Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1978.

10: 301-32
Copyright 1978 by Annual Review.' Inc. All rights reserved
RELATIVISTIC FLUID
MECHANICS
A. H. Taub
Mathematics Department, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720
INTRODUCTION
1 Introductory Survey
=8126
Pre-relativity fuid mechanics may be characterized as a theory that describes the
state of a fuid by means of fve functions of at most four independent variables.
The latter variables are of two kinds: three variables determining a point in a three
dimensional Euclidean space and a fourth one labeling absolute time on some
standard universal clock. The fve functions, the dependent variables of the theory,
are also of two kinds: three of them are kinematic variables, vi (i = 1,2,3), the
components of the velocity vector feld of the fuid in some coordinate system, and
two of them are thermodynamic variables, for example the pressure p and the density
p of the fuid. From a knowledge of such variables all other thermodynamic variables,
such as temperature T, specifc internal energy e, and specifc entropy S may be
calculated. Indeed the nature of the fluid being considered may be described by the
functional dependence of e as a function of p and p.
The dependent variables are determined as the solution of fve conservation
equations. In a Cartesian coordinate system these are: the conservation of mass,
p, + (pVi).i = 0,
the conversation of momentum,
and the conservation of energy,
pE,+viE,i = (yvj+hi),
i
'
where we have used the following notations: the summation convention, j; = a flat,
fi
= of/ax',
yii
=
Ti
j
=
-(P+
Vtl8ij+'1(Vi,j+Vj,i)'

= ', ' is the coefcient of viscosity,
E = 1vivjbij+ e, hi AT,i,
and ), is the heat conductivity.
0066-4189/78/0115-0301$01.00
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Quick links to online content
Further
ANNUAL
REVIEWS
302 TAUB
The fve conservation equations given above are invariant under a ten-parameter
group that is generated by the six-parameter group of Euclidean motions:
with the a
i
arbitrary and the a} the coefcients of a 3 x 3 orthogonal matrix, the
time translations:
t' = t+T,
with T arbitrary, and the Galilean transformations:
with the bi arbitrary constants. That is, pre-relativity fuid mechanics satisfes the
principle of Newtonian relativity.
Relativistic fuid dynamics is also a theory involving fve dependent functions
that describe the state of the fuid, three of them kinematic variables and two
thermodynamic ones. However, the independent variables, which are still four in
number, do not refer to a point in a three-dimensional Euclidean space and
absolute time but instead determine a point (called an event) in a four-dimensional
continuum denoted as space-time. This is a space with an indefnite metric with a
signature that we shall take to be (-+ + +).
In special relativity, space-time is
called Mrnkowski space, and it is characterized by the fact that there exist co
ordinate systems, inertial ones, in which the distance between the events with
coordinates (t,x,y,z) and (t+dt,x+dx,y+dy,z+dz) is given by
ds
2
^
-c2
dt
2
+d
r
+dy
2
+d
z2.
We may write this equation as
ds2 = 'v dx

dx",
where /, v = 0, 1, 2, 3,
1v = bv'2bb,
X
O
= ct, X
l
= X, x2 = y, x3 = z, and the summation convection is being used.
The group of transformations that carry inertial coordinate systems into inertial
ones is the ten-parameter Poincare group consisting of transformations of the form
where a

are constants and the constants Iv form a 4 x 4 Lorentz matrix such that
The fve conservation laws characterizing special relativistic fuid mechanics are
invariant under this group.
In a general coordinate system arising from an inertial one by a transformation

(ct, X,
y
,
z) =

(x)
,
/ = 0, 1, 2, 3,
with an inverse
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xl = x"(),
we have
ds2 = g"
v
d1 de
with
oxU
a
x'
g"
v
= l
u
, a

" a

v'
RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 303
(1.1)
In this general coordinate system the Christofel symbols are
r
zv t
gU
'(
g
,,,.v+
g
,v.l'-
g
,,v.,
)
i
0 ( 1.2)
where
(1.3)
However, the Riemann curvature tensor
(1.4)
i.e., Minkowski space is fat and in a sense is an absolute space-time independent
of its content.
General-relativistic fuid mechanics difers from that of special relativity in that
the independent variables of the conservation equations refer to a curved space
time. The metric tensor of this space-time is interpreted as being due to the
presence of a gravitational feld whose source is determined by various physical
felds such as electromagnetic ones, or in some cases by the self-gravitating fuid
whose motion is being studied. If one neglects the gravitational feld due to fuid
whose motion is being determined, one is said to be dealing with the motion of a
test fuid. Thus in general relativistic fuid mechanics there are two types of problems:
(1) to determine the motion of a test fuid in a given external gravitational feld and
(2) to determine the gravitational feld due to the presence of a self-gravitating
fuid (and other felds) and to determine simultaneously the !Totion of the fuid
(and the state of the other felds that may be present).
In the latter type of problems one must determine the state of the fuid and the
gravitational felds by solving the so-called Einstein feld equations. These are
described below.
KINEMATICS
2 Comoving Coordinates
In this and in the immediately following sections we shall discuss some geometrical
properties of submanifolds of a space-time. Much of our discussion will not depend
on whether or not the space-time is a fat one. We shall assume that we are
dealing with a general coordinate system with coordinate labels x"(p = 0,1,2,3) in
which the line element is given by
(2.1)
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304 TAUB
In such a coordinate system the four equations
x = xl'(w)
(2.2)
represent a curve, with w a parameter that labels an event on the curve. The tangent
vector to this curve is given by
dx
v=-.
dw
The value of the quantity
(2.)
determines the nature of the curve: If V

V
I
' < 0, the curve is time like, if V
I
' v = 0
it is null, and if V

v > 0 it is spacelike. The particle paths of a fuid in motion
are described by timelike curves. Light rays travel on null curves. Particle paths
are also called world-lines of particles.
For such a curve the parameter ( may always be chosen so that
V

VIL=_1.
In that case w is often replaced by the letter s and called the proper time along
the world-line.
The timelike curves representing the particle paths of a region of the fuid
determine a normalized vector field UI' called the four-velocity vector, which is a
function of events in space-time. In the coordinate system used above we have
and the solutions of the diferentia I equations
dx"
-= u(x)
ds
describe the world-lines of the fuid "particles."
We may write the solutions of Equations (2.5) as

.
x" = x"('; s)
.
where
xg = x(i; 0)
(2.4)
(2.5)
(2.6)
are required to be the parametric equations of a hypersurface , the initial hyper
surface on which the particles are located at proper time s = o. The four variables

i
, s, which we shall denote as ", form a comoving coordinate system in space
time. They are similar to Lagrangian coordinates of pre-relativity hydrodynamics,
but the initial hypersurface L need not be the hypersurface t " 0 even in the case
the space-time is Minkowski space and the x coordinates are inertial ones.
Under the transformation
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 305
X*4 = X*4(i, s),
the equation of the initial hypersurface s = 0 becomes
X*4 = X*4(X*i; 0).
The x
*

are general comoving coordinates. Equations (2.5) are then to be under
stood as
ax

