Science Cram Kit

the World
Scholars Cup
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AUTHOR
Kathleen Schaefer
EDI TOR
Sophy Lee
ALPACA-I N-CHI EF
Daniel Berdichevsky
CRAM KIT
SCIENCE
2 0 1 1
2 0 1 2
EDI TI ON
19th Century
Advancements
in the Physical
Sciences
DemiDec, The World Scholars Cup, Power Guide, and Cram Kit are registered trademarks of the DemiDec Corporation.
Academic Decathlon and USAD are registered trademarks of the United States Academic Decathlon Association.
DemiDec is not affiliated with the United States Academic Decathlon.

CRAM KIT

I. WHAT IS A CRAM KIT?................................................................. 2
II. CURRICULUM OVERVIEW.. 2
III. MECHANICS..................................................................................... 3
IV. WAVES............................................................................................... 18
V. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM................................................ 25
VI. CRUNCH KIT..................................................................................... 37
VII. ABOUT THE AUTHOR AND EDITOR.......................................... 44

BY

KATHLEEN SCHAEFER
EDITED BY

SOPHY LEE
HARVEY MUDD

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

DEDICATED TO MY PARENTS
FOR THEIR ENDLESS SUPPORT

2011 DEMIDEC

DemiDec, The World Scholars Cup, Power Guide, and Cram Kit are registered trademarks of the DemiDec Corporation.
Academic Decathlon and USAD are registered trademarks of the United States Academic Decathlon Association.
DemiDec is not affiliated with the United States Academic Decathlon.

WHAT IS A CRAM KIT?
A Word from the Editor
HOW TO USE A CRAM KIT
The handful of days before competition can be the most
overwhelming. You dont have enough time to review
everything, so a strategic allocation of your resources is
crucial. Cram Kits are designed with one goal in mind---- -
to provide you with the most testable and most easily
forgotten facts. The Science curriculum presents a
unique challenge for Decathletes: you must master not
only the vocabulary of Physics but also the concepts you
need to solve Physics problems. Never fear! Even if you
are closely approaching competition, you can still pick
up extra points---- -as long as you know which facts to
study. What you need is a Decathlete who loves art and
who understands the ebb and flow of USAD Science
exams. That's where Kathleen Schaefer, your guide for
this Cram Kit, comes in. She has broken apart the Art
portion of the curriculum, extracted the fluff, and left you
with the essential details you need to score as many
points as possible, even if---- -and especially if---- -you are
short on time.
The main body of the Cram Kit is filled with charts and
diagrams for efficient studying. Youll also find helpful
quizzes to reinforce the information as you review.
The Crunch Kit presents the most important formulas
that you need to know for the math test. Realize,
however, that knowing when to apply each formula is
half the battle. Plugging in the numbers is often the
easiest step.
Last, but not least, remember to relax. In the final
moments before you open your test booklet, confidence
is your most important asset.
Good luck and happy cramming!

Sophy Lee
CRAMMING FOR SUCCESS
A Word from the Author
EXPLAINING THE OVERVIEW PIECES OF THE SCIENCE PIE
SUMMARY
Although relatively short, the USAD Science Resource
Guide covers a decent amount of material about physics.

Section I: Mechanics includes an overview of science
basics, and discusses kinematics, Newtons laws,
work and energy, momentum, simple harmonic
motion, and circular motion

Section II: Waves begins with an introduction to
traveling waves then explains a few different
examples of wave interference

Section III: Electricity and Magnetism covers the
topics of electrostatics, current, magnetism, and
electromagnetic induction
Use this Cram Kit to figure out which topics you
understand completely and which ones you need to
focus on a little more.
The Science curriculum this year contains few
extraneous facts to memorize, so spend your time
making sure you fully learn each topic instead of
memorizing as many facts as possible. You will,
however, need to memorize a long list of equations.

TIME IS TICKING!

Know your equations---- -all of them

Practice the math with actual problems. If you run
out of example problems, make your teammates
write you some more

Review the units right before the test

Dont forget to learn the few scientists biographies
Section I
35%
Section II
25%
Section III
40%

Science Cram Kit | 3

MECHANICS
Science Basics (Page 1 of 3)
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOND UNITS
OVERVIEW
For hundreds of years, scientists have used the
scientific method to discover more about the universe
around them. The scientific method consists of several
steps.

1. STATE THE PROLEM

The problem must have clear boundaries
2. COLLECT OBSERVATIONS AND DATA

Scientists find and study patterns

Sometimes they develop mathematical formulas at
this point
3. FORM A HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis tells a scientists idea about nature

It states this idea in general terms

The hypothesis details a nonspecific principle about
the universe
4. TEST THE HYPOTHESIS

The test explores the boundaries of the hypothesis

No outside factors should affect the test
5. FORM A CONCLUSION

The scientist finishes by writing a conclusion about
the test

He could also form new tests for the hypothesis
instead

These test may cause him to write a new
hypothesis

THE NEVER-ENDING CYCLE

The scientific method almost
never leads to a definite,
undisputed conclusion.
Instead, the conclusion offers
a new insight, which will
create new questions. These
questions cause the cycle to
begin again.

TWO SYSTEMS OF UNITS
THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
The International System of Units is known in
French as the Systme International (SI). Its units
convert easily since they come in multiples of ten.
The United States is one of the few countries that
does not use this system.

THE ENGLISH SYSTEM
Other countries use the English system. The unit
conversions in this system are not as easy to
memorize as the conversions in SI. For example, in
the English System, one pint equals four gills.
.
MEANING OF SI PREFIXES

THREE FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
The units for length, mass, and time can describe
nearly all measurements. Speed, for example, comes
from the measurements for length and time since it
uses the unit meters per second.

VARIABLE SI UNIT
ENGLISH
SYSTEM UNIT
Length Meter Foot
Mass Kilogram Slug
Time Second Second

Multiply
Mega: 1,000,000
Kilo: 1,000
Divide
Deci: 10
Centi: 100
Milli: 1,000
Micro: 1,000,000


MECHANICS
UNITS (CONTINUED) SCALARS AND VECTORS
UNIT CONVERSION FACTORS

MEASUREMENT EQUIVALENT UNIT
2.54 cm One inch
3 feet One yard
5,280 feet One mile
1,609 m One mile
14.59 kg One slug

HOW TO CONVERT BETWEEN UNITS
1. Multiply by fractions equivalent to one so that the
real value of the measurement does not change
2. Use the unit of the initial measurement as the
denominator of the first conversion factor
3. The unit of the first conversion factors numerator
should appear in the denominator of the second
conversion factor
4. Continue this pattern so that all units cancel out

DEFINITIONS
VECTOR:
Measurement with both a magnitude and a
direction
SCALAR:
Measurement with a magnitude but no direction

BASIC FACTS

The length of a vector represents its magnitude

The vector points in the same direction as the
measurement

Vector addition is commutative

QUICK QUIZ
QUESTIONS
1. A problem from the scientific method has clear
_____.
2. What does SI stand for?
3. A mile equals how many meters?
4. Unlike scalars, vectors include a _____.
5. The arrowless tip of a vector the _____.
ANSWERS
1. boundaries
2. Systme International
3. 1,609
4. direction
5. tail


MECHANICS
SCALARS AND VECTORS (CONTINUED)


MECHANICS
SCALARS AND VECTORS (CONTINUED)
MULTIPLYING VECTORS BY SCALARS
1. Multiply the two values of the magnitudes together
2. With an even scalar, the resulting vector will point
in the same direction as the original vector
3. With an odd scalar, the resulting vector will flip
180 and point in the opposite direction of the
original vector
ADDING VECTORS
1. Choose a starting point and label it O, for origin
2. Place the tail of one of the vectors at this point
3. Place the tail of the second vector at the head of the
first vector
4. Draw the resulting vector with the tail at the tail of
the first vector and the head at the head of the
second vector
5. This approach is called the head-to-tail method
SUBTRACTING VECTORS
1. Subtract a vector by adding its negative to the
original vector
2. Take the vector you wish to subtract and flip its
direction by 180 to get the negative
3. Proceed with the steps for adding vectors

ESTIMATION

Use estimation to find a reasonable answer to
questions that provide only incomplete
information. Make these calculations quickly, but
account for as many factors as possible.

VECTOR EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
QUESTIONS
1. Multiply a vector of 5 units that makes a 30 angle
above the negative x-axis by a scalar of -3.

2. Subtracting from forms which of
the following vectors?
A. B. C. D.

ANSWERS
1. 15 units forming a 30* angle below the positive
x-axis
2. D


MECHANICS
Kinematics (Page 1 of 3)
DEFINITIONS EQUATIONS

KINEMATIC EQUATION VARIABLES
Acceleration: a
Displacement: Ax
Time interval: t
Final velocity: v

Initial velocity: v
o

BASIC KINEMATICS PROBLEMS
QUESTIONS

A runner begins 3 m from the origin and, after running
at a constant speed for 3 s, ends 12 m from the origin.
Calculate the runners

1. Displacement
2. Velocity

The runner now speeds up to 7 m/s in 2 s.

3. What is his acceleration?

ANSWERS
1. 9 m
2. 3 m/s
3. 2 m/s
2

Description of motion Kinematics
System with a defined origin
Positive and negative values
show direction
Coordinate
System
Object's distance from the
origin
Position
Object's change in position
over a time period
Displacement
The absolute value of
displacement
Distance
Displacement divided by a
time interval
Velocity
The absolute value of
velocity
Speed
The change in velocity
devided by the time interval
Acceleration
Displacement
Ax = (x
x
o
)
Velocity
v = Ax / At
Acceleration
a = Av / At


MECHANICS
EQUATIONS (CONTINUED) GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION

WARNING!
These kinematic equations only work with a constant
acceleration.

