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TheRevoltoftheSalariedBourgeoisie
Slavojiek
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HowdidBillGatesbecometherichestmaninAmerica?Hiswealthhasnothingtodowith Microsoftproducinggoodsoftwareatlowerpricesthanitscompetitors,orexploitingits workersmoresuccessfully(Microsoftpaysitsintellectualworkersarelativelyhighsalary). MillionsofpeoplestillbuyMicrosoftsoftwarebecauseMicrosofthasimposeditselfasan almostuniversalstandard,practicallymonopolisingthefield,asoneembodimentofwhatMarx calledthegeneralintellect,bywhichhemeantcollectiveknowledgeinallitsforms,from sciencetopracticalknowhow.Gateseffectivelyprivatisedpartofthegeneralintellectand becamerichbyappropriatingtherentthatfollowed. ThepossibilityoftheprivatisationofthegeneralintellectwassomethingMarxnever envisagedinhiswritingsaboutcapitalism(largelybecauseheoverlookeditssocial dimension).Yetthisisatthecoreoftodaysstrugglesoverintellectualproperty:astheroleof thegeneralintellectbasedoncollectiveknowledgeandsocialco-operationincreasesin post-industrialcapitalism,sowealthaccumulatesoutofallproportiontothelabourexpended initsproduction.Theresultisnot,asMarxseemstohaveexpected,theself-dissolutionof capitalism,butthegradualtransformationoftheprofitgeneratedbytheexploitationoflabour intorentappropriatedthroughtheprivatisationofknowledge. Thesameistrueofnaturalresources,theexploitationofwhichisoneoftheworldsmain sourcesofrent.Thereisapermanentstruggleoverwhogetsthisrent:citizensoftheThird WorldorWesterncorporations.Itsironicthatinexplainingthedifferencebetweenlabour (whichinitsuseproducessurplusvalue)andothercommodities(whichconsumealltheir valueintheiruse),Marxgivesoilasanexampleofanordinarycommodity.Anyattemptnow tolinktheriseandfallinthepriceofoiltotheriseorfallinproductioncostsorthepriceof exploitedlabourwouldbemeaningless:productioncostsarenegligibleasaproportionofthe

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pricewepayforoil,apricewhichisreallytherenttheresourcesownerscancommand thankstoitslimitedsupply. Aconsequenceoftheriseinproductivitybroughtaboutbytheexponentiallygrowingimpactof collectiveknowledgeisachangeintheroleofunemployment.Itistheverysuccessof capitalism(greaterefficiency,raisedproductivityetc)whichproducesunemployment, renderingmoreandmoreworkersuseless:whatshouldbeablessinglesshardlabour neededbecomesacurse.Or,toputitdifferently,thechancetobeexploitedinalong-term jobisnowexperiencedasaprivilege.Theworldmarket,asFredricJamesonhasputit,isa spaceinwhicheveryonehasoncebeenaproductivelabourer,andinwhichlabourhas everywherebeguntopriceitselfoutofthesystem.Intheongoingprocessofcapitalist globalisation,thecategoryoftheunemployedisnolongerconfinedtoMarxsreservearmyof labour;italsoincludes,asJamesonnotes,thosemassivepopulationsaroundtheworldwho have,asitwere,droppedoutofhistory,whohavebeendeliberatelyexcludedfromthe modernisingprojectsofFirstWorldcapitalismandwrittenoffashopelessorterminalcases: so-calledfailedstates(Congo,Somalia),victimsoffamineorecologicaldisaster,those trappedbypseudo-archaicethnichatreds,objectsofphilanthropyandNGOsortargetsofthe waronterror.Thecategoryoftheunemployedhasthusexpandedtoencompassvastranges ofpeople,fromthetemporarilyunemployed,thenolongeremployableandpermanently unemployed,totheinhabitantsofghettosandslums(allthoseoftendismissedbyMarx himselfaslumpen-proletarians),andfinallytothewholepopulationsandstatesexcluded fromtheglobalcapitalistprocess,liketheblankspacesonancientmaps. Somesaythatthisnewformofcapitalismprovidesnewpossibilitiesforemancipation.Thisat anyrateisthethesisofHardtandNegrisMultitude,whichtriestoradicaliseMarx,whoheld thatifwejustcuttheheadoffcapitalismwedgetsocialism.Marx,astheyseeit,was historicallyconstrained:hethoughtintermsofcentralised,automatedandhierarchically organisedindustriallabour,withtheresultthatheunderstoodgeneralintellectassomething ratherlikeacentralplanningagency;itisonlytoday,withtheriseofimmateriallabour,thata revolutionaryreversalhasbecomeobjectivelypossible.Thisimmateriallabourextends betweentwopoles:fromintellectuallabour(theproductionofideas,texts,computerprograms etc)toaffectivelabour(carriedoutbydoctors,babysittersandflightattendants).Today, immateriallabourishegemonicinthesenseinwhichMarxproclaimedthat,in19th-century capitalism,largeindustrialproductionwashegemonic:itimposesitselfnotthroughforceof numbersbutbyplayingthekey,emblematicstructuralrole.Whatemergesisavastnew domaincalledthecommon:sharedknowledgeandnewformsofcommunicationand co-operation.Theproductsofimmaterialproductionarentobjectsbutnewsocialor interpersonalrelations;immaterialproductionisbio-political,theproductionofsociallife.