T = u

(x(x*)),
where in the partial diferentiation the X
i
are kept constant, for when these variables
are fxed a particular world-line is selected.
In the general comoving coordinate system we have the components of the four
velocity vector given bv
Hence
(2.7)
where
g
:
v
are the components of the metric tensor in the comoving coordinate
system.
3 Transport of Vector Fields Along Curves
A vector feld with components v defned along a curve y with tangent vector u

is said to undergo parallel transport along y if it satisfes the equation
(3. 1 )
where we have used the semicolon to denote the covariant derivative with respect to
the metric
g

, of space-time, that is, r< is defned by Equation (1.2). Curves that

satisfy
(3.2)
are geodesics.
Vector felds that satisfy the equations
V

= Vu(u

a
U
-au1
(3.3)
are said to undergo Fermi-Walker transport. It is a consequence of the defnition
of a# and the fact that the covariant derivative of the metric tensor vanishes that
u

a

^ O.
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306 TAU
Hence the tangent vector u to a curve undergoes Fermi-Walker transport, i.e.
satisfies Equations (3.3). It will not undergo parallel transport, i.e. satisfy Equation
(3.1), unless the curve is a geodesic.
A set of four vectors At.) (I " 0, 1,2,3) that" satisfy the equations
(3.4)
with
Y(
a
)(p) t
a
p
-2
tt8
(3.5)
is said to form an orthonormal tetrad. We may construct such a tetrad along a
curve r by choosing a solution of the above equations at an event of the curve
with parameter value 5 = 50 and with
Afo)(so)
= u

(
so
)
and then transport the tetrad to the event with parameter value s by Fermi
Walker transport. Such a tetrad contains an orthonormal triad Aiu) (a = 1,2,3)
orthogonal to r. This forms a "spatial frame of reference" for an observer whose
world-line is r, and this frame of reference is the relativistic generalization of the
Newtonian concept of a "nonrotating frame."
The tensor
(36)
projecs an arbitrary vector in space-time into one orthogonal to u, for
(3.7
)
We also have
(3.8)
In addition
(3.9)
may be interpreted as the metric in the three-dimensional space orthogonal to the
vector u(x) at the event x.
The components of the four vectors },f.
)
form a 4 x 4 matrix. We shall denote
by
A
a
)
the elements of the inverse matrix. That is
and
}
,
r.)
A
)
=
,.
It may be verife that when }') = ul, then }
,
O) ^
-Uw Thus
and the sm on the left is carried out over a = 1,2,3.
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 307
4 Surfaces in Space- Time
We have seen that the four-velocity vector feld u defnes a three-parameter family
of curves passing through a hypersurface L in space-time as solutions of the
equations
dx
-= u"(x).
ds
When the solutions are written as
the equations
x

= x(i; 0)
(i = 1, 2, 3),
are the parametric equations of L.
If in L we have a curve described by the equations
i

t
r),
then the equations obtained from (4.1) by substitution from (4.2), namely
x# = x"(

i(r),s) * xi(r,s),
(4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)
defne a two-dimensional surface ( in space-time. If the curve given by Equations
(4.2) is a closed curve, the two-dimensional surface is called a tube.
The vector field
axi
},I=
_
ih
is tangent to the curves of parameter T II the surface. It is a consequence of
Equations (4.3) that
aA# aul
as ar
(4.4)
The events on ( labeled by constant values of T lie on curves on the congruence
given by Equations (4.1). Thus events on the world-line T and on the world-line
r +dT represent neighboring particle paths with a displacement vector given by A".
The scalars
(a = 1,2, 3), (4.5)
where AI
U
) are the spacelike vectors of an orthonormal tetrad, may be considered
as the spatial coordinates" of the vector A relative to the world-line r.
When one assumes that the Ala) undergo Fermi-Walker transport one may show
by diferentiating Equation (4.5) with respect to s and using Equations (3.3) and
(4.4) that
(4.6)
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308 TAUB
where
and
uu;
,
denotes the covariant derivative of the four-velocity vector field.
We may decompose
uu
;
,
by using the projection operator
h
as follows:
where
2( (
=
(u
#;v
+ Uv;#
)hdh -%8hu"
2(u, = uu;,+u,;u+auu,+a,uu-i8hu"
(4.7)
(4.8)
(4.9)
where the comma denotes the ordinary derivatives. It is a consequence of the
defnition of r _ and Wur that
(4.10)
Equations (4.6) are the equations of motion in Cartesian coordinates of a
continuum undergoing linear deformation. Thus for an observer traveling along
the world-line labeled by T, and using Fermi-Walker propagated axes, w
#
v>(
#
v> and
8
describe respectively the velocity of rotation, shear, and expansion of the cloud
of neighboring particles, and au
describes the acceleration.
The vector
(4.11)
where + 9 is the determinant of the metric tensor and f
u
' is the Levi Civita
alternating tensor density, is the angular velocity in the infnitesimal rest space of
such an observer. (J)
#
is sometimes referred to as the vorticity vector. We have
W
#
u
#
= O.
The condition
W
#
- 0
is the necessary and sufcient condition that
u
#
p
J:#,
(4.12)
where p and f are scalar functions. In this case u
#
is proportional to the normal
to the hypersurface
f(x) = constant.
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5 Wave Velocity
The equation
4(XO,Xt, X
2
,X3) 0
RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 30
(
5.1)
defnes a hyper surface L in space-time, i.e. a three-dimensional space. This equation
together with the equation
Xo = constant
determines a surface, a two-dimensional space (, in space-time. Thus L may be
regarded as the history of (, the set of world-lines swept out by ( as Xu varies.
The normal to L is given by 4
,

, and it may be written as

(5.2)
where Ull is the tangent vector to the world-line of an observer u evaluated at a
point ofL,
(5.3)
and
Hence
(5.4)
The vector W

determines L's spatial direction of propagation, with respect to the
observer u. We further write
w

= (w
p
wp)j/
2
t

and have
The vector
v
k " u

- - t

c
will represent a displacement in L if
k

4
,

= o.
(5.5)
If v is such that this condition is satisfed, then v is the wave velocity of surfaces
( as measured by the observer u. It is a consequence of the above equations that
v uP4.

c [(g

V +u

uV)4
,

4
,
v
Jl/2'
Thus
(5.6)
(5
.
7
)
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31 TAUB
Hence v2 c2 if and only if
g
''"r,

r,v 0, i.e.
,
the normal is spacelike or null, or
equivalently, L is timelike or null. If is timelike we may introduce a unit normal
n

^ pr,

with n

n

^ 1 and then
v u

n"
c [1 + (u

)
2] 1/2
and
6 Symmetries
For each value of the parameter a, the four equations of the form
x*