SIGNIFICANT SCIENTISTS: GALILEO GALILEI

Galileo Galilei (1564
-- - 1642) speculated
that, without air
resistance, objects
will fall at the same
rate, despite
differences in mass
of size. Scientific
folklore says that he
tested this theory by
dropping objects
from the Tower of
Pisa.

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY ON EARTH
-
Objects accelerate at 9.80 m/s
2
because of Earths
gravity
-
This value equals 32 ft/s
2

-
The constant g denotes gravity
-
Acceleration due to gravity always points
downward toward the center of the Earth

KINEMATIC EQUATION PROBLEMS GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION PROBLEM
QUESTIONS
1. What is the acceleration of a car that begins at 10
m/s and reaches 20 m/s after 10 m?
2. What is the final velocity of a bicycle that begins at
rest and accelerates at 3 m/s
2
for 4 s?
3. How long does it take for a car to travel 50 m if it
begins at 5 m/s and ends at 20 m/s?
4. How far does a runner travel in 10 s if she begins at
2 m/s and accelerates at 1 m/s
2
?
ANSWERS
1. 15 m/s
2

2. 12 m/s
3. 4 s
4. 70 m
QUESTIONS
1. A skydiver wants to open his parachute after he
falls for 4,000 m. How long should he fall before
opening his parachute?
2. You throw a ball upward at 25 m/s while standing
on the roof of a building.
The ball hits the ground
after 8 s. How tall is the
building?

ANSWERS
1. 29 s
2. 114 m
v
f
= v
o
+ at Ax = (v
o
+ v
f
)t
Ax = v
o
t + at
2
v
f
2
= v
o
2
+ 2a(x)
Kinematic Equations


MECHANICS
INDEPENDENCE OF PERPENDICULAR MOTION PROJECTILE MOTION
BRIEF EXPLANATION
Motions pointing perpendicularly to each other act
independently. An objects motion in the y-direction
will remain unaffected by its motion in the
x-direction. This property means that a ball
dropped from a set height will reach the ground
at the same time as a ball thrown horizontally
from the same height.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROJECTILE MOTION

Both horizontal and vertical motion

Falls only due to gravitational acceleration

Accelerates in the y-direction

Never accelerates in the x-direction

EXAMPLE PROBLEM
You throw a ball off of a 150 m tower, giving
the ball an initial velocity of 40 m/s
horizontally. Ari resistance is negligible. How
far will the ball land from the base of the
tower?

m x
s
s
m
x
t v x
s t
s t
t t
t a t v y
ox
y oy
220 =
) 5 . 5 )( 40 ( =
=
5 . 5 =
31 =
) 8 . 9 (
2
1
+ 0 = 150
2
1
+ =
2
2
2
A
A
A
A

The ball lands 220 m
from the bottom of the tower.

PRACTICLE PROBLEM KINEMATICS QUIZ
QUESTION
A cannon on a flat plane shoots out a cannonball
at a horizontal speed of 60 m/s and a vertical
speed of 30 m/s. How far does the cannonball
land from the cannon?

ANSWER
370 m
QUESTIONS
1. What measurement equals the absolute value of
displacement?
2. What is the acceleration due to gravity in ft/s?
3. A projectile accelerates in what direction(s)?
ANSWERS
1. Distance
2. 32
3. Y-direction only


MECHANICS
Newtons Laws
NEWTONS LAWS FORCES

SIGNIFICANT SCIENTISTS: SIR ISAAC
NEWTON

Sir Isaac Newton
(1643 -- - 1727)
became the first
scientist to theorize
about the causes of
motion. He wrote
three universal laws
of motion in his
book Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia
Mathematica. The
title translates to
Mathematical
Principles of Natural
Philosophy.

SUMMARY OF THE THREE LAWS

THE FIRST LAW
Newtons first law explains the concept of force,
but does not define specific forces. The law states
that an object at rest will stay at rest and an object
in motion will remain at a constant velocity unless
affected by an outside force.

THE SECOND LAW
Newtons second law numerically shows how a
force affects motion with the equation F = ma.

THE THIRD LAW
Newtons third law explains that all forces have a
reaction force with an equal magnitude, but acting
in the opposite direction. These forces affect two
different objects, so they do not
cancel each other out.

FORCE FACTS

Dynamics is the causes of motion

External forces must act on objects to create
motion

Forces have both magnitudes and directions

The SI unit newton measures force

A newton equals a kgm/s
2

FORCE DIAGRAMS
A force diagram visually shows all forces
acting on a single object
Force diagram of a wagon being pulled:

The force of gravity
Causes objects to accelerate downward at
9.80 m/s
2
Uses the equation F = mg
Always points toward the Earth's center
Normal force
Forms when two objects press against each
other
Acts perpendicularly to an object's surface
Friction
Arises from two objects rubbing against each
other
Always opposes the direction of motion
Static friction works to keep stationary objects
from moving
Kinetic friction tries to slow down objects
already in motion
F
gravity
F
pull F
friction
F
normal


Kinetic energy
Energy from an
object's motion
At a given speed,
more massive
objects have
more kinetic
energy
KE = 1/2 mv
2
Potential energy
Energy stored for
later
Comes in a
variety of forms
including
graviational
potential energy
For gravtiational
potential energy,
PE = mgh
MECHANICS
Work and Energy (Page 1 of 2)
ENERGY TYPES WORK
DEFINIG ENERGY
Energy measures an objects capacity to perform a task.
An object can store, use, or transfer the energy, but it
cannot destroy the energy. Energy can also change
between different forms.

TWO FORMS OF ENERGY

ENERGY UNITS
The SI unit joule (J) measures energy.
One joule equals a kg x m/s
2
or a N-m.
VARIABLES
KE Kinetic energy
PE Potential energy
m Mass
v Velocity
g Acceleration due to gravity (9.80 m/s
2
)
h Distance from the Earths surface
HOW TO PERFORM WORK ON AN OBJECT

WORK EQUATION

Work equals force times distance

W = F d

A positive value for work signifies that the force
acts in the same direction as the objects motion

A negative value for work signifies that the force
acts in the opposite direction as the objects
motion

A force acting perpendicularly to the objects
direction of motion will do not work

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
DEFINITION
The work-energy theorem shows that the energy used
to perform work on an object changes the objects
kinetic energy.

EQUATION
W = AKE

Do work!
Apply a net
force on an
object
Actually
move the
object
Crate
Ax
F
applied
W = 0
Crate
Ax
F
applied
W < 0
Crate
Ax
F
applied
W > 0


MECHANICS
Work and Energy (Page 2 of 2)
TYPES OF FORCES CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
CONSERVATIVE FORCES
Conservative forces on transfer energy to an objects
internal systems. They will neither add nor subtract
from the objects total energy.

NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
Non-conservative forces take or add energy
to a system. They will change the total energy
of an object.

DEFINITION
Conservation of energy occurs when
only conservative forces acts on a system.
In this scenario, the total energy
will not change.

EQUATION
E
i
= E
f
or
KE
i
+ PE
i
= KE
f
+ PE
f

SYSYTEMS WITH NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES

When non-conservative forces act on the system,
conservation of energy does not apply

To solve these problems, you must know how
much energy enters or leaves the system

If energy enters the system, add the amount to the
initial energy side

If energy leaves the system, add the mount to the
final energy side

EXAMPLE
A ball falls 10 m, and loses 15 J of energy from air
resistance. What is its final velocity?

J v
J mv
s
m
m m
J E E
f i
13 =
15 +
2
1
= ) 8 . 9 )( 10 (
15 + =
2
2

VARIABLES
E
i
Initial energy
E
f
Final energy
KE Kinetic energy
PE Potential energy
CONSERVATIVE OR NON-CONSERVATIVE?
Classify the following forces as either
conservative or non-conservative.
1. A ball accelerates as it falls to the ground.
2. A boy pushes a box across the floor.
3. Friction causes a rolling cart to slow to a stop.
4. A mass on a spring oscillates.
ANSWERS
1. Conservative
2. Non-conservative
3. Non-conservative
4. Conservative
EXAMPLES
-
Kinetic friction
-
Air resistance
-
Pushing or pulling
an object
EXAMPLES
-
Gravity
-
Electric forces
-
Spring forces, also
called Elastic forces


MECHANICS
Momentum (Page 1 of 2)
DEFINITIONS IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM

VARIABLES
J Impulse
F Force
At Time period
p Momentum
m mass
v Velocity

IMPULSE
An objects motion only changes when a force acts
on it over a time period
Impulse combines force and time into a single
variable
It acts in the same direction as the force
As an equation, J = F(At)

HOW IMPULSE CAN SAVE YOUR LIFE
BUCKLE YOUR SEATBELT
Seatbelts work with the concept of impulse by
lengthening the time a force acts on your body
during a car crash. Since the force acts over a
longer time period, the force will have a
smaller magnitude.

DEPLOY YOUR AIRBAGS
Airbags also increase your stopping time,
minimizing the applied forces magnitude.

MOMENTUM
o
Momentum uses mass and velocity to quantify an
objects motion
o
This measurement points in the same direction as
the objects velocity
o
As an equation, p = mv

OVERVIEW
The impulse-momentum theorem connects
the two variables of impulse and momentum
in a single equation. It shows that the objects
momentum will change by the same magnitude
as the applied impulse.