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HardtandNegriareheredescribingtheprocessthattheideologistsoftodayspostmodern capitalismcelebrateasthepassagefrommaterialtosymbolicproduction,fromcentralisthierarchicallogictothelogicofself-organisationandmulti-centredco-operation.The differenceisthatHardtandNegriarefaithfultoMarx:theyaretryingtoprovethathewasright, thattheriseofthegeneralintellectisinthelongtermincompatiblewithcapitalism.The ideologistsofpostmoderncapitalismaremakingexactlytheoppositeclaim:Marxisttheory (andpractice),theyargue,remainswithintheconstraintsofthehierarchicallogicof centralisedstatecontrolandsocantcopewiththesocialeffectsoftheinformationrevolution. Therearegoodempiricalreasonsforthisclaim:whateffectivelyruinedtheCommunist regimeswastheirinabilitytoaccommodatetothenewsociallogicsustainedbythe informationrevolution.Theytriedtosteertherevolution,tomakeityetanotherlarge-scale centralisedstate-planningproject.TheparadoxisthatwhatHardtandNegricelebrateasthe uniquechancetoovercomecapitalismiscelebratedbytheideologistsoftheinformation revolutionastheriseofanew,frictionlesscapitalism. HardtandNegrisanalysishassomeweakpoints,whichhelpusunderstandhowcapitalism hasbeenabletosurvivewhatshouldhavebeen(inclassicMarxistterms)aneworganisation ofproductionthatrendereditobsolete.Theyunderestimatetheextenttowhichtodays capitalismhassuccessfully(intheshorttermatleast)privatisedthegeneralintellectitself,as wellastheextenttowhich,morethanthebourgeoisie,workersthemselvesarebecoming superfluous(withgreaterandgreaternumbersbecomingnotjusttemporarilyunemployedbut structurallyunemployable). Iftheoldcapitalismideallyinvolvedanentrepreneurwhoinvested(hisownorborrowed) moneyintoproductionthatheorganisedandran,andthenreapedtheprofitfromit,anewideal typeisemergingtoday:nolongertheentrepreneurwhoownshiscompany,buttheexpert manager(oramanagerialboardpresidedoverbyaCEO)whorunsacompanyownedby banks(alsorunbymanagerswhodontownthebank)ordispersedinvestors.Inthisnewideal typeofcapitalism,theoldbourgeoisie,renderednon-functional,isrefunctionalisedassalaried management:themembersofthenewbourgeoisiegetwages,andeveniftheyownpartof theircompany,earnstocksaspartoftheirremuneration(bonusesfortheirsuccess). Thisnewbourgeoisiestillappropriatessurplusvalue,butinthe(mystified)formofwhathas beencalledsurpluswage:theyarepaidrathermorethantheproletarianminimumwage(an oftenmythicpointofreferencewhoseonlyrealexampleintodaysglobaleconomyisthewage ofasweatshopworkerinChinaorIndonesia),anditisthisdistinctionfromcommon proletarianswhichdeterminestheirstatus.Thebourgeoisieintheclassicsensethustendsto disappear:capitalistsreappearasasubsetofsalariedworkers,asmanagerswhoare qualifiedtoearnmorebyvirtueoftheircompetence(whichiswhypseudo-scientific