= r

(x; a)
(5.8)
(5.9)
(
6.1)
defne a mapping of space-time that sends the event x

into the event x*

. When
these equations are solutions of the equations
dx*

--; =

(x*),
where
the transformations defned by Equation (6.1) form a one-parameter group said to be
generated by the vector feld
'

.
A space-time with metric g

v
is invariant under such a group, i.e. admits the
group of motions, if and only if the Killing equations
are satisfed, where

= g

vC,
(6. 2)
and as before, the semicolon denotes the covariant derivative with respect to
g

v'
Tensor felds are invariant under the group if their Lie derivatives with respect to

vanish. These derivatives are defned as
fT

l",: :n - ;PT

l.
'
'''''::
p
s
Thus for example for a scalar function we have
f
f
=
fp

P;

(6.3)
(6.4)
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 311
for a vector feld uP we have
2u" =
P
U
-
U
P

p
;

and for a covariant tensor
2
w
pv =
P
w
pv;p+
w
pv

fp+
w
P
P

fv'

Note that if w
pv
= -w
vp
we may write
!wpv = (Pwpv);" - (,"wp");v -,"(w"V;
P
+ w
vp;
p
+ w
P
";v)'

Hence
2w
pv
= (
Pw
p
v
);
p-(Pwpp
l;
v
,
"
when
The latter equations are the conditions that ensure that locally
Wpv =
"v;p-"p;v
=
"v,P-"P.v
for a vector feld ",.
(6.5)
(6.6)
When thc vcctor feld

p
is the four-velocity feld, the world-lines of the fuid fow
arc thc orbits of thc group motion. If the fow is invariant under this group, the fow
is stationary,
7 U selul Formulae
We close the discussion of kinematics with a collection of useful equations involving
the parts of the covariant derivatives of the [our-velocity vector. We defne
(7.1 )
It is then a consequence of the defnition of '
a
P,. and the properties of the Levi
Civita alternating tensors that
(7.2)
and
(7.3)
where the quantity on the right of this equation is the generalized Kronecker delta.
It is then a consequence of Equations (4. 1 1) that
(7.4)
and hence
!r(l)VW
u
rW/V = 0,
(7.5)
(Ju"wt
p
= ()
p
(J(1 -h()
a
()
a
'
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312 TAUB
It also follows that
and that
SPECIAL-RELATIVISTIC FLUID DYNAMICS
8 The Stress-Energy Tensor
(7.6)
(7.7)
In relativistic theories, fuids and other material continua are described by the
four-velocity vector feld uP and by a second-order symmetric tensor Tpv known as
the stress-energy tensor of the medium. In terms of an orthonormal tetrad Ai.)
(I = 0, 1,2,3) with Aio)
=
uP we may defne
-1i4) " -14;) = - TpvAi;)u
v
144) = TpvuPu
v
.
(i,j
" 1 , 2, 3), (8. 1)
The six independent quantities - 1;J) determine the (rest) stress tensor as measured
by an observer moving on a world-line whose tangent vector is uP (i.e. at rest with
respect to the medium) and using Ai) as spatial axes. The three quantities -1i4) =
-14
i
) give the (rest) density of three-momentum measured by this observer. The
scalar 144) gives the (rest) density of energy measured by this observer. The adjective
"rest" is used to replace the phrase "as measured by the observer with velocity u
p
."
Any stress-energy tensor may be written as
(8.2)
where
(8.3)
where as before
u"up = -1.
Hence
(8.4)
In the following we shall use the decomposition of the stress-energy tensor of a
fuid given by Equations (8.2). There is another decomposition based on the proper
value and proper vectors of the stress-energy tensor, i.e. on the A and X
P
satisfying
the equations
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 31 3
As Synge (1956) has shown, i f Tl
v
i s such that
for all non-space like Vl, then there exists a timelikc proper vector of T,. This vector
is used by some authors for the "mean velocity vector" of the medium. In the case of
a heat-conducting fuid, this is the defnition used in the Landau-Lifshitz treatment
(Landau & Lifshitz 1959), whereas the one based on Equation (8.2) is that given by
Eckart (1940).
It should be noted that as a consequence of Equation (8.2) we have
T,uV = -(wul:wl).
Hence when wJ = 0, u
J
is a proper vector with proper value -w. In this case the
Landau-Lifshitz and the Eckart approaches coincide.
The stress-energy tensor of a fuid when written as in Equation (8.2) is such that
in units when the special-relativistic velocity of light is taken to be one,
w " p(1 +e),
w
J
" -I(
h

('u+ Tau), (8.5)

w
JV
(p-c{)hJv -216JV>
where e, a
J
' and (
JV
are all given in terms of the velocity vector UJ as in Section 4
above; and I are the coefcients of viscosity; I is the coefcient of thermal
conductivity (I, , and I are generally taken to be non-negative); p is the rest mass
density; F is the rest specifc internal energy of the fuid; p is the pressure; and T
is the absolute temperature.
This description of a relativistic fuid may be justifed in terms of relativistic
kinetic theory, i.e. by describing the medium as a collection of particles undergoing
collisions and described by a distribution function satisfying the relativistic
generalization of the Boltzmann equation. A summary of this theory may be found
in the article by Ehlers (1971).
In Newtonian theory, kinetic theory and the Boltzmann equation lead one to a
better understanding of the conservation laws describing the behavior of fuids, and
to an interpretation of the laws of thermodynamics. The same role is played by
relativistic kinetic theory.
In the subsequent discussion we shall not take up that theory but describe the
behavior of the fuid in macroscopic terms using the conservation laws and the
relativistic formulation of the laws of thermodynamics.
It is to be noted, however, that knowledge of the distrihution function enables
one to calculate thermodynamic variables such as p,
p
, e, T and rest specifc entropy
S as functions of two of these variables.
For a general distribution function, Taub (1948) has shown that
(8.6)
Thus for a relativistic fuid its caloric equation of state is restricted by the above
inequalities. These restrictions in turn imply that the velocity of sound and the
velocities of shock waves are less than the velocity of light.
A
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314 TAUB
In pre-relativity theory the internal energy for a perfect gas is given by
1
s
=
-
l
P
/
P
,
y-
where y is a constant equal to the ratio of the specifc heats of the gas. Relativistic
kinetic theory implies that for a perfect gas e is a function of the temperature
alone; however, when it is written in the above form y is no longer a constant.
The inequalities (8.6) imply that one must have
y < 5/3.
Synge (1957) has shown that for a relativistic perfect gas we must have
w+p = p(1+e+p/p) = pG(x),
px = p,
xT= k,
G(x) = K
3
(x)/K
z
(x)
,
e
-k(S-So)
= pL(x) = pxL(x)
,
log
L(x) = -xG(x) -log