UNITS
Both impulse and momentum
can be measured in
Ns or kgm/s.
IMPUSLE AND MOMENTUM PROBLEMS
QUESTIONS
1. What is the impulse on a ball if a bat hits it for .003
s with a force of 6000 N?
2. What is the momentum of a 7 kg bowling ball
rolling at 4 m/s?
3. If a force of 20 N pushes a 10 kg crate for 5 s, what
is the crates change in velocity, disregarding
friction?

ANSWERS
1. 18 Ns
2. 28 kg m/s
3. 10 m/s

J = A(mv)


MECHANICS
Momentum (Page 2 of 2)
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM ENERGY AND MOMENTUM
OVERVIEW
When no external forces on a system,
it will not gain or lose momentum.
p
i
= p
f

EXAMPLE PROBLEM
A 5 kg ball travels forward at 6 m/s until it
hits a 3 kg ball at rest. The 3 kg ball rolls
forward at 12 m/s. What is the new velocity
of the 5 kg ball?
backward
s
m
v
v kg
s
m
kg
s
m
kg v kg
s
m
kg
v m v m v m v m
kg
kg
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
, 2 . 1 =
) ( 5 = 6
) 12 ( 3 + ) ( 5 = 0 + ) 6 ( 5
+ = +
5
5
3 3 5 5 3 3 5 5

TYPES OF COLLISIONS

APPROACHING A MECHANICS PROBLEM

Mechanics problems deal with motion

When faced with one of these questions, consider
whether the system conserves energy or
momentum

The system may conserve only one, both, or
neither

Determining which values the system conserves
will often help you choose the right method for
solving the problem

NEWTONS CRADLE
Newtons cradle exhibits both conservation of energy
and momentum. When you lift and release a number of
balls on one side, an equal number of balls will rise to
the same height on the other side, following the
collision.

Elastic
collisions
Inelastic
collisions
Twice the number of balls
rises with half the velocity
v = x
v = x
Obeys
conservation of
momentum but
not energy

Obeys both
conservation of
momentum and
energy

v = x
v = x
Same number of balls rises
with the same velocity


MECHANICS
Simple Harmonic Motion (Page 1 of 2)
SHM WAVES

SHM OVERVIEW
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) occurs when a restoring
force attempts to bring an object back to equilibrium. As the
object oscillates on two sides of the equilibrium, the motion
appears as a sinusoidal graph.

ASPECTS OF A SINUSOIDAL CURVE
PEAK

The highest point of displacement away from the
equilibrium
TROUGH

The lowest point of displacement away from the
equilibrium
AMPLITUDE

The distance from a waves peak to its equilibrium

Also the distance from the trough to the
equilibrium

Uses the variable A

Measured in various units, including length units for
masses on springs

PERIOD

The length of time for an object to repeat its motion

Represented by the variable T

Typically measured in seconds
FREQUENCY

How often an object passes through a fixed point

Denoted by the variable f

The inverse of the period

Found with the equation

Measured with the SI unit Hertz (Hz)

One Hz equals 1/second

Sinusoidal Graph
Equilibrium
Amplitude
Period
Peak
Trough


MECHANICS
Simple Harmonic Motion (Page 2 of 2)
HOOKES LAW PERIODS OF DISPLACEMENT
OVERVIEW
Hookes law explains the restoring force
associated with Simple Harmonic Motion.

VARIABLES
F
Hookes
Restoring force
k Spring constant
Ax Displacement from equilibrium
PE
spring
Potential energy of a spring

HOOKES LAW AS AN EQUATION
F
Hookes
= -- -(constant)(displacement)

HOOKES LAW APPLIED TO SPRINGS
Since the force on a springs mass
fluctuates with masss distance from the
equilibrium, the masss acceleration also
changes. This variation makes the
kinematic equation unusable, so use
energy equations instead.
HOOKES
LAW
POTENTIAL
ENERGY
F
Hookes
= -- -k(Ax) PE
spring
= k(Ax)
2

OVERVIEW
Depending on the object experiencing SHM, different
factors will affect the period of motion.

VARIABLES
T
spring
Period of a spring
T
pendulum
Period of a pendulum
m Mass
k

Spring constant
L Length of string
g Acceleration due to gravity

SPRINGS

The mass of the object and the spring constant
affect the period of motion

PENDULUMS

The length of the string and the acceleration due to
gravity affect the period of motion

SHM QUIZ
Label the graph:

ANSWERS
1. Peak 2. Period 3. Amplitude
QUESTIONS
What two variables affect the period of motion of a
1. spring
2. pendulum

ANSWERS
1. The mass of the objet and the spring constant
2. The length of the string an the acceleration due to
gravity
1
3
2


MECHANICS
Circular Motion
VARIABLES CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION

VARIABLES
I

Moment of inertia
t

Period of a pendulum
r

Distance from rotation
F Force
L Angular momentum
e Angular velocity

MOMENT OF INERTIA

Variable that quantifies both an objects mass and
the distribution of its mass

Objects that carry mass farther away from their
center of rotation will have higher values for their
moment of inertia
TORQUE

The equivalent to force in circular motion

t = (r)(F)
ANGULAR VELOCITY

How quickly an object rotates around a center point
ANGULAR MOMENTUM

The difficulty of stopping an objects rotation

L = Ie

CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION
DEFINITION
Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration
of an object due to its circular motion.
WORD ORIGINS
Centripetal translates to
center seeking in Greek.
EQUATIONS

CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
1. Net force must equal zero
2. Net torque must equal zero

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
When the net torque on a system equals zero,
the system experiences conservation of
angular momentum. For this reason,
spinning skaters can increase their angular
velocity simply by bringing their hands and legs in,
reducing their moment of inertia.
Iron bar
F
1
F
2
Net force equals zero but net torque does
not. The bar will spin.
Iron bar
F
1
F
2
Net force and net torque equal zero. The
bar will stay in equilibrium.
m m
m m
Higher
moment of
inertia and
angular
momentum

Lower moment
of inertia and
angular
momentum


WAVES
Traveling Waves (Page 1 of 2)
DEFINITIONS

MEASURING VARIABLES ON A WAVE GRAPH

ANALYZING THE WAVE VELOCITY EQUATION

Traveling
wave
Moving
fluctuation
Transports
energy
Medium
Substance
through which
a wave moves
Attempts to
return to
equilibrium
after displaced
by a wave
Wavelength
Distance for a
wave to repeat
its motion
Uses the
variable
Wave velocity
The speed that
a waves moves
through its
medium
Found with the
equation v =
Wave source
Creates a wave
in a medium
Displacement vs. Position Graph
Wavelength
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Position
Displacement vs. Time Graph
Period
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Time
v =
Velocity
depends on
the medium
Wavelength
depends of
frequency and
velocity
Frequency
depends on
the wave
source


WAVES
Traveling Waves (Page 2 of 2)
TRANSVERSE WAVES LONGITUDINAL WAVES
OVERVIEW
A transverse wave displaces its medium
perpendicularly to the direction the wave travels.

LIGHT
-
Exemplifies transverse waves
-
Moves energy from one point to another
-
Formed from vibrations of electric charges

OVERVIEW
A longitudinal wave displaces its medium in the same
direction the wave travels.

SOUND
-
Type of longitudinal wave
-
A fluctuation in the pressure or density of a
medium
-
A source compresses air particles when sound
moves through air
-
Travels through air at 340 m/s
-
Travels through water at 1,100 m/s

INDEX OF REFRACTION
Light can travel through a vacuum with a velocity of 3.0
x 10
8
m/s. The letter c represents this constant.

To find the speed at which light move through different
mediums, use the equation

The letter n stands for the index of refraction. Its value
depends on the medium through which the light travels.

MEDIUM
INDEX OF
REFRACTION
Vacuum 1
Air Nearly 1
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.4
Red light
Lowest frequency of light
visable to humans
Frequency = 4 x 10
14
Hz
Wavelength = 700 nanometers
Yellow-green
Color of light best perceived by
humans
Violet light
Highest frequency of light
visable to humans
Frequency = 7 x 10
14
Hz
Human hearing range:
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
Ultrasonic
Sound frequency
above 20,000 Hz
Heard by small
animals such as cats
Infrasonic
Sound frequency
below 20 Hz
Heard by large
animals such as
elephants


WAVES
Wave Interference (Page 1 of 5)
INTERFERENCE TYPES PATH LENGTH DIFFERENCES
WAVE INTERFERENCE
Wave interference, or superposition, involves two
waves meeting on the same plane at the same time.
The amplitudes of the two waves will add together.

CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

Two waves overlap with their peaks in the same
position

Two amplitudes of A add to an amplitude of 2A

DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

Two waves overlap with one of the waves peaks in
the same position as the other waves troughs

Two amplitudes of A cancel out to an amplitude of
zero

WAVE INTERFERENCE
FROM PATH LENGTH DIFFERENCES
Two identical waves may interfere
when they travel two different lengths
to reach the same point.

SPEAKERS
This type of interference can occur
when listening to one sound projected
from two different speakers. The waves will
have the same wavelength but different paths.

The path length difference (Ar) equals r
A
-- - r
B
FOR CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
o
Ar = m
FOR DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
o
Ar = (m + )
In both equations, m equals any integer value.
DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
The double slit experiment, or Youngs experiment,
shows wave interference by shining a light through two
closely spaced slits. The light projected on the screen
appears as a pattern of bright and dark spots.

Speaker A
Speaker B
r
A
r
B


WAVES
FREQUENCY DIFFERENCES WAVE QUIZ

WAVE INTERFERENCE FROM FREQUENCY
DIFFERENCES
When two waves come from
different sources, they may have dissimilar
frequencies. The peaks and troughs do not
line up exactly, creating constructive
interference at some points and destructive
interference at other points.

