu/MuslimIndiavs.ChristianEngland.Theconflicthadbeenbrewingsince 1800butwiththeadventofWWI,matterstookadecidedturnfortheworse.The EnglishhadfearedIndiawouldtakeadvantageofthecrisisinEuropetoadvance theirownnationalistdesires,howevertheIndiansrespondedtoBritishpromisesthat Independence(enhancedindependence)wouldbeinorderfollowingthewarshould Indiacooperate.ThecooperationofIndianswasmorethantheBritishcouldhave expectedastheyfoughtferociouslysidebysideEnglandandsentlargesuppliesof foodandmoneytotheBritishwareffort.TheEnglishhadpromisedcooperationand gradualindependencebutthosedreamsendedin1919whentheEnglishinstigated theRowlattacts,whichseverelycurtailedIndiancivilliberties.Theresultofthese conflictswastheArmistarmassacrethattookthelivesofhundredsofinnocent nationalistsinabloodbathandsparkingamovementledbyMahatmaGandhi. X.Gandhiandnonviolence:Roots

Bornin1869inanareaofIndialargelyinsulatedfromEuropeanideasandthe worldseconomy.Maharajasprincesruledtheregionswithindirectloyaltyand directtiestoEnglishviceroys.Grewupinawealthyfamilywithpoliticalties, howeveritwasmotherwhomheviewedwithrespectandreverenceashisgreatest influence.InhiseyesshewastheperfectHinduwoman,awomanofremarkable skill,restraint,control,talentandintelligence.Gandhiwasmarriedat13and remainedloyaltoherhisentireexistence,itwasheralongwithhismotherthat supportedhisentranceintoanEnglishlawschoolanunprecedentedmovefor someoneinhissituation.Afterobtaininghislawdegreeandexperiencing commercialfailureinthelaw,hemovedtoSouthAfricatoworkforIndian merchants.WitnessingfirsthandtheoppressionandracialtensionsinSouthAfrica heusedhislawpracticeandsuccesstoremedytheproblemsofSouthAfricasracial injusticetoIndians.TheforcedlaborandattritionofIndiansinthewakeofthe liberationofblackslaveswasappalling.TheDeFactosegregationoftheregionwas anatrocitytopoorhardworkingIndiansintheregion.HeturnedtoHinduascetics aswellasChristiantheologyforananswertotheoppressionoftheinnocent,the resultnonviolentmilitancy.Inasensethesoulforcethatherevered,becamethe philosophyloveyourenemies,thebasisofhisnonviolentmilitancy.Thepolicyis quiteharsh,astheirpeacefulprotestsoftenincurbeatings,gassings,andshootings. TheresultofhislaborswasacceptanceoftheIndiansasequalintheeyesofthelaw visvistaxationandsocialpractices/socialmobility. XI.Gandhileadstheway: GandhireturnedtoIndiaahero,hailedwithanewnameMahatmagreatsoul.He emergedslowlyontotheIndianscenedealingwitheconomicissuessuchasthe plightofsharecroppersandmillworkers.HowevertheAmristarmassacrehad givenhimastageofunprecedentedsizetoworkwith.Understandingthescopeof theproblem,herealizedhowpotentnonviolentresistancewouldbeagainstafoe thathadnowdemonstratedthepotentialformilitaryactionagainsttheinnocent. Actssuchasmarches,strikes,boycotts,andnonpaymentoftaxesheralliedthe nation.Themovementhadreachedthemasseswiththepowerofhiswordsand actionsrallyingthemassesfromtheghettosofCalcuttatothesplendorofDelhi.He hadtrumpetedthesoulandspiritoftheHinduassuperiortotheselfishandviolent Britishoccupiers,rallyingandmotivatingallhetouched.HetransformedtheIndian NationalCongressintoafullfledgedpoliticalforcewelcomingallHinduand Muslimalike.JailedafterIndiansturnedtoviolence,hebecameevenmorepowerful injailthanonthestreets.HisfocusonstrengtheningIndianmoralcharacter includingoutcasteswasthekeytohismovement.Whenin1927Indianselfrulewas tobediscussedthecommitteeincludednoIndianmembersthewritingwasonthe wall.AsIndiagrewclosertoindependenceunderradicalslikeJawaharlalNehruthe Britishseemedtotightentheirgrip.ItwasthenthatGandhirosetothechallenge fearingviolenceheunitedwiththeradicalstakingamoreaggressiveapproachwhile ensuringNonViolencebethemethodofaction.Themarchtotheseatomakesalt withoutpayingataxwasaturningpoint,amidstbeatings,themarchersatGandhis insistenceremainedpeacefulnotevenraisingtheirarmstoprotectthemselves.The massesfollowedhimtohisjailcellashewasincarceratedforhisroleinthemarch. FrustratedtheBritishreleasedhimandagreedtonegotiatewithhimoverthe independenceofIndia.