where k is a constant related to the Boltzmann constant and So

is a constant. The
units are chosen so that c, the velocity of light in Minkowski space, is one, and the
Kn(x) are Bessel functions given by
Kn(x) = exp ( -x cosh I) cosh nI dI.
For x large (low temperatures) we have
5
G(x) = 1 +
:
x+ ... ,
(
2
)
1/2
L(x) = X3/2 ;
n
for x small (high temperatures)
4
G(x) =-+ ...
,
x
1
-4
3
L(x) =:e x + ....
9 Conservation Laws
The equations describing the motion of a relativistic fuid are given by the fve
conservation laws
(9.1)
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 315
and
TV = o. (9.2)
Equation (9.1) is known as the conservation-of-mass equation. The four equations
contained in Equations (9.2) are combinations of the equations that reduce in the
pre-relativity theory to the equations of conservation of energy and of momentum.
We study Equations (9.2) by projecting them along the direction of the velocity
vector u
#
and along the directions perpendicular to this vector.
It is a consequence of Equations (9.2) that
(9.3)
If as in pre-relativity theory we relate the temperature T and the rest specifc entropy
S to internal energy, pressure, and density by the equation
T dS " de+ p d ,
we may use Equations (9.1), (9.4), (8.5), and (4.8) to write Equation (9.3) as
where S# is the entropy current vector,
w#
S# pSu# +-.
T
(9.4)
(9.5)
(9.6)
The inequality (9.5) expresses the second law of thermodynamics for relativistic
fuids. The kinetic theory description of the fuid leads to the defnition of thermo
dynamic equilibrium as that state of the fuid for which
S
#
= O.
In that case we must have
For a perfect fuid for which
e
=
Y
= K = 0,
it follows from Equations (9. 1), (9.5), and (9.6) that
p
TS.
#
u# o.
(9.7)
(9.8)
(9.9)
That is, rest specifc entropy is conserved along the world-lines of the fuid. This
result restates the laws of conservation of mass and of components of the stress
energy tensor with the conservation of rest entropy. A similar result is well
-known
in prerelativity fuid mechanics.
We may write the stress-energy tensor of the viscous, heat-conducting fuid as
T#V = Tr-Tr"+ T, f
v
,
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316
TAUB
where T;:V is the stress-energy tensor for a perfect fuid,
Tt" = (w
+p)
u
V+pgV;
TIV represents the viscous stresses, namely
TIP = eh

v + 2'(v ;
and T,;
v
represents the energy momentum associated with the heat fow
It is a consequence of the defnitions given above that the conservation equation
may be written as
(w+p)a"= -h"vp.v+fi-f;,
where
and these two vectors respectively represent the forces due to the viscous stresses
and to the heat fow.
10 Stationarity and Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A fuid body and the space-time in which it moves are said to be stationary if the
velocity vector u

, the thermodynamic variables p, p, etc, and the metric tensor are

invariant under a one-dimensional fxed-point free group of transformations of
space-time into itself with timelike orbits. In particular, the metric tensor g

v
and the
entropy current vector S have zero Lie derivatives along '1, the timelike vector
feld tangent to the orbits of the group motions. As is shown by Ehlers, it follows
from Stokes' theorem,
, s

ndv= ,S

(
_
g)1
/Z
d4X, (10.1)
aD D
the relativistic form of the second law of thermodynamics, and the group invariance
that stationarity implies
(10.2)
The proof involves choosing D to be a domain in space-time bounded by two
space like hypersurfaces L
l
and L
z
and a timelike hyper surface B. The latter hyper
surface is taken to be invariant under the group, and g(L
l
) = L
z
for some element g
of the group. It is further assumed that the fuid is adiabatically isolated in that there
is no entropy fux through B (which may be at infnity).
Lindblom (1976) has further shown that if a general-relativistic fuid, having non-
A
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 317
zero coefcients of viscosity and heat conduction, is in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium, then the equation of state of the fuid is barotropic and the ratio of the
four-velocity of the fuid to the temperature is a Killing vector feld.
If the Killing vector feld '

, which characterizes the space-time as a stationary

one, satisfes
then then: exist scalars I and / such that
'1
=
1
/
.1
and the vector 11 is proportional to the normal to the spacelike hypersurfaces
f ^ constant
.
In this case the space-time is said to be a static one.
(10.3)
A theorem due to Lichnerowicz (1955) and generalized by Carter (1972) implies
that '
1
will be linearly independent of ul whenever '1 does not satisfy (10.3). That
is, in a stationary but nonstatic space-time where the source of the gravitational
feld is a fuid, there are two independent time like Killing vectors present, one of
which is proportional to the four-velocity of the fuid.
11 Perfect Fluid
A fuid for which the coefcient of thermal conductivity K and the coefcients of
viscosity ( and ' vanish, i.e. one for which
K =
= ' = 0,
is said to be a perfect fuid. For such a fuid we have
or
T"" PllU"U"+pgl",
where
p
is the rest density, p is the pressure, and
w+p
It = l+s+p/p =
p
(11.1)
(11.2)
in units where tre velocity of light is taken to be unity and s is the rest specifc
internal energy. It is a function of two thermodynamic variables, say p and
p
. The
caloric equation of state is given by this functional dependence:
s si
p
,
p
l
.
As a function of these variables it must be such that the velocity of sound in the fuid
is less than that of light. If the fluid has a kinetic-theory description from which the
macroscopic variables given above may be determined, then it must satisfy the
inequalities (8.6).
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318 TAUB
The conservation equations satisfed by the variables describing the state of the
fuid are the conservation of mass,
(pu' " 0,
and the conservation of energy-momentum,
rev = o.
The latter equations may be written as
pTu

S. = 0,
and as
(w+ p)a" = P.vhv",
asJollows from the discussion in Section 9.
(11.3)
(11.4)
( 11.5)
(11.6)
Barotropic fows in relativistic hydrodynamics are described as follows: The fuid
motion is such that an equation of state of.the form
w= w(p) (11.7)
holds throughout the fuid and during the motion. The equations governing the
motion are then the Equations (11.4). These four equations, Equations (11.6), and the
normalization equations
(11.8)
serve to determine the state of the fuid if one is given the initial state. Equations
(11.3) and (11.5) do not hold. However, it is a consequence of Equations (11.3), (11.7),
and (11.8) that
(su

); = 0
where the thermodynamic variable s is defned by the equation
ds
dw
s d+p
Equations (11.6) are replaced by
where

w+p
, Q=log -s- .
(11.9)
(11.10)
(11.11)
(11.12)
An example of barotropic fow is provided by isentropic fow, in which case S is
constant. Then Equation (11.5) is identically satisfed. It may be verifed that s = p
satisfes Equation (11.10) in this case, and further Equations (11.9) and (11.3) become
identical.
We defne
w+p
, V