BEATS

Example of wave interference due to frequency
differences

Occurs when two close but not identical sound
frequencies play at the same time

The interference of the waves alternates between
constructive and destructive

The resulting sound will rapidly fluctuate between
loud and soft

The beat frequency measures how often the cycle of
constructive and destructive interferences repeats

Beat frequency is calculated as f
beats
= |f
2
-- - f
1
|

VARIABLES
f
beats
Beat frequency
f
1
Frequency from first wave source
f
2
Frequency from second wave source

QUESTIONS
1. All traveling waves transport ______.
2. What variable doe represent?
3. What determines a waves velocity?
4. What is the frequency of red light?
5. What is the wavelength of violet light?
6. What color light do human see best?
7. What is another term for wave interference?
8. The equation Ar = m will find the path length
difference for what type of interference?
9. If a two waves, both with an amplitude of three,
overlap with ones peak over the others trough,
what is the resulting waves amplitude?
10. In Youngs experiment, what caused the wave
interference?
11. What is the beat frequency of a 199 Hz tuning and
a 201 Hz tuning fork sounded together?
12. How might a musician use beats from wave
interferences

ANSWERS
1. Energy
2. Wavelength
3. Its medium
4. 4 x 10
14
Hz
5. 400 nanometers
6. Yellow-green
7. Superposition
8. Constructive
9. Zero
10. Path length differences
11. 3 Hz
He could use beats to tune his instrument.
Application of
beats
Musicians use
beats to tune
their
instruments
Piano tuners
listen to beats
from two
adjacent notes


WAVES
REFLECTION REFRACTION
LIGHT RAYS

Travel in straight lines through a medium

Go outward in all directions from a light source

The eye focuses diverging light rays to perceive the
source

LAW OF REFLECTION
When an incident light ray hits a new medium, some of
the rays energy will reflect back to the original
medium. The law of reflection states that the angle of
reflection equals the angle of the incident ray.
As an equation, u
I
= u
r

The angles form between the ray and
the normal, the line perpendicular to the
surface of the new medium.

OVERVIEW
Some of the incident light ray will enter a new medium
instead of reflecting back. If the new medium has a
different index of refraction, the ray will change speeds,
causing it to bend, or refract.

CAR ANALOGY
A car leaves pavement, where it moves quickly,
and enters a section of mud, where it travels
slowly. Since it reaches the mud at an angle, one
tire will hit the mud and slow down before the
second tire. The first tire moves slowly while the
second tire moves at full speed, causing the car to
bend its path in the same way light refracts when
it enters a medium with a different speed.

SNELLS LAW
Snells law determines the angle of refraction using the
angle of the incident ray and the two mediums indices
of refraction.
n
1
sinu
I
= n
2
sinu
r

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
When a light ray enters a medium with a lower index of
refraction, the light will bend away from the normal
instead of toward it. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
occurs when the ray bends away from the normal to
the extent that the light gets directed back into the
original medium. Fiber optics employ TIR to carry data
in the form of light.
F
i
r
s
t

m
e
d
i
u
m
S
e
c
o
n
d

m
e
d
i
u
m
N
o
r
m
a
l
u
i

u
r

Incident
light ray
Refracted
light ray
F
i
r
s
t

M
e
d
i
u
m
S
e
c
o
n
d

M
e
d
i
u
m

N
o
r
m
a
l

u
i
u
r
Incident
light ray
A. Reflected
light ray
Light
source
Light rays


WAVES
PHASE CHANGES PHASE SHIFT INTERFERENCE

CHANGING PHASE
When a light ray reflects off a medium with a
higher index of refraction than the original
medium, the wave will change phase. Instantly,
the peaks become troughs and the troughs
become peaks.

WAVES IN PHASE

WAVES OUT OF PHASE

OVERVIEW
When light rays travel through a thin film
of a medium, the phase shift can cause
wave interference between
the reflected and refracted rays.

OIL FILM INTERFERENCE
1. A light ray travels through air
2. The ray hits a thin film of oil, which has a higher
index of refraction than air
3. Some of the energy reflects back into the air as the
reflected light ray
4. Some of the energy enters the oil film and refracts,
bending toward the normal
5. The refracted ray then hits the bottom of the oil film
6. This ray reflects back upward, but experiences a
phase change since air has a lower index of
refraction
7. The reflection of the refracted ray reaches the
surface of the oil film
8. As it enters the air, it refracts, bending away from
the normal
9. This ray emerges parallel to the original reflected
ray
10. The two waves experience wave interference due to
the phase change and the path length difference

Incident
ray
Reflected
ray
Refracted
ray
Oil (n = 1.45)
Air (n = 1.00)


WAVES
PRISMS SIMPLE LENSES
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Reflection and refraction can change the path of light
waves. These concepts provide a method for aiming
light at a specific point.
TRIANGLUAR PRISMS

Prisms change the direction of light rays using
refraction and geometry

They are made from glass, which has an index of
refraction of 1.5

Air, with an index of refraction of 1.0, surrounds
them

Parallel rays of light hit one side of the prism and
bend toward the normal

The light travels through the prism then reach the
other side of the triangle

The ray moves from glass to air, and so bends away
from the normal

When the prism stands upright, both refractions
will bend the wave downward

Flipping the prism upside down causes both
refractions to bend the wave upward

CONVERGING LENSES
An upright prism placed on top of an upside-down
prism will direct light rays to a single point. Converging
lenses work in this manner, concentrating light rays at
a single focal point.

DIVERGING LENSES
An upside-down prism placed on top of an upright
prism will defocus parallel rays. Diverging lenses use
this concept. Objects seen through a diverging lens will
appear closer than their actual position.

Incident
rays
Incident
rays
Focal
point
Glass prism
(n = 1.5)
Incident ray
Refracted
ray
Glass prism
(n = 1.5)
Incident ray
Refracted
ray


ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Electrostatics (Page 1 of 3)
ELECTRIC CHARGE ELECTRIC FORCES

COMPARING MASS AND CHARGE
Mass and charge must be associated with an
object. Just as a mass of 5 kg cannot exist unless
it is an object with a mass of 5 kg. Likewise, a
charge of 3 C cannot exist unless it is an object
with a charge of 3 C. Both mass and electric
charge serve as inherent measurements of an
object since the object will need to change
considerably for its mass or charge to change.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECRTIC CHARGES

Denoted by the variable q

Measured in coulombs (C)

Classified as either positive or negative

Positive charges attract negative charges and repel
positive charges

Negative charges attract positive charges and repel
negative charges

The net charge of a system remains constant due to
charge conservation

SIGNIFICANT SCIENTISTS:
ROBERT MILLIKAN
Robert Millikan (1868 -- -
1953) conducted an oil
drop experiment in the
20
th
century. In this
experiment, he found that
all charges come in
multiples of a fundamental
charge called e, equal to
1.602 x 10
-19
C. With the
exception of quarks, which
have charges of 1/3 e or
2/3 e, all charges must be
integer multiples of e.

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES NET CHARGE
Proton e
Electron -- -e
Neutron 0

CHARLES-AUGUSTIN DE COULOMB

French physicist Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb
(1736-1806) found a
method of quantifying
the force formed
between multiple electric
charges.

COULOMBS LAW

VARIABLES
F
electric
Electric force
k
e
Electric constant (8.99 x 10
9
Nm
2
/C
2
)
q
1
First charge
q
2
Second charge
r Distance between charges

DIRECTION OF ELECTRIC FORCE
The signs of charges determine the direction of the
force. Charges with the same sign form repulsive
forces while charges with opposite signs form
attractive forces.

-
+
Electric force
+
+
Electric force


ELECTRIC FIELDS CHARGES IN MATERIALS
OVERVIEW
An electric field comes from a charge.
It places a force on other nearby charges.

ELECTRIC FIELD EQUATIONS

The forces direction depends on the charges
sign. With a positive charge, the force acts in the
same direction as the electric field. With a
negative charge, the force acts in the same
direction as the electric field.

This equation adapts Coulombs law to find the
strength of the electric field. With positive
charges, the electric field points outward. With
negative charges, the electric field points inward.

VARIABLES
F

Electric force
k

Electric constant
(8.99 x 10
9
Nm
2
/C
2
)
q

Electric charge
E

Electric field

OVERVIEW
Most objects contain the same number of
protons and electrons, and so remain neutral. Adding
or removing electrons, however, can
change the charge. The protons stay in the center
of the atom and therefore are almost
impossible to add or remove.

CONDUCTORS
-
Material that allows electrons to move freely
-
Includes most metals
INSULATORS
-
Material that restricts the flow of electrons
-
Includes glass, rubber, and wood

INDUCTION
Induction charges an object by
rearranging the electrons already present
instead of adding or subtracting them.
1. Move an object with a high positive charge
near an object with a neutral charge
2. The object will attract electrons
3. As electrons flow toward the side nearest the
positive object, the neutral object attracts the
positive object

Adding electrons
Negative charge
Removing
electron
Positive charge
Induction
by charge
The positive object
attracts the neutral object
- +


ELECTRIC POTENTIAL CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS

VARIABLES
PE
elec
Electric potential energy
k

Electric constant (8.99 x 10
9
Nm
2
/C
2
)
q
1
First electric charge
q
2
Second electric charge
V Electric potential
C Capacitance
Q Charge of a capacitors plates
AV Voltage difference
c
o
Permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10
-12

C
2
/(Nm
2
)

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Electric potential energy exists between two charges
nearby each other. Closer charges have more electric
potential energy than farther charges. As two alike
charges repel each other, the electric potential energy
converts to kinetic energy.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential, also known as voltage, comes from
the concept of energy. It is measured in volts, which
equals joules per coulomb.