 XII.TowardsIndependence: TheSecondWorldWarwasthecatalystfortheindependenceofIndia. IndependencecameforreasonslessrelatedtoIndiaitselfbutmorerelatedtothe conditionsofpostwarEurope.GreatBritaindeclaredwaronbehalfofIndia, humiliatingtheIndians.Gandhidemandedindependenceoranothernonviolent attackwouldbelaunched.Hewasjailedimmediatelyforthedurationofthewar. IndiasupportedtheBritishalbeitnotenthusiastically.TheCongressGandhisparty sufferedduringhisimprisonmentwiththeriseofMuhammadAliJannahsMuslim League.ItwasduringGandhisabsencethatheandotherIslamicleadersurgedthe worldonthenecessityofapartitionofIndiabasedonreligiouslinescallingfora separateIslamicstatetobecarvedoutofIndia.Gandhiwasmortified,his reconstructionoftheIndianmoralstateincludedharmonynotdivision.By1945 Gandhisdreamappearedtobejustthatadream,unificationofIndiabasedonmoral unityandharmonyofherpeoplewasnotpossible.TheNorthwestcornerremained largelyIslamicwhileherSouth/DravidianroutesweresteadfastlyHindu.Thenew statewouldbecomePakistan,tensionsranhighandstilldosotoday.Onthe14thof August1947Indiabecameanindependentstateflankedbyhernewneighbor Pakistan.Howevertheindependencewasmarredbyreligiousbloodshedandchaos. GandhiannouncedafasttoprotestHindupersecutionofinnocentMuslims,hoping torestorefriendship.Hiseffortswerefruitlessandin1948hisdreamsareshattered asheisgunneddownbyaHindufanaticforhisacceptanceofMuslims. XIII.Pakistananewnation: Pakistanbeganitsnationhoodbehindthe8ball,strugglingwithitsidentity, infrastructureandeconomicsithashaddifficultyadjustingtoitsroleintheworld, partlybecauseoftheconditionsitwasbornin.Itstwoborders(EastandWestwere separatedby1000milesofunfriendlyIndianTerritory.Thesetwoterritories/nations wereneverabletodevelopasaresultoftheirdistancebotheconomicallyand geographically.ThedifferencesbetweenthesepeopleleadtoEastPakistan demandingindependencefromtheharshruleofthemuchlargerWestPakistan.The BengaliMuslimsgainedindependencein1973becomingthenationstateof Bangladesh.TheareaoftheKashmir(1142)isanareathathasledtoterrorismand violenceasitsownershipisdisputed(JammuPakistani,KashmirIndia) XIV.Indiaontheroadtodemocracy: Indiandemocracyhasattimesmarveleditswesternobserversforthedevotionand dedicationofitsfollowers.ThebrainchildofBritish/INCforcesitisaparliamentary systemthathasfluctuatedinitsactuallylevelofdemocratization.Indiawasfouled for25yearsbyitsfounderJawaharlalNehruandhisINCparty.Introducedwere majorpoliticalandsocialreforms.Legalequalitywasgrantedtowomen,caste systemwasclarifiedandloosened,socialwelfarebecameareality,untouchables freedfromlegalbondage.ThishasbeenaslowevolutionintheIndiannationstate whichislargelyvillagebasedmeaningthatchangewilloccuratamuchslowerpace. TheNehrulineagewillcontinuealmostuninterrupteduntil1984withhisdaughter

IndiraGandhi,andhersonRajivGandhiholdingpowerwiththeexceptionofone brief4yearterm.Indira,maybethetoughestfemalerulerinthehistoryof democracyadynamicforcewhoimposedherwillonIndiafordecades.Sheinstilled familyplanningandsocialdemocracyinitiativeswhilethreateningdemocracyby absorbingpowerandattemptingtosilenceherenemies,movesviewedbyher enemiesasthreatstoIndianstabilityanddemocracy.Forcedsterilizationofmenis notdemocracy.Herhandlingofthe1975emergencyineliminatingparliamentary influencethreatenedthenation.Shewasdefeatedintheelectionof1976,butwasre electedin1980onlytobeassassinatedbyangrySikhs.Sikhsbecameavolatileforce inIndia,areligiousgroupthatblendsIslamandHinduismtheywereapersecuted groupinIndiaduringtheageofIndiraGandhi.Mrs.Gandhicrushedtheirradical uprisingsinthePunjab.Herassassinationin1984openedthedoorforhersonRajiv toassumepoweronlytobevotedoutofficeforeconomicreasons. XV.Indiatoday: Indiawiththeworlds2ndlargestpopulationremainsanenigma,abillionIndiansare attemptingtotransformanationofpoorvillagersintoamoderndemocraticnation basedontheidealsofWesternthinkerswhilenotcompromisingtheirEastern philosophicalandreligiousbasis.Thetransitionhasnotalwaysbeensmoothas Indiahassufferedundertheweightofherpopulation,geographicalproblems, regionalpoliticalconflictswithPakistanandeconomictransitiontothemodern world.Sheisdefinitelyaworkinprogress.