= -
p
- u

(11.13)
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 319
in case Equations (11.3) and (11.7) obtain, and
w+
p
V= u
s
in the barotropic case. It may be readily verifed that
satisfies
in the frst case and
(11.14)
( 1 1. 15)
(11.16)
(11.17)
in the second one. Further, Equations (11.16) and (11.17) are respectively equivalent
to (11.5) and (11.11).
We further defne
These equations imply that
Hence
In view of Equations (11.16) we have
Qap
=
-vluYI

l.aP+ T(upS,a-US,p)
.
When Equations (11 . 1 7) obtain,
We may write
(11.18)
(11.19)
(11.20)
(11.21)
where ( = P when P is given by (11.13) and ( = s when it is given by (11.14). If
I is a Killing vector feld, that is whcn
1;v
+
V;"
= 0,
we have as a consequence of ( l 1.3) or (11.9)
(TIV);v

(uvH;v =
with
H = vw
(11.22)
(11.23)
That is, H is constant along world-lines of the fuid and H ( is conserved during the
fow.
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320 TAU
In the coordinate system in which P = bg, i.e. P is the tangent vector to the
curves of parameter x
o
, Equation (11.23) becomes
H = V
o
= (Uo
= constant
along the world-lines of the fuid. It may vary from world-line to world-line. Taub
(1959) has shown that in a weak gravitational feld with a Newtonian potential V
the latter equation may be written as
q2
( + " + V = constant, (11
.
24)
in the approximation in which powers of l/e higher than the second are neglected,
where
2 90l
go
vI _
q = gpv- -- U U
goo
and
goo
=1+2V.
Equation (11.24) is the usual form of the Bernoulli equation.
The results stated above enable one to give the relativistic generalization of the
notion of circulation and Bernoulli's theorem. Let
defne a tube in space-time (cf Section 4), where for fxed r and variable s we have a
world-line of the fuid and for fxed s and variable r we have a closed curve such that
We also have
The integral given by
C(s) V"AP dr (11.25)
is the relativistic circulation. It is a consequence of Stokes' theorem that the
necessary and sufcient condition for
C(s) = 0
for tubes defne by the vector feld uP by means of arbitrary initial surfaces and
arbitrary curves in this surface is that
(11.26)
In view of Equation (11.19), this condition is equivalent to the requirement that the
fow be such that
vI = 0 and S.1 = O.
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 321
The frst of these equations is the statement that the fow be irrotational (i.e. O", = 0)
and the second is the statement that the fow be isentropic.
When Equation (11.26) holds, we may write
8R
v
=
,
jx
(11.27)
for some scalar function R. Taub (1959) has further shown that for irrotational
isentropic fow in a weak gravitational field with a Newtonian potential V, Equations
(11.27) imply that
w
+
p
I 2
8R
+
V
+zq

p
8x
(11.28)
in the same approximation as was used above. Equation (11.28) is the classical
form of the Bernoulli equation for a nonsteady irrotational isentropic flow in a
gravitational feld with potential V.
It follows from Equation (11.25), the defnition of C(s), that
d
d
C
=

,
2
"
Q
"
U

A
"
dr

-,T
S
.
"
A
"
dr
s
0
as follows from Equations (11.16). Hence, a necessary and sufcient condition that
dC/ds ^ 0 for tubes defned by the vector feld u and arbitrary initial surfaces and
arbitrary curves in this surface is that
(TS,pl;
v
-
(TS,
v
);p
= 0,
i.e. that the fow be barotropic.
12 Examples of Special Relativistic Flows
In this section we shall discuss two fuid-dynamic problems in special relativity.
Thus the fuid motion takes place in a preassigned space-time, namely Minkowski
space-time, and gravitational efects are ignored. The problems we shall treat are
1. the one-dimensional isentropic motion of a perfect fuid and 2. the stationary,
axisymmetric motion of a relativistically incompressible fuid.
We shall describe the frst problem in inertial coordinates in Minkowski space
in which
(12.1)
All fuid variables are assumed to be functions of
Xl = x and Xo = t(c = 1), and
u2 = u3 = O. Then we may write
Equations (11.3) and (11.4) reduce to
[p(l-u2) -1/2], + [
p
u(l-u2)
-1/2]x = 0
and
(12.2)
(12.3)
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322 TAUB
where the subscripts t and x denote partial diferentiation with respect to these
variables.
We defne the variable quantity

'' '.
(12.4)
where f = (w+ pl/p and the diferentiation is taken with the entropy S constant,
and set

=
,

It follows that [cf Taub (1948)] Equations (12.3) may be written as

D+ [l = 0,
where
1 .
f +log -

l-u
[ =
-log -
1 + U
1
/2
l-u
and
(12.5)
(12.6)
(12.7)
(12.8)
Thus and S are the special relativistic analogues of the Riemann functions,
which occur in the classical theory of propagation of one-dimensional waves of
fnite amplitude.
Progressive waves are defned as in classical theory as those for which f and [
are constant. From consideration of such waves one concludes that is the velocity
of sound in units where the velocity of light is one. One further fnds that propagates
with a velocity that is an increasing function of . Thus, as in the classical case,
shock waves must occur. These will be discussed in the next section.
We now turn to the second example in which the fow will be taken to be
barotropic with
p
= w. (12.9)
For such a fow the velocity of sound is equal to the velocity of light, since
as given by Equation (12.4) is unity. Fluids for which the equation of state given
by Equation (12.9) holds are called extreme fuids or relativistically incompressible
ones. The quantity s defned by Equation (11.10) is
(12.10)
and hence
(w+p)/s " 2W1
/2 (12.11)
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 323
Hence Equation (11.9) becomes
1
(W
I/2
u
P
)
.
=
--
[
w
I/2
(
-g)
1/2
U
P
J =
0
.

(
_
g
)
1
/
2
.
p
and (11.17) becomes
Qpvuv = (Vv.
P
-
Vp.v)UV = 0,
where
(12.12)
( 1 2. 1 3)
( 12. 14)
Since we are assuming that the fow is stationary and axisymmetric there exist
two Killing vectors in Minkowski space, say and I, such that the Lie derivative
ofthe fuid variables with respect to these vectors vanishes. In spherical coordinates
in Minkowski space the line element becomes
d
s
2
= g

vdx"dxV = -dc2+dr2+r2(de2+sin
2 ed
r2),
with X
O
= t, X
l
= r, x2 =
e
, and x3 = r. In this coordinate system we may take
and all variables are required to be independent of t and r.
It follows from the results of Section 1 1 that
P
Vp = Vo = 2
w
i
/2
u
o = 2H
,
IVp = V3 = 2
Wij2 U3
= 2K,
where Hand K are constant along the world-lines of the fuid, i.e.
uVH.v = u"K.v = O.
Since in spherical coordinates
(
_
g)
1/
2
=
r2
sin 0,
it is a consequence of Equation (12.12) that
u
1 =
(
r2
sin
8w
I/2
)-II} 0 = Uh
(12.15)
( 12. 1 6)
(12.17)
(12.18)
where ' = '(r, 0) is the stream function and the subscripts denote partial diferentia
tion. Equations (12.17) imply
ui Hr+ u
2 Ho = ('oHr-'rHo)(r2 sin
2 tw1
/
2
)
-I
=
0
,
i.e.
H = H(')
and similarly
K = K(').
(12.19)
(12.2
0
)
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324 TAUB
Hence
u
3
= (r2
sin
2 8)-IU
3
= (w
1/ZrZ
sin
2
8
)-1
K.
The condition
g