Voltage difference (AV) will show the direction of
motion in comparison to an electric field. Moving with
the electric field yields a negative voltage difference
while moving against the electric field creates a positive
voltage difference.

CAPACITANCE

Defined as an objects ability to hold a charge

Measured in farads (F), which equals coulombs
divided by volts

A higher capacitance means an object will hold a
greater charge at any given voltage difference

CAPACITORS
Capacitors store energy in the form of electric fields.
The simplest type of capacitor, the parallel
plate capacitor, consists of two closely
spaced, oppositely charged plates.

Energy = C(AV)

Decreasing the area of the charged plates will decrease
the strength of the electric field while decreasing the
distance between the plates will increase the strength
of the electric field.


Current (Page 1 of 4)
VARIABLES AND EQUATIONS CURRENT

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current shows how much electric charge
passes through a point over a given time period. The
unit ampere (A), which equals one coulomb per
second, measures electric current.

RESISTANCE
Resistance emerges as electrons flow through a
material and they move past electrons within the
material. The unit ohm (O) measures resistance.
Conductors have low resistance while insulators have
high resistance.

ELECTRIC POWER
A current transfers energy to objects it passes through,
allowing them to perform tasks.
Power is measured in watts.
P = I(AV)
P = I
2
R

OHMS LAW
Ohms law shows a direct relationship
between current and voltage difference.
AV = IR
Ohmic materials obey Ohms law,
while non-ohmic material do not.

VARIABLES
I

Electric current
Aq

Charge
At

First electric charge
AV

Second electric charge
P Electric potential
DEFINITION
A voltage difference in a circuit establishes a positively
charged current. Although the term conventional
current refers to the flow of positive charges, an actual
current comes from the movement of negative
electrons. For this reason, the direction of a current
shows the direction of a theoretical flow of positive
charges. In actuality, current points in the opposite
direction of the flow of negative charges.

Electrons typically only move at .05 mm/s through a
circuit, but they still almost instantly power a device
when you flip a switch because a closed loop circuit
will form an electric field to provide the power.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the value of e?
2. Charging an object by rearranging the
electrons inside it is called _____.
3. Name two ways to increase the strength of
the electric field in a parallel plate capacitor.
4. What law gives the equation AV = IR?
ANSWERS
1. 1.602 x 10
-19
C
2. Induction
3. Increase the area of the charged plates or
decrease the distance between the plates.
4. Ohms law

- - -
I
Actual current
+ + +
I
Conventional current


KIRCHHOFFS RULES EXAMPLE CIRCUIT
THE JUNCTION RULE
Kirchhoffs first rule, the junction rule, states that the
sum of all currents entering a junction will equal the
sum of all currents exiting that junction.

I
in
= I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+
The junction rule reflects conservation of charge.
THE LOOP RULE
Kirchhoffs second rule, the loop rule, says that, when
dealing with a closed circuit, the sum of all voltage
drops a gains equals zero.
AV
loop
= AV
1
+ AV
2
+ AV
3
+
USING THE LOOP RULE

Pick a loop direction, either clockwise or
counterclockwise

Typically you want a loop direction that makes
batteries provide voltage gains and resistors provide
voltage drops

In this scenario, the loop direction flows in the same
direction as the current

When the loop direction opposes current, batteries
provide voltage drops while resistors create voltage
gains

PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
Find the resistance value of the unknown resistor and
the power used by the 8 O resistor.

VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS 6 O RESISTOR:
AV = IR
AV = 1 A (6 O)
AV = 6 V
VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS 8 O RESISTOR:
AV
loop
= AV
1
+ AV
2
+ AV
3
+
AV = 30 V -- - 6 V
AV = 24 V
POWER USED BY 8 O RESISTOR:
P = (V)
2
/(R)
P = (24 V)
2
/(8 O)
P = 72 W
CURRENT THROUGH 8 O RESISTOR:
AV = IR
24 V = I (8 O)
I = 3 A
CURRENT THROUGH UNKNOWN RESISTOR:
I
in
= I
1
+ I
2

3A = 1 A + I
I = 2 A
RESISTANCE OF UNKNOWN RESISTOR:
AV = IR
6 V = 2 A (R)
R = 3 O
6 O

30 V

8 O

?

I
1

I
2

=

1

A

I
I
R
1
Loop direction

I
in I
2
I
1
I
3


INSIDE A CIRCUIT EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

FULL CIRCUITS
To create an electric field to provide power, a circuit
must contain a source---- -typically a battery---- -to provide
an electric potential difference.
The circuit must also close into a full loop.
The positively charged conventional current will flow
from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative
terminal. Current that passes through
resistors will not get used up.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
WIRE

Represented by a straight line

Has zero resistance

BATTERY

Represented by two parallel lines
perpendicular to the wire

The longer line denotes the positive terminal

The shorter line denotes the negative terminal

Establishes a voltage difference, or
ElectoMotive Force (emf)

The emf, represented by c, gets measured in
volts

RESISTOR

Represented by choppy lines

Current passing through a resistor creates a
voltage difference

RESISTORS IN SERIES
Resistors placed in series are arranged so that the
current will travel through the first resistor and then
through the second resistor.

To find the equivalent resistance of resistors
in series, simply add together the individual resistance
values.
R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ R
4
+

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
Placing resistors in parallel arranges
them on separate wire paths. The current
must split before it reaches them.

To calculate the equivalent resistance
of resistors in parallel, the sum of the inverse
of the individual resistors will equal the
inverse of the equivalent resistance.

Unlike resistors in series, resistors in parallel
yield an equivalent resistance lower than each
individual resistance value.
OVERVIEW
While Ohms law only deals with a single resistor,
many circuits contain multiple resistors. To solve
for variables in a series with multiple resistors,
find the equivalent resistance, which will help
break down a complex circuit into a simpler
circuit with one resistor.
Resistors in Parallel
Resistors in Series
Resistor
Battery
Wire


CIRCUIT QUIZ

QUESTIONS
ON THE ABOVE CIRCUIT, FIND
ANSWERS
CURRENT
1. I
1

2. I
2

3. I
3

4. I
4

5. I
5

6. I
6

7. I
7

8. I
8

9. I
9

VOLTAGE DROPS
ACROSS
10. Resistor 1
11. Resistor 2
12. Resistor 3
13. Resistor 4
14. Resistor 5
POWER USED BY
15. Resistor 1
16. Resistor 2
17. Resistor 3
18. Resistor 4
19. Resistor 5
20. Equivalent
resistance
1. 3 A
2. 3 A
3. .75 A
4. .75 A
5. 1.5 A
6. 1.5 A
7. 2.25 A
8. 3 A
9. 3 A
10. 15 V
11. 6 V
12. 6 V
13. 6 V
14. 24 V
15. 45 W
16. 4.5 W
17. 4.5 W
18. 9 W
19. 72 W
20. 15 O
I
1
I
2
I
3 I
4 I
5
I
6
I
7
I
8
I
9
Resistor 1:
5 O
45 V

Resistor 5:
8 O
R
e
s
i
s
t
o
r

2
:

8

O

R
e
s
i
s
t
o
r

3
:

8

O

R
e
s
i
s
t
o
r

4
:

4

O


Magnetism (Page 1 of 3)
MAGNETIC FIELDS FROM A WIRE FIELDS AND POLES

RIGHT HAND RULE 1
Right Hand Rule 1 (RHR1) will show the direction of a
magnetic field created by a current-carrying wire.
Point your right thumb in the direction of the currents
flow and curl your fingers like you are grabbing a wire.
Your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic
field, which will encircle the wire.

HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED

Danish physicist
Hans Christian
Oersted (1777 -- - 1851)
discovered in 1820
that an electric
current would deflect
a magnetic compass.
This experiment
connected electricity
and magnetism for
the first time. He also
managed to establish
the direction of
magnetic fields
coming from current-
carrying wires.

STRENGTH OF A MAGNETIC FIELD
The SI unit tesla (T) measures the magnitude of a
magnetic field

MAGNETIC POLES

Magnetic poles come as North or
South types

Opposite types of poles attract
each other while the same types
repel each other

Poles exist in pairs with their
opposite pole

The North and South poles
cannot be separated from each
other

Magnetic field lines represent the
direction of the magnetic field

They enter a magnet through the
North pole and exit out of the
South pole
THE EARTHS POLES

A freely rotating compass acts as
a compass

The North pole of the magnet points to Earths
geographic North Pole

Earths magnetic South pole actually forms Earths
geographical North Pole

The magnetic North pole is Earths geographic
South Pole

VARIABLES
B

Magnetic field
o
Permeability of free space (1.26 x 10
-6

(Tm)/A)
I

Current
r

Distance from wire
North
pole
South
pole


DIRECTION OF FORCE MAGNITUDE OF FORCE
RIGHT HAND RULE 2
A magnetic field places a force on a charged particle
directed perpendicularly to both the particles velocity
and the direction of the magnetic field lines. Right Hand
Rule 2 (RHR2) determines the direction of this force.
1. Place your thumb in the direction of the charges
velocity
2. Extend your forefinger in the direction of the
magnetic field
3. Your middle finger will point in the direction of the
force
4. When dealing with negative charges, you must flip
the force by 180 to receive the correct answer

PATH OF A MOVING CHARGE
A force will affect the motion direction of a moving
charges velocity. Since the charges velocity
determines the direction of the force, the force will
change as will. As a result, a charged particle will move
in a circle if placed in a magnetic field that can contain
the particles entire pathway.