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evaluationiscrucial:itlegitimisesdisparities).Farfrombeinglimitedtomanagers,the categoryofworkersearningasurpluswageextendstoallsortsofexperts,administrators, publicservants,doctors,lawyers,journalists,intellectualsandartists.Thesurplustakestwo forms:moremoney(formanagersetc),butalsolessworkandmorefreetime(forsome intellectuals,butalsoforstateadministratorsetc). Theevaluativeprocedureusedtodecidewhichworkersreceiveasurpluswageisan arbitrarymechanismofpowerandideology,withnoseriouslinktoactualcompetence;the surpluswageexistsnotforeconomicbutforpoliticalreasons:tomaintainamiddleclassfor thepurposeofsocialstability.Thearbitrarinessofsocialhierarchyisnotamistake,butthe wholepoint,withthearbitrarinessofevaluationplayingananalogousroletothearbitrariness ofmarketsuccess.Violencethreatenstoexplodenotwhenthereistoomuchcontingencyin thesocialspace,butwhenonetriestoeliminatecontingency.InLaMarquedusacr, Jean-PierreDupuyconceiveshierarchyasoneoffourprocedures(dispositifssymboliques) whosefunctionistomaketherelationshipofsuperioritynon-humiliating:hierarchyitself(an externallyimposedorderthatallowsmetoexperiencemylowersocialstatusasindependent ofmyinherentvalue);demystification(theideologicalprocedurewhichdemonstratesthat societyisnotameritocracybuttheproductofobjectivesocialstruggles,enablingmetoavoid thepainfulconclusionthatsomeoneelsessuperiorityistheresultofhismeritand achievements);contingency(asimilarmechanism,bywhichwecometounderstandthatour positiononthesocialscaledependsonanaturalandsociallottery;theluckyonesarethose bornwiththerightgenesinrichfamilies);andcomplexity(uncontrollableforceshave unpredictableconsequences;forinstance,theinvisiblehandofthemarketmayleadtomy failureandmyneighbourssuccess,evenifIworkmuchharderandammuchmore intelligent).Contrarytoappearances,thesemechanismsdontcontestorthreatenhierarchy, butmakeitpalatable,sincewhattriggerstheturmoilofenvyistheideathattheother deserveshisgoodluckandnottheoppositeideawhichistheonlyonethatcanbeopenly expressed.Dupuydrawsfromthispremisetheconclusionthatitisagreatmistaketothink thatareasonablyjustsocietywhichalsoperceivesitselfasjustwillbefreeofresentment:on thecontrary,itisinsuchsocietiesthatthosewhooccupyinferiorpositionswillfindanoutlet fortheirhurtprideinviolentoutburstsofresentment. ConnectedtothisistheimpassefacedbytodaysChina:theidealgoalofDengsreformswas tointroducecapitalismwithoutabourgeoisie(sinceitwouldformthenewrulingclass);now, however,Chinasleadersaremakingthepainfuldiscoverythatcapitalismwithoutthesettled hierarchyenabledbytheexistenceofabourgeoisiegeneratespermanentinstability.Sowhat pathwillChinatake?FormerCommunistsgenerallyareemergingasthemostefficient managersofcapitalismbecausetheirhistoricalenmitytowardsthebourgeoisieasaclass