vuuV -1
becomes

1

1
2)
w=H --( K +'"+2"'0.
rsm r
Equation (12.13) reduces to the single equation
sin ( ' 0
)
, , 2 2
'" + -
2
- -. -
8
+KK
=
HHr sm 8.
r sm(
(12.21)
(12.22)
(12.23)
Solutions to this equation for K
2
and HZ restricted to linear functions of ' have
been given by Pekeris (1976) in his discussion of the special-relativistic analogue
of Hicks' spherical vortex (Hicks 1899).
13 Shock Waves
The discussion of one-dimensional motion of a fuid in Minkowski space outlined
in the previous section and discussed in detail in Taub's 1948 paper shows that
shocks form from compressive motions just as in classical theory. When this
occurs Equations (11.3) and (11.4) cannot be applied at the shocks and must be
replaced by statements that relate the variables describing the fow of matter,
momentum, and energy across the shocks. These are the relativistic Rankine
Hugoniot equations. They are derived as follows: Equations (11.3) and (11.4) are
equivalent to the statements that
(
puf
)
; = p
u

,
and
(13.1)
(13.2)
for arbitrary functions
f
and vector felds },

that have continuous frst derivatives.
In view of Stokes' theorem we may write these equations as
.p pf
un
dv f puf

( g)I/2 d
4x
(13.3)
and
(13.4)
The integrals on the right-hand sides of these equations refer to an arbitrary four
dimensional volume and those on the left refer to a closed hyper surface with unit
normal n

enclosing this volume. These equations are meaningful even when the
integrands are discontinuous. We assume they hold in case p, u

, and T

V are
discontinuous across a hypersurface L II Minkowski space, which is the history of
a two-dimensional spacelike surface.
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 325
By enclosing an arbitrary portion L' of the hypersurface in a thin four-dimensional
volume and taking the limit as this volume shrinks to zero we may show that
r f[p
u
#] n
#
dv = 0
J3,
and
,;,#[pvJnv dv = 0,
1'
where n
#
is the unit normal to L and we have used the notation
[FJ F+-L,
where Ft, F ~ are the boundary values of F on the two sides of L.
(13.5)
(13.6)
Since the integrals in Equations (13.5) and (13.6) refer to arbitrary portions of L
and since f and A
#
are arbitrary, we must have
[pu#Jn
#
* 0,
[pvJnv " O.
(13.7)
(13.8)
When T#V entering into the last equation is given by Equations (IL), Equations
(13.7) and (13.8) are called the relativistic Rankine-Hugoniot equations. The deriva
tion given above holds in a general space-time.
In view of Equations (11.4) we may write Equations (13.7) and (13.8) as
and
/11(Vf-V!)= -(p+-p_)n#,
where
w+p
V# = -u
#.
p
There is a two-parameter family of vectors P such that
Y#n
#
= 0 and
Y#Y
#
= 1,
(13.9)
(13.10)
(13.11)
i.e. of normalized vectors in the hypersurface L. For such vectors it follows from
Equations (1110) that
Hence either
111=0 (13.12)
or
V,Y" = V!Y"
(13.13)
or both. The case /1 = 0 represents a slip-stream discontinuity and 11 t 0 represents
a shock wave. In the former case no matter crosses the hypersurface of discontinuity,
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326 TAUB
i.e. this hypersurface is made up of streamlines of the fuid. If I = 0 and Equation
(13.13) holds we shall call the discontinuity a density discontinuity. In this case we
must have [p] = O. Such a discontinuity describes the situation that obtains when
a gravitating body of a fuid is bounded by a vacuum.
When I # 0, Equations (13.13) with two independent values of Y represent two
of the four Equations (13.10). In determining the remaining two it is convenient to
defne
1
,= f/p = (w+p)/p2 = -(1+i),
p
with i being the specifc enthalpy in units with the velocity of light equal to one, and
to recall that
V

V

= _p
2
.
It then follows from successively multiplying Equations (13.10) by V+ and V_ that
,d -f - (p+ -p_ )(r+ +L) = O. (13.14)
On multiplying equation (13.10) by n

we fnd
1n2 = -- p
+
-p-. (13.15)
Equations (13.9), (13.14), and (13.15) are the relativistic Rankine-Hugoniot
equations. For small fuid velocities and for i small, they reduce to those of the
classical theory. Equation (13.14) determines a curve in the p,' plane that is the
analogue of the Hugoniot curve of classical theory. Its generalization to magneto
hydrodynamics has been discussed in detail by Lichnerowicz (1967, 1971) under the
assumptions that ,(p, s) is such that
or r
-< 0,
-
> 0, and g > O. (13.16)
op o
r
Israel (1960) has shown that these inequalities may be derived from kinetic theory.
They are the relativistic generalization of assumptions made by Herman Weyl in
his discussion of the Hugoniot curve.
It can be shown that, as a result of the inequalities (i3.16), the velocity of the
shock front is less than the velocity of light and the increase in entropy across a
shock is third order in the pressure jump. Further, if the subscript + denotes the
medium ahead of the shock and - that behind the shock then
p- > p+,
p-
>
p
+
,
and as the strength of the shock increases I increases and S ~ -S + increases.
Thorne (1973) has shown that these results obtain when the inequality or/oS> 0
is replaced by or/oS # 0 and the relativistic Hugoniot curve is connected.
Lichnerowicz (1975) has pointed out that the latter condition does not hold in
relativistic magnetohydrodynamics.
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SELF-GRAVITATING FLUIDS
RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 327
14 General-Relativistic Fluid Dynamics
As was pointed out in the introduction
,
there are two types of fuid-dynamical
problems in general relativity: (1) Those in which the gravitational feld of the fuid
can be neglected, but the feld due to some other mattter or energy must be
taken into account; and (2) those in which the gravitational feld of the fuid plays
a role. An important subclass of problems of type (2) is the situation where the
only matter and gravitational felds present are the fuid and its own gravitational
feld.
F or problems of type (1) for a heat-conducting viscous fuid the basic equations
are (9.1) and (9.2), where Tv is given by Equations (8.2), and (8.5) and the covariant
derivative refers to a metric tensor gv determined by the Einstein feld equations
(14.1)
The metric tensor g

v determines the gravitational feld created by the source, which

is described by the stress-energy tensor fv' In Equation (14.1) the Einstein gravita
tional constant K = Sn in units where the Newtonian gravitational G
=
1 and the
special-relativity velocity of light c = 1 ; Rv is the Ricci tensor defned in terms of the
curvature tcnsor given in Equations (1.4) by
and R is the scalar curvature given by
R = g