RHR2 shows that the force on this charge points left.
The Xs denote that the magnetic field points into the
page.

The particles velocity begins pointing left as well,
causing the force to change. The charge moves in a
circular path.
EQUATION
F = qvBsinu

FINDING THE FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE
Find the direction of the force on each of the moving
charged particles below.

ANSWERS
1. Down
2. Up
3. Out of the page

N

S
I
q
B
v
u
+
+
1.
2.
3.


MAGNETISM INSIDE A MATERIAL MAGNETISM QUIZ
OVERVIEW
All magnetic fields emerge from moving charges. This
phenomenon occurs in current-carrying wires, but also
in certain materials.

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
Ferromagnetic materials, which include
iron and nickel, exhibit magnetic properties.
Electrons contained within a material move
throughout that substance, forming
miniscule magnetic fields. Typically, these
magnetic fields remain on the microscopic
level and stay unperceivable to the
macroscopic world.
In the few ferromagnetic materials,
however, the atoms with that hold the
moving electrons line up in a manner that
allows the tiny magnetic fields to combine
into a larger field. These larger combined
fields can affect the outside world in
noticeable ways.

NORTH AND SOUTH POLES

QUESTIONS
1. What nationality was Hans Christian Oersted?
2. Han Christian Oersted observed that a current-
carrying affected a _______.
3. What direction does a magnetic field point directly
above a wire with a current flowing to the right?
4. Magnetic fields are measure in _____.
5. What is the equation for the strength of a magnetic
field?
6. What is the value of
o
?
7. A North pole magnet would repel what type of
magnet?
8. A South pole magnet would attract what type of
magnet?
9. What direction do the magnetic field lines point on a
magnet with a South pole on the left and a North
pole on the right?
10. What is the shape of the path a charged particle
travels when within a magnetic field?
11. What is the name of materials that exhibit magnetic
properties?
12. Name two examples of these materials.

ANSWERS
1. Danish
2. Magnetic compass
3. Out
4. Teslas
5.
6. 1.26 x 10
-6
(Tm)/A
7. North
8. North
9. Left to right
10. Circle
11. Ferromagnetic
IRON AND NICKEL
Electrons move in circles
The form North and South
Poles
The atoms containing theses
electrons act as microscopic
magnets
Since the electron does not
divide, magnets' North and
South poles remain
inseparable


Electromagnetic Induction (Page 1 of 2)
MAGNETIC FLUX FARADAYS LAW
DEFINITION
Flux measures the amount of something passing
through a certain area. Magnetic flux therefore shows
the amount of magnetic field lines flowing through an
area.
u
B
= BAcosu
Magnetic flux is measured in webers, which equal
teslasm
2
.

VARIABLES
u
B
Magnetic flux
B

Magnetic field
A

Area
u

Angle between the magnetic field and
the areas normal
c Induced emf
At Time
EQUATION
Faradays law quantifies the magnitude of the induced
emf.

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Faradays law does not disobey conservation of energy
even though it creates a new current. Energy gets used
up while changing the magnetic flux.
MICHAEL FARADAY

English scientist Michael Faraday (1791 -- - 1867)
found in 1821 That a wire carrying a current would
move circularly around a fixed magnet. This
experiment helped the later development of
electric motors. In 1831, Faraday discovered that
by varying the current running though a wire,
which changes the magnitude of the magnetic
field, he could induce a second current in a
separate conductor.
Magnetic flux depends on
the strength
of the
magnetic
field
the angle
between the
area and the
magentic
field
the area the
magnetic
field passes
through
B
A


Electromagnetic Induction (Page 2 of 2)
LENZS LAW JAMES MAXWELL
THE LAW
Lenzs law stats that when a change in magnetic flux
forms an induced emf, the emf will always give rise to a
magnetic field that opposes the original change in
magnetic flux.
The law creates some difficulty because it deals with
two different magnetic fields.

EXAMPLE
A North pole magnet lines up with the plane of the
paper while a conductor lies perpendicular to that
plane. The magnetic field points right as the magnet
travels left, away from the conductor.

The movement results in a smaller magnetic flux, so
the induced emf produces a magnetic field that points
right to reinforce the magnetic original magnetic field.

RHR1 gives the direction of the induced emf using the
known direction of the magnetic field. From the
magnets point of view, the induced magnetic field
points into the paper and comes from a clockwise
moving current.

LIGHT
Maxwell illustrated light as an electromagnetic wave.
As a light wave traveled through space, the electric and
magnetic fields changed.
He managed to calculate the speed of light using the
constants
o
and c
o
.

SIGNIFICANT SCIENTISTS: JAMES MAXWELL

Scottish physicist and mathematician James Clerk
Maxwell (1831 -- - 1879) wrote A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field in 1864. This
publication offered four basic equations that
concisely summarized electricity and magnetism.
Induced
magnetic
field
Induced
current
Induced
magnetic
field
N
N
Bar magnet
Conductor


CRUNCH KIT
Science in Four Pages (Page 1)
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The scientific method forms and unending cycle that
helps scientists offer insight about the world
To begin, state a problem with clear boundaries
Next, collect observations and data
Form a hypothesis in general terms
End by drawing a conclusion
SYSTEMS OF UNITS
The International System of Units (SI) gets its
abbreviation from its French name Systeme International
The units convert easily since they rely on multiples of
ten
The fundamental units length, mass, and time, can
describe nearly all other measurements
When converting between units, multiply by factors of
one
VECTORS
Vector measurements include both a magnitude and
direction
Scalar measurements include only a direction
A vectors length represents its magnitude
The vector points in the same direction as its
measurement
When multiplying a vector by a positive vector, multiply
the magnitudes
When multiplying a vector by a negative vector, multiply
the magnitudes and flip the direction by 180
Add vectors using the head-to-tail approach
Line up the head of the first vector with the tail of the
second vector
Draw the new vector from the tail of the first vector to
the head of the second vector
To subtract a vector, flip the vector being subtracted by
180 and add it to the other vector
KINEMATIC VARIABLES
Kinematics is the description of motion
A coordinate system shows the direction associated with
positive and negative values
An objects position tells its distance from the origin
Displacement equals an objects change in position over
time
Distance equals the absolute value of displacement
Distance divided by time calculates velocity
Speed is the absolute value of velocity
Acceleration equals the change in velocity divided by the
time interval
KINEMATIC EQUATIONS
Ax = (x
1
-- - x
2
)
v = Ax/At
a =Av/At
v
f
= v
o
+ at
Ax = 1/2 (v
o
+ v
f
)t
Ax = v
o
+ 1/2 at
2

v
f
2
= v
o
2
+ 2a(Ax)
GALILEO GALILEI
Galileo Galilei lived from 1564 to 1642
He theorized that all objects will fall at the same rate in
the absence of air resistance
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY ON EARTH
Objects near the surface of the Earth accelerate at 9.80
m/s
2
due to gravity
In English units, the value equals 32 ft/s
2

The acceleration points toward the Earths center
PROJECTILE MOTION
Motion in the x-direction acts independently of motion
in the y-direction
Projectiles move in both the x and y-directions
Only the force of gravity acts on them
SIR ISAAC NEWTON
Sir Isaac Newton lived from 1643 to 1727
He wrote three laws of motion in his book Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica
The books title translates to Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy
NEWTONS THREE LAWS OF MOTION
Newtons first law defines force
It states that an object at rest will stay at rest and an
object in motion will maintain its velocity unless acted
on by an outside force
Newtons second law gives the equation F = ma
Newtons third law says that all forces comes with equal
but opposite reaction forces
FORCES
The term dynamics means the causes of motion
Force is measured in newtons (N)
The force of gravity uses the equation F = mg
Normal force arises when two objects sit against each
other
This force points perpendicularly to an objects surface
Friction comes from objects rubbing together
Kinetic friction slows objects in motion
Static friction tries to keep stationary objects at rest
A force diagram visually shows forces on an object


CRUNCH KIT
ENERGY
Energy gives an object the ability to perform tasks
It can change forms or transfer between objects
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
It is measured in joules (J)
Kinetic energy comes from an objects motion
KE = 1/2 mv
2

Potential energy is energy stored for later
For gravitational potential energy, PE = mgh
WORK
Applying a net force to an object performs work only if
the object actually moves
W = Fd
A positive value for work indicates that the force points
in the same direction as the motion
A negative value for work indicates that the force
opposes the objects motion
Forces perpendicular to the objects motion perform no
work
The work-energy theorem gives the equation W = AKE
CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES
Conservative forces transfer energy to an objects
internal systems
They neither add nor subtract from the systems total
energy
Conservative forces include gravity, electric forces, and
spring forces
Non-conservative forces add or remove energy from a
system
These forces include kinetic friction, air resistance, and
pushing or pulling forces
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Conservation of energy occurs only when just
conservative forces act on a system
KE
i
+ PE
e
= KE
f
+ PE
f

To solve an energy problem involving non-conservative
forces, add the amount of energy taken or added to the
appropriate side of the equation
IMPULSE
Impulse shows an objects change in motion when a
force acts over a time period
J = F(At)
Seat belts and airbags function on the concept of impulse
They reduce the magnitude of a force by increasing the
stopping time
MOMENTUM
Momentum uses the equation p = mv
The impulse-momentum theorem connects the two
variables with the equation J = A(mv)
Systems with no net external forces will conserve
momentum
TYPES OF COLLISIONS
Elastic collisions conserve energy and momentum
Inelastic collision conserve only momentum
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) involves a restoring
force attempting to return an object to equilibrium
SHM looks like a sinusoidal graph
HOOKES LAW
Hookes law deals with the restoring force in SHM
F
Hookes
= -(constant)(displacement)
For a spring, F
Hookes
= -k(Ax)
The variable k stands for the spring constant
A springs potential energy uses the equation PE
spring
=
1/2 k(Ax)
PERIODS OF DISPLACEMENT
The spring constant and objects mass affect the period
of displacement for a spring