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perfectlyfitsthetendencyoftodayscapitalismtobecomeamanagerialcapitalismwithouta bourgeoisieinbothcases,asStalinputitlongago,cadresdecideeverything.(An interestingdifferencebetweentodaysChinaandRussia:inRussia,universityteachersare ridiculouslyunderpaidtheyaredefactoalreadypartoftheproletariatwhileinChinathey areprovidedwithacomfortablesurpluswagetoguaranteetheirdocility.) Thenotionofsurpluswagealsothrowsnewlightonthecontinuinganti-capitalistprotests.In timesofcrisis,theobviouscandidatesforbelt-tighteningarethelowerlevelsofthesalaried bourgeoisie:politicalprotestistheironlyrecourseiftheyaretoavoidjoiningtheproletariat. Althoughtheirprotestsarenominallydirectedagainstthebrutallogicofthemarket,theyarein effectprotestingaboutthegradualerosionoftheir(politically)privilegedeconomicplace.Ayn RandhasafantasyinAtlasShruggedofstrikingcreativecapitalists,afantasythatfindsits pervertedrealisationintodaysstrikes,mostofwhichareheldbyasalariedbourgeoisie drivenbyfearoflosingtheirsurpluswage.Thesearenotproletarianprotests,butprotests againstthethreatofbeingreducedtoproletarians.Whodaresstriketoday,whenhavinga permanentjobisitselfaprivilege?Notlow-paidworkersin(whatremainsof)thetextile industryetc,butthoseprivilegedworkerswhohaveguaranteedjobs(teachers,public transportworkers,police).Thisalsoaccountsforthewaveofstudentprotests:theirmain motivationisarguablythefearthathighereducationwillnolongerguaranteethemasurplus wageinlaterlife. Atthesametimeitisclearthatthehugerevivalofprotestoverthepastyear,fromtheArab SpringtoWesternEurope,fromOccupyWallStreettoChina,fromSpaintoGreece,should notbedismissedmerelyasarevoltofthesalariedbourgeoisie.Eachcaseshouldbetakenon itsownmerits.ThestudentprotestsagainstuniversityreformintheUKwereclearlydifferent fromAugustsriots,whichwereaconsumeristcarnivalofdestruction,atrueoutburstofthe excluded.OnecouldarguethattheuprisingsinEgyptbeganinpartasarevoltofthesalaried bourgeoisie(witheducatedyoungpeopleprotestingabouttheirlackofprospects),butthis wasonlyoneaspectofalargerprotestagainstanoppressiveregime.Ontheotherhand,the protestdidntreallymobilisepoorworkersandpeasantsandtheIslamistselectoralvictory makesclearthenarrowsocialbaseoftheoriginalsecularprotest.Greeceisaspecialcase: inthelastdecades,anewsalariedbourgeoisie(especiallyintheover-extendedstate administration)wascreatedthankstoEUfinancialhelp,andtheprotestsweremotivatedin largepartbythethreatofanendtothis. Theproletarianisationofthelowersalariedbourgeoisieismatchedattheoppositeextremeby theirrationallyhighremunerationoftopmanagersandbankers(irrationalsince,as investigationshavedemonstratedintheUS,ittendstobeinverselyproportionaltoa companyssuccess).Ratherthansubmitthesetrendstomoralisingcriticism,weshouldread

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themassignsthatthecapitalistsystemisnolongercapableofself-regulatedstabilityit threatens,inotherwords,torunoutofcontrol.
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Vol.34No.226January2012SlavojiekTheRevoltoftheSalariedBourgeoisie(print version) pages9-10|2422words

ISSN0260-9592CopyrightLRBLtd.,1997-2012 ^Top

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