'R"
Thus Equations (14. 1) are a set of 10 second-order nonlinear partial diferential
equations for the g
i
"
Problems of type ( 1) in general relativity difer from those in special relativity
in that the underlying space-time is changed from a Minkowski one to one whose
metric t(nsor satisfes Equation (14.1). Thus the coefcients in the diferential
equations satisfed by the fuid variables are in many cases much more complicated
than those that occur in special relativity.
In problems of type (2), where the source of the gravitational feld is just the
fuid itself, Equations (14.1) hold with
(14.2)
In case the fuid is a perfect one, Tp. = Tpp. of Section 9 and Equations (11.3) and
(11.4) hold i regions where the fow variables are continuous and have continuous
derivatives, and Equations ( 13.7) and (13.S) hold across discontinuities, i.e. they
describe the conditions that hold across shocks or at boundaries of the fuid. Because
of the Bianchi identities that the curvature tensor must satisfy, Equations (11.4) are
a consequence of Equations ( 14.2). The latter equations may be considered as a frst
integral of the former ones. This observation has led McVittie (1956) to a method
for solving problems in pre-relativity hydrodynamics. When "solving" Equations
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328 TAU
( 14.2), ( 1 1 .3), and Tpv = Tppv, we are required to determine the ten components of the
metric tensor gl'" the three independent components of the four-velocity vector uP,
and two scalar thermodynamic functions, say p and p. The scalar function e is
supposed to be known as a function of p and p when the nature of the fuid meium
is given. Thus one is required to "solve" the ten Equations ( 14.2) when neither the
right-hand sides nor the left-hand sides are given. We shall discuss two methods of
doing this : (a) choosing appropriate gp, and then calculating Tp, and (b) solving
equations ( 1 1. 4) in comoving coordinates and thereby reducing the dependent
variables to the gp, alone.
In illustration of method (a) above we shall discuss a slightly more general form
of Equations (14.2), namely the equations
R
RI - " gl, +Agl = -KTpv> (14.3)
where A is a constant, the so-calle cosmological constant. In discussing the space
time describing the universe as a whole from the point of view of Einstein's theory
of gravitation, the assumption is made that the line element of space-time is of the
form
2 2
R2(t)
2 2 2
ds = dt
+
(
l
+
k
r
2
/4)
(dx +dy +dz ), ( 14.4)
where r
2
" x
2
+ y
2
+ Z
2
and k " - 1 , 0, or + 1. This form for the line element may be
deduced from the requirement that spacetime contain three-dimensional hyper
surfaces that admit a six-parameter group of motions. These hypersurfaces represent
the spac of observers whose world lines are given by the curves of parameter c,
and that are orthogonal to the hypersurfaces. The hypersurfaces are such that every
point in them is equivalent to every other point and every direction at a point in them
is equivalent to every other direction. These geometrical requirements serve to
determine the gl" that enter into Equation ( 14.4).
If we now compute P' from Equation ( 14. 3), we fnd that
Ti' * (
w
+p)uIU' +pg
l
l',
where
KW
=
-A + 3(k + lP)/R2,
Kp
=
A-2R/R-(k+R2)/R
2
.
(14.5)
The dot denotes the derivative with respect to t. Thus the gl given by ( 14.4) determine
a space-time, a universe containing a perfect fuid with energy density
w
, pressure
p, and four-velocity given by Equations ( 14.5). The coordinate system in which (14.4)
holds is a co moving one.
15 Solution of Equations of Motion in Comoving Coordinates
We now turn to the problem of expressing the fuid variables in terms of the
metric ones by the use of comoving coordinates where
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 329
1
uP
=
(
goo
)
li
Z
Ob
(15.1)
and hence
u

=
(
_
g
oO
)
1
/
2 '
We shall discuss the case where
.= p(l H),
e is an appropriately given function of

and
p
, and
(
puPL
"

(
_

)
I/Z
[(
-g
)
I/
Z
pu
"
L * o.
Hence
p(
g
)
I/Z
(
_
goo
)
liZ
I
(
x;
)
Equation ( 1 1 .5) becomes
(i 1, 2, 3).
Now in general
i * 1 , 2, 3 .
I n the comoving coordinate system
\
1

g
p
o

[(
)
1/2
J

u
,,;v
u =
(
_
)
1
/
2
( )
IIZ
-
goo

goo -gOt .0
and as always

P,v = -p
TS
,v
+
p
-
p j'
Hence Equations ( 1 1 . 6) may be written as
(15.2)
( 1 5. 3)

(
g
O
P
)
11 2

=
_

w
+

(
_
gOO
)
I
I
Z

-
(
_
g
o
O
)
lIZ
TS,w
(15.4)
p
-goo ,0 P ,
Let 0 be defned by the equation
0,0 =
(
_
g
oO
)
llz
T
.
Then
(
_
goO
)
l
/z
TS.;
" B,oS,; "
(
BS,Jo.
Further let

.
gO
i

V
=
-
I
)
11
2

p
-goo
( 1 5. 5)
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330 TAUB
It then follows from Equations (15.4) that
(
w
+
p
1
/
2)
V,O
=

(
-goo
)
. '
p
Hence
i.e.
and
Fij,k+Fjk, i+Fki,j
= O.
Thus
Fij Ci,j
-
Cj, i
where
Hence we have
i,j, k = 1 , 2, 3
v
= -
(w
+
p
(
gO
\1
/
2
+OS'i,=
Ci
(x) +
1, ;,
p -goo
( 1 5.6)
where Ci and S are functions of x
l
, x2, x2 alone and 1 is a function of all four x's
Equations (1 5.6) then read
I,O
i
=

w+
P ( gOO)
1
/
2)
.
'
P +
i.e.
w
+
p
( _
go
o) 1
/
2 1
o
+k(x
O
).
P
,
Thus we have
( _
gOO
) ' /2 = -
p
- [
I,
o
+
k(x
O
)] .
w
+
p
The line element of space-time may then be written as
ds2 = g
oo
(dX
O
) 2 + 2
g
0i dx
o
dX
i
+ gij dXi dxj
( 1 5.7)
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RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS 331
,
( W
:
2
p)
2 [21
.i(Cj +eSJ+I.
i
l.
j
J
d
Xi
d
x
j

If we make the transformation to the new variables
XO = I(x") + S k
d
xo
i = 1, 2, 3,
the coordinate system remains a comoving one for
oxa 1
ia = u"-= bg.
ax" (