The string length and acceleration due to gravity affect
the period of displacement for a pendulum

CIRCULAR MOTION VARIABLES
Moment of inertia (I) quantifies an objects mass and
distribution of mass
Torque is the circular motion equivalent of force
t = (r)(F)
Angular velocity shows how quickly an object rotates
Angular momentum determines the difficulty of
stopping rotation
Conservation of angular momentum occurs when the
net torque equals zero
Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration of an object
from its circular motion
a
cent
= v
2
/r
An object remains in equilibrium when its net force and
torque equal zero


CRUNCH KIT
TRAVELING WAVE DEFINITIONS
A traveling wave is a moving fluctuation that carries
energy
The wave travels trough a medium
It comes from a wave source
The peak is waves the highest displacement from the
equilibrium
The trough is the lowest displacement from the
equilibrium
The amplitude (A) measures the distance from peak to
equilibrium
A waves period (T) measures the length of time to
repeat its motion
Frequency (f) shows how often a certain displacement
passes a specific point
f = 1/T
The wavelength () equals the distance for a wave to
repeat its motion
The wave velocity measures the speed a wave moves
through its medium
WAVE VELOCITY EQUATION
v = f
Wave velocity depends on the medium
Wavelength depends on frequency and velocity
Frequency depends on the wave source
TRANSVERSE WAVES
Transverse waves displace their medium perpendicularly
to the direction of travel
Light, formed from vibrating electric charges, exemplifies
transverse waves
Humans perceive light frequencies from 4 x 10
14
Hz (red
light) to 7 x 10
14
Hz (yellow light)
Humans see yellow-green light the best
INDEX OF REFRACTION
Light travels at 3.0 x 10
8
m/s through a vacuum
To find the speed of light in different mediums, use the
equation n = c/v
The variable n stands for the mediums index of
refraction
LONGITUDNAL WAVES
A longitudinal wave displaces its medium in the same
direction it travels
Sound, a fluctuation in a mediums pressure or density,
exemplifies longitudinal waves
Sound travels through air at 340 m/s
Humans hear sounds from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
Ultrasonic sounds are below 20 Hz while supersonic
sounds are above 20,000 Hz
WAVE INTERFERENCE
Wave interference occurs when two waves meet on the
same plane
Constructive interference involves two waves whose
peaks overlap at the same point
The amplitudes add together
Destructive interference occurs when one peak overlaps
with another trough
The amplitudes cancel out
PATH LENGTH DIFFERENCE
Identical waves can interfere when they travel different
path lengths to reach the same point
These waves have a path length difference (Ar)
For constructive interference, Ar = m
For destructive interference, Ar = (m + 1/2)
The double slit experiment, or Youngs experiment,
demonstrates path length difference with light
FREQUENCY DIFFERENCES
Two waves with slight different frequencies can interfere
Beats involve sound waves fluctuating rapidly between
loud and soft
To measure beat frequency, use the equation f
beats
= |f
2

-- - f
1
|
LAW OF REFLECTION
Light rays travel in straight lines outward from a light
source
The law of reflection states that wen a light ray hits a
medium, the angle of reflection will equal the angle of
the incident ray
REFRACTION
When light enters a new medium, it bends, or refracts,
due to the change in speed
Mediums with higher indices of refraction make the light
bend toward the normal
Mediums with lower indices of refraction cause the light
to bend away from the normal
Snells law gives the equation n
1
sinu
1
= n
2
sinu
2

Total Internal Reflection occurs when the waves bend far
enough that they enter the original medium again
PHASE SHIFTS
Waves hitting a medium with a higher index of refraction
will change phase
Troughs become peaks and peaks become troughs
In thin films, phase shifts can cause wave interference
LENSES
Prisms change the direction of light through refraction
and geometry
Converging lenses direct light to a single focal point
Diverging lenses defocus parallel light rays


CRUNCH KIT
CHARGES
Charge cannot exist with an object carrying the charge
Positive charges attract negative charges and repel
positive charges
ROBERT MILLIKAN
Robert Millikan lived from 1868 to 1953
His oil drop experiment found that all charges are
multiples of 1.602 x 10
-19
C (e)
CHARLES-AUGUSTIN DE COULOMB
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb lived from 1736 to 1806
He quantified the force between multiple charges
ELECTRIC FIELDS
F = q
o
E
E = k(q/r
2
)
Electric fields move outward from positive charges and
inward from negative charges
CHARGES IN MATERIALS
Adding electrons to an object gives a negative charge
Taking electrons from an object gives a positive charge
Conductors, like metals, let electrons move freely
Insulators, like glass, wood, and rubber, restrict electron
movement
Induction charges an object by rearranging its electrons
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential energy forms from nearby charges
PE
elec
= k (q
o
q
1
/r)
Electric potential also goes by the term voltage
V = PE
elec
/q
o

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance (C) measures the ability to hold a charge
It is measured in farads (F)
C = Q/AV
Capacitors store energy as electric fields
C = c
o
(A/d)
The simplest capacitor is the parallel plate capacitor
CURRENT VARIABLES
Electric current (I) shows how much charge passes
through a point over a time period
It is measured in amperes (A)
Conventional current is the theoretical flow of positive
charges
Resistance (R) is measured in ohms (O)
P = I(AV)
Ohms law gives the equation AV = IR
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Two parallel lines represent a battery
A resistor looks like choppy lines
The circuit must close into a complete loop
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
Equivalent resistance combines the resistors across a
circuit into one resistance value
Values for resistors in series get added together
The inverse of equivalent resistance for resistors in
parallel equals the inverse of the individual resistors
KIRCHHOFFS RULES
The junction rule states that the sums of currents
entering a junction equals the sum of currents exiting
The loop rules says that voltage drops and gains across a
circuit must add to zero
HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED
Hans Christian Oersted lived from 1777 to 1851
He found that current deflected a magnetic compass
POLES
Similar poles repel while opposite poles attract
Magnetic field lines move from South to North
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit magnetism
HAND RULES
Right Hand Rule 1 gives the direction of a magnetic field
from a current-carrying wire
Point your thumb in the direction of the current and curl
your fingers in the direction of the magnetic field
Right Hand Rule 2 gives the direction of the force on a
moving charge
Point your thumb in the direction of velocity, your
forefinger in the direction of the magnetic field, and your
middle finger in the direction of the force
MICHAEL FARADAY
Michael Faraday lived from 1791 to 1867
He found that a current-carrying wire moved around a
fixed magnet
He also induced a current by changing the magnetic field
from another current
Faradays law give the equation c = Au
B
/At
MAGNETIC FLUX
Magnetic Flux measures how many magnetic field lines
move through an area
u
b
= BAcosu
Lenzs law says an induced emf forms a current with a
magnetic field to oppose the change in magnetic flux
JAMES MAXWELL
James Clerk Maxwell lived from 1831 to 1879
He wrote A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic
Field


CRUNCH KIT
List of Lists
IMPORTANT SCIENTISTS 12 HIGH PRIORITY KINEMATICS TERMS
de Coulomb,
Charles-Augustin
French physicist who created a formula to
calculate the force between multiple
electric charges
Faraday, Michael English scientist who discovered
electromagnetic induction
Galilei, Galileo Mathematician, physicist, and astronomer
who found that, in the absence of air
resistance, all objects fall toward Earth at
the same rate of acceleration regardless of
their mass
Maxwell, James Scottish physicist and mathematician
whose work led to breakthrough in
electricity and magnetism; known as the
father of modern physics
Millikan, Robert American physicist whose oil drop
experiment showed that all electric
charges come as multiples of a
fundamental charge
Newton, Sir Isaac Scientist who wrote three universal laws
that described all motion; wrote
Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica
Oersted, Hans
Christian
Danish physicist who discovered that an
electric current will affect a nearby
magnetic compass needle
Acceleration due
to gravity on Earth
9.80 m/s
2
; denoted by the letter g
Conservative force A force that does not change the total
energy of a system
Elastic collision A collision that conserves energy and
momentum
Friction Force from two objects rubbing together
that always opposes motion
Inelastic collision A collision that does not conserve energy
Kinematics The description of motion
Non-conservative
force
A force that does not change the total
energy of a system
Projectile An object that moves both horizontally
and vertically through the air, falling only
due to gravitational force
Scientific Method A cycle of steps that direct the process of
scientific discovery
Scalar Any measurement with a magnitude but
no direction
Simple Harmonic
Motion
A periodic motion between two sides of an
equilibrium value
Vector Any measurement with both a magnitude
and direction
12 HIGH PRIORITY WAVE TERMS 11 HIGH PRIORITY ELECTRICITY TERMS

Beats Sound waves rapidly fluctuating between
loud and soft due to wave interference
from frequency differences
Constructive
interference
Two waves overlapping with their peaks
and troughs in the same positions
Converging lens A lens that focuses parallel light rays to a
single point
Destructive
interference
Two waves overlapping with ones peak
lining up with the other waves trough
Diverging lens A lens that defocuses parallel light rays
Light ray A representation a light waves
Light wave A transverse wave formed from vibrating
electric charges
Longitudinal wave A wave that displaces its medium in the
same direction it travels
Medium The substance through which a wave
travels
Refraction The bending of a light wave due to a
change of speed as it enters a new
medium
Sound wave A longitudinal wave formed from
fluctuations in the density or pressure of
its medium
Transverse wave A wave that displaces its medium
perpendicularly to the direction of its
travel

Capacitor A device that stores energy as an electric
field
Conductor A material that encourages the flow of
electrons; includes most metals
Conventional
current
The theoretical flow of positive charges
Ferromagnetic Materials that have atoms which combine
their microscopic magnetic fields into a
macroscopic field
In parallel A placement of resistors in which the
current splits before reaching them
In series A placement of resistors in which the
current reaches each one successively
Insulator A material that inhibits the movement of
electron; includes glass, rubber, and wood
Magnetic pole Property of a magnet that determines the
direction of the magnetic field
Oil drop
experiment
Robert Millikans experiment that
determined that charges come as
multiples of a fundamental charge
Parallel plate
capacitor
The simplest type of capacitor; formed
from two oppositely charged plates
Resistor A circuit element that has resistance and a
voltage difference across it


CRUNCH KIT
List of Lists
LAWS TO KNOW 13 MEDIUM PRIORITY KINEMATICS TERMS
Coulombs law F
electric
= (k
e
)(q
1
q
2
/r
2
)
Faradays law c = - (Au
B
/At)
Hookes law F
Hookes
-(constant (displacement
Junction Rule The sum of currents entering a junction
equals the sum of currents exiting
Lenzs law A change in magnetic flux induces an emf
that forms a current with a magnetic filed
opposing the original change in magnetic
lux
Loop rule The sum of voltage drops and gains across
a circuit equals zero
Newtons first law Defines force
Newtons second
law
F = ma
Newtons third law States every force has an equal but
opposite reaction force
Ohms law AV =IR
Right Hand Rule 1 Shows the direction of a magnetic field
from a current-carrying wire
Right Hand Rule 2 Shows the direction of force on a charged
particle moving through an electric field
Snells law n
1
sinu
1
= n
2
sinu
2

Air resistance The force created by air molecules rubbing
against each other
Centripetal Greek word for center seeking
Dynamics The causes of motion
Equilibrium When net force and torque on an object
equal zero
English System A unit system with the basic units of foot,
slug, and second for length, mass, time
Force diagram A representation of all the forces working
on an object
Head-to-tail A method of vector addition in which the
head of the first vector is placed at the tail
of the second vector
Hypothesis A scientists broadly stated idea; tested by
the scientific method
International
System of Units
The unit system used by most of the world
Kinetic friction Force that works to slow moving objects
Mechanics The study of the causes of motion
Restoring force A force in SHM that attempts to return an
object to equilibrium
Static friction Force that attempts to prevent an object
from beginning to move

15 MEDIUM PRIORITY WAVE TERMS 16 MEDIUM PRIORITY ELECTRICITY TERMS

Double slit
experiment
Light shines through two closely spaced
slits, projecting a pattern of bright and
dark spots onto a screen
Focal point The spot where light rays come together
after passing through a converging lens
Incident light ray Light ray that hits a new medium
Infrasonic Any sound below 20 Hz
Normal The line perpendicular to the boundary
between two mediums
Phase A waves orientation of peaks and troughs
Reflected light ray The light ray that gets directed back into
the original medium when an incident light
ray hits a new medium
Superposition The addition of overlapping waves
amplitudes
Total internal
reflection
When a light ray refracts away from the
normal to the extent that it gets directed
back into the original medium
Traveling wave An oscillation moving through a medium
Ultrasonic Any sound above 20,000 Hz
Vacuum A space without a medium
Wave interference Another term for superposition
Wave source The object or force that creates a wave
Youngs
experiment
Another name for the double slit
experiment
Battery The typical power source of a circuit
Compass A freely rotating magnet
Electrical constant A constant equal to 8.99 x 10
9
; uses the
symbol k
e

Electromagnetic
Induction
Concept discovered by Michael Faraday
Flux Amount passing through a given area
Induction Charging an object by reordering the
electrons already present in the object
Magnetic field
lines
An indication of the direction of the
magnetic fields
Muon A subatomic particle
Non-ohmic Material that does not obey Ohms law
Neutron A subatomic particle with no charge
Ohmic Material that obeys Ohms law
Permeability of
free space
A constant equal to 1.26 x 10
-- -6
(Tm)/A;
uses the symbol
o
Permittivity of free
space
A constant equal to 8.85 x 10
-- -12
C2/(Nom
2
); uses the symbol
0

Pion A subatomic particle
Proton A positively charg d subatomic particle
Quark A subatomic particle with a charge of 1/3
e or 2/3 e


CRUNCH KIT
List of Lists
15 KINEMATIC VARIABLES 10 WAVE VARIABLES
Acceleration The change in velocity divided by the time
interval
Displacement The amount an objects position changes
over an interval of time
Distance The absolute value of displacement
Energy The quantity an object possesses related
to its ability to do work
Force An interaction between objects that
affects motion
Impulse Force multiplied by time
Kinetic energy The energy of an object due to motion
Moment of inertia Measurement that accounts for both mass
and distribution of mass
Momentum Mass times velocity
Normal force The force from two objects pressed
against each other
Potential energy An objects stored energy
Speed The absolute value of velocity
Torque The equivalent of force when considering
circular motion
Velocity Displacement divided by the time interval
Work A force changing the velocity of an object

Amplitude The distance from a waves peak to its
equilibrium
Beat frequency The rate at which the wave interference
cycle of beats is heard
Frequency How often a certain displacement of a
wave reaches a fixed point
Index of refraction A ratio that shows how much slower a
light wave travels through a certain
medium when compared to its velocity in
a vacuum
Path length
difference
The difference in the distances that two
waves coming from two different sources
must travel for them to reach the same
point
Peak The highest point that a wave reaches
away from its medium
Period The time for a wave to repeat its motion
Trough The lowest point that a wave reaches
away from its medium
Wave velocity The speed at which a wave travels through
its medium
Wavelength The distance a wave takes to repeat its
motion

14 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM VARIABLES UNITS

Capacitance The ability to retain a stationary charge
Current The quantity of electric charge traveling
through a certain point over a time period
Electric charge An inherent measurement of an object;
either positive or negative
Electric field A field coming from a charge that places a
force on nearby charges
Electric force The force one charge places on another
charge
Electric potential Another term for voltage
Electric power How much electric energy a device uses
over a period of time
Electrical potential
energy
The energy a charged particle has from
being near another charge
ElectroMotive
force
Another term for the voltage difference
from a battery
Equivalent
resistance
The total resistance of a circuit
Magnetic field Determines how much force a current or
magnet places on a moving charge
Magnetic flux The amount of magnetic field lines flowing
through a given area
Resistance A materials opposition to the flow of
electrons
Voltage Electric potential energy divided by charge
Ampere The unit of current; equals a C/s
Coulomb The unit of charge
Farad The unit of capacitance; equals a C/V
Foot The basic English unit of length
Gill Unit of the English system equal to a
quarter of a pint
Hz The unit of frequency; equals 1/s
Joule The unit of energy; equals a kg x m
2
/s
2
Kilogram The basic SI unit of mass
Meter The basic SI unit of length
Meter per second The units for speed
Newton The unit of force; equals a kg m/s
2

N-m A newton times a meter; equals one joule
Ohm The unit of resistance; equals a V/A
Pint Unit of the English system equal to four
gills
Second The basic SI and English unit of time
Slug The basic English unit of mass
Tesla The unit of magnetic field
Volt The unit of electric potential; equals a J/C
Weber The unit of magnetic flux; equals a T m
2


FINAL TIPS AND ABOUT THE AUTHOR
FINAL TIPS ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Be sure that you know each main topic well enough
to explain it

Remember all of the equations; you dont want to
get stuck with a math question where you know the
concept but forgot the equation

Memorize the few facts and numbers that could
make easy recall questions

Keep track of the variables and units, especially in
the Electricity and Magnetism section where they
can easily be confused with each other

Learn all of the different terms and their definitions

Dont panic! Even if you have had little or no
experience with physics before now, you can master
these basic topics with a little practice
In her junior and senior year
of high school, Kathleen
Schaefer competed as an
honors student in the
Academic Decathlon for
Casa Grande High School.
This year she will be
attending Harvey Mudd
College, where she will
study some yet-to-be-
announced science-related
major. Until then, she will
spend the rest of her
summer reading about the rest of the countrys storms
and oppressive heat waves while enjoying Californias
pleasantly warm weather.
ABOUT THE EDITOR
SOPHY LEE
Sophy Lee loves berries. In fact, she could probably survive off a diet of nothing but
strawberries, raspberries, mulberries, blackberries, and blueberries. Unfortunately,
Harvard University only offers canned blueberries and raspberries in its dining halls
during breakfastand canned just canned cut it (bad pun; cue laughter). Berryline also
happens to be her favorite fro-yo store, probably because it contains the word berry.
Shes found that berries best accompany steel-cut oats and vanilla yoghurt. They also
work remarkably well with bananas, protein powder, and yoghurt to form a scrum-
diddly-umptious post-60-mile-bike-ride recovery smoothie. Last year, during spring
break, Sophy enjoyed her friend Amandas homemade recovery smoothies so much that
she drank two glasses of it, and only stopped because they had used up all of Amandas
yoghurt. She hopes that this completely non-sequitur About the Author has distracted
you from the fact that competition is tomorrow (or, perhaps worse, in 20 minutes) and
you havent read the Resource Guide yet. Remember, your gut instinct is always right
except when its wrong, and Sophy believes in you but only if you believe in yourself.

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