1/2
We also have
d 2

p
2
(
d
-O
)
2 2p
2
(
I
S
) d
-i
d
-
o
d-i d-i
S - -
(W+p
)
2
X
-
(W+p)
2
Ci +
.i
x X
+
gij X x
,
I.e.
-p
[C(xi
) +
I
S .J
w+p I
.1 '
-
(
-
)
1
/
2
-
P
UO
= -
-goo
= .
w+p
Equation ( 15.3) then becomes
( -
g)1
/
2
(W+ p) f(x
i
).
(1 5.8)
( 15.9)
The functions f(x
i
) and Ci(Xi) may be determined from the initial conditions of the
problem. The C
i
are related to the vorticity ofthe fow as was pointed out in the paper
by MacCullum & Taub ( 1 972). In that paper explicit formulas are given for the
Einstein feld equations in terms of the quantities 9
ij, Ci, S, and f(x).
SUMMARY
In the preceding discussion we have seen that the fve conservation laws that
characterize the behavior of a fuid in pre-relativistic theory may be taken over into
special and general relativistic fuid dynamics. The fact that the velocity of propaga
tion of sound must be less than that of light restricts the relations that must exist
between various thermodynamic variables. In particular the rest specifc internal
energy cannot be an arbitrary function of the pressure and rest particle density.
These restrictions may be derived from a relativistic formulation of kinetic theory.
The study of progressive waves in special-relativistic perfect-fuid fows shows that
shock waves must occur for such motions. The jump in the fuid variables across
shocks may be derived from the conservation theorems as in classical theory.
The equations describing test or self-gravitating fuids in general relativity may be
derived from those of the special theory by using the principle of equivalence. That is,
one uses the fact that the equations describing a fluid motion in a general coordinate
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33
2 TAUB
system in Minkowski space are those that must obtain when the fuid is in a
gravitational feld.
The Einstein equations for a self-gravitating fuid may be regarded as frst integrals
of the conservation equations describing the motion. This fact may be used to
determine the fuid variables when the metric is known from other considerations.
We may also use the freedom of choice of the coordinate system in a self-gravitating
problem to solve the conservation equations for the fuid variables in terms of the
metric ones and then by reducing the number of dependent variables of the problem.
The Einstein feld equations that remain to be solved are nonlinear equations
for the metdc coefcents
gILV'
Their solutions are of great interest in astrophysical
problems ranging from the behavior of stars to galaxies to the universe as a whole.
Of special interest are the singularities of the solutions of these equations.
Literature Cited
Carter, B. 1972.1n Black Holes, ed. C. De Witt,
B. S. DeWitt, pp. 57-214, esp. p. 1 55. New
York : Gordon & Breach
Eckart, C. 1 940. Phys. Rev. 58 : 919-24
Ehlers, J. 1971. In General Relativity and
Cosmology, ed. R. K. Sachs, pp. 1-70.
New York : Academic. xi + 387 pp.
Hicks, W. M. 1 899. Philos. Trans. R. Soc.
London Ser. A 192 : 33-100
Israel, W. 1960. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. A
259 : 1 29-43
Landau, L. D., Lifshitz E. M. 1959. Fluid
Mechanics, Chap. XV. Reading, Mass :
Addison Wesley. xii + 536 pp.
Lichnerowicz, A. 1955. Theories Relativistes
de la Gravitation et de l "Electro
magninisme, p. 146. Paris : Masson. xii +
298 pp.
Lichnerowicz, A. 1967. Relativistic Hydro
dynamics and Magnetohydrodynamics.
New Yark : Benjamin. ix + 1 96 pp.
Lichnerowicz, A. 1 971 . In Relativistic Fluid
Dynamics, CentroInt. Mater. Estivo, June
1970, ed. C. Cattaneo, pp. 14497. Rome :
Cremonese. 424 pp.
Lichnerowicz, A. 1 975. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
Ser. A 281 : 929-34
Lindblom, L. 1976. Astrophys. J. 208 : 873-80
MacCallum, M. A. H., Taub, A. H. 1 972.
Commun. Math. Phys. 25 : 173--89
McVittie, G. C. 1956. General Relativity and
Cosmology. Chap. VI, VII. New York :
Wiley. x + 198 pp.
Pekeris, C. L. 1976. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA 73 : 687-91 ; 2527
Synge, J. L. 1 956. Relativity: The Special
Theory, Amsterdam: North Holland.
xv+450 pp.
Synge, J. L. 1957. The Relativistic Gas.
Amsterdam: North-Holland. xi + 108 pp.
Taub, A. H. 1948. Phys. Rev. 74 : 328-34
Taub, A. H. 1959. Arch. Ration. Mech. Anal.
3 : 31 2-24
Thorne, K. S. 1 973. Astrophys. J. 1 79 : 897-
907
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Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
Volume 10. 1978
CONTENTS
SOME NOTES ON THE STUDY OF FLUID MECHANICS IN CAMBRIDGE,
ENGLAND, A. M. Binnie
MONTE CARLO SIMULATION OF GAS FLOWS, G. A. Bird 11
HYDRODYNAMIC PROBLEMS OF SHIPS IN RESTRICTED WATERS, E. O. Tuck 33
DRAG REDUCTION BY POLYMERS, Neil S. Berman 47
VISCOUS TRANSONIC FLOWS, Oleg S. Ryzhov 65
DUST EXPLOSIONS, Wa
y
land C. Grifth 93
OBJECTIVE METHODS FOR WEATHER PREDICTION, C. E. Leith 107
RIVER MEANDERING, R. A. Callander 129
ROSSBY WAVES-LONG-PERIOD OSCILLATIONS OF OCEANS AND ATMOS-
PHERES, Robert E. Dickinson 159
FLOWS OF NEMATIC LIQUID CRYSTALS, James T. Jenkins 197
THE STRUCTURE OF VORTEX BREAKDOWN, Sidney Leibovich 221
FLOW THROUGH SCREENS, E. M. Laws and J. L. Livesey 247
TURBULENCE AND MIXING IN STABLY STRATIFIED WATERS, Frederick S.
Sherman, Jorg Imberger. and Gilles M. Corcos 267
PROSPECTS FOR COMPUTATIONAL FLUID MECHANICS, G. S. Patterson. Jr. 289
RELATIVISTIC FLUID MECHANICS, A. H. Taub 301
TURBULENCE-GENERATED NOISE IN PIPE FLOW, Gerhard Reethof 333
RIVER ICE, George D. Ashton
369
NUMERICAL METHODS IN WATER-WAVE DIFFRACTION AND RADIATION,
Chiang C. Mei 393
NUMERICAL METHODS IN BOUNDARy-LAYER THEORY, Herbert B. Keller 417
MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS OF THE EARTH'S DYNAMO, F. H. Busse 435
INDEXES
AUTHOR INDEX
CUMULATIVE INDEX OF CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS, VOLUMES 610
CUMULATIVE INDEX OF CHAPTER TITLES, VOLUMES 6-10
463
471
472
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