Graziella Scicluna

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7. Discuss some of the anthropological challenges raised by the introduction of NRTs (New Reproductive Technologies)

The never ending discussions and debates about conception, pre- soon hood and kinship influenced by modern technology has raised the anthropological interest in New Reproductive technologies. In fact, in the last two decades developments in this kind of technology have proceeded in an astonishing manner. These developments lead those who are non-specialists in this sector to try and understand this ethically challenging information. This information is very important as it shows us facts about our identity and its origins. Discussions about the ethical, legal and social consequences of these technological assistances to conception lead anthropologists to address the certain cultural dimensions of these fast advances in reproductive and genetic science. The rapid progresses in the genetic and reproductive science lead this field to gain increasing importance not only in the anthropology of science but also in the study of kinship. Anthropologists wanted to explore topics in this significant area by doing ethnographic and theoretical analysis. This rapid progress created also with it, a sense of urgent need to in some manner to constraint what is commonly known as the

implications of this procedure. Various anthropologists such as Peter Riviere claimed that the problems in relation to parenthood caused by these new reproductive technologies are very well-known by anthropologists. On the other hand these NRT s can be compared to traditional forms such as adoption or levirate. Diverse researchers have stressed the distinguishing sets of cultural changes which come along with the arrival of these new types of choices and decisions with are the result of this fast technological change.

The rapid progresses in the genetic and reproductive science lead this field to gain increasing importance not only in the anthropology of science but also in the study of kinship. Kinship appeared as a fundamental theme into relation to the NRT s not only because the traditional anthropological knowledge in this area is perceived to offer a suitable and useful terminology for this study of social and cultural dimensions of NRT s. It also illustrates us some of the problems created by the NRT s as it highlights some aspects of diverse presumptions of the traditional kinship theories. The British anthropologist Strathern, makes an analysis in which she criticizes David Schneider s explanation of kinship. In brief words this anthropologist states that the public debates regarding the NRT s concern only the natural ideas which are than modified since they are supported by technology. Even though Schneider had put forward that the American kinship system can be conceived in terms of symbolic distinction where there is a contrast between the order of blood ties and that of marriage, Strathern offers a quite different speculation. This anthropologist uses the background of assisted conception to subvert this contrasting opposition, in order that she demonstrates that kinship is a mixture of apparently diverse domains. These domains can be regarded as the human being and society and nature and culture. Sequentially she says that these amalgamation effects demonstrate the diverse cultural specificity of the Euro-American knowledge practices. Obviously, these implications of the new reproductive technologies create various

considerable challenges. These NRT s generate new persons but also new forms of knowledge and connections. In the genetic research done by Rayna Rapp one can notice the theme of genetic counseling as there are different contexts of interpretation in the meeting between the clinicians and the patients. Surely decision-making in this kind of counseling is a tough choice; the clinician needs to be very careful when he is explaining the scientific

information to those couples.

Other ethnographic research has shown that these

technologies have altered the real meaning of the gift of life . Several negotiations have shown that many couples of the upper-classes which cannot have babies pay working-class couples in order to be their substitutes. In diverse cultures studies about assisted conception have shown that anthropological debates about reproduction are used to place the conflict with infertility and its relation to well-known gender codes and tradition in different cultures. The American studies about IVF show us important points of stability and differences. Reports about new reproductive technology show it s increasingly importance which even intersects with studies of new genetics. This means that studies about reproduction have extended and are now including not only human but animal, plant and unicellular reproduction. Obviously, this highlighted the worth significance of biodiversity and genetics. Rebecca Dresser in her research Designing Babies says that these NRT s could concern not only these genetically modified embryos but also their offspring. Dresser states that these technologies could offer also implications in the relationship between mother and child and it could also produce some social inequalities. She stresses the importance of the ethical issues, which in most of the time are ignored. As in recent years advances in research in this sector have advanced, she highlights the need to pay more attention when one is testing human embryos which substantially are expected to become children. Dresser questions herself whether other interventions in this sector will decrease the ethical justification for human testing. She also questions whether the decision-making process in this sector could not only be appropriate for the subject doing the intervention or also the future generations which are the result of these interventions. In her article she shows how human testing represents numerous ethical and practical problems. These problems are very serious and

she specifies that certain issues would happen if the planned human testing is not correctly followed. Dresser also talks about the important topic of PGM s (pre implantation genetic modification) these are modifications that are done in early embryos which are done with the intention to concern a future child. It is also probable that they would have some germline effects which could affect the descendants of these children. She stresses the importance, they we evaluate the problems that these modifications would procure not only to the direct subject but also to its offspring A commitment to evaluate potential effects on direct subjects' descendants would add complexity to the assessment of study risks and potential benefits, substantially lengthen the study period, and increase the number of subjects needed to complete the study.
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According to Dresser, this type of research could make it more prone for humans to be affected by sickness rather than a real health benefit since we are still in an early phase of experimentation. An additional feature that one has to notice about this type of research is the ethical feature. Dresser highlights some important questions such as what would investigators do with does embryos which undergo experiments. Dresser offers some possibilities As in the infertility treatment setting, rules would be needed to resolve disagreements over whether embryos should be transferred for gestation, donated for laboratory study, or discarded.
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She also stresses the point and she questions whether it is a

good thing for the surviving subjects to be continuously monitored during their lives.

Dresser Rebecca, Designing Babies: Human Research Issues . Ethics and Human Research, Vol 26, No 5, September October 2004 2 Dresser Rebecca, Designing Babies: Human Research Issues . Ethics and Human Research, Vol 26, No 5, September October 2004

Another anthropological challenge is to see whether the existing methods of PGM s are safe enough and effective so that any unintended effect will be evident on later-born children. In this case animal data would be critical information because if it shows the absence of serious negative effects in the subject s offspring one could proceed with these experiments. Anthropologists have to see if genetic tests would provide a diagnostic accuracy so that future parents would know about potential diseases that their child would have Inaccuracies in predicting target conditions would be an ethical problem because PGM research risks would be unwarranted if an embryo had a reasonable chance of developing naturally into a healthy or mildly affected child.
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Anthropologists have to face another challenge human PGM would produce diverse difficulties regarding the study procedures. It is important that these researchers show us malign effects before and after the subject s birth. Another important thing is that subject s have to be monitored over a lifetime so that researchers are sure that there is inheritability stability. But as Dresser highlights what would happen if the monitored subject is not still alive? Studies in human PGM present us with these demands so that we could decipher future health problems. But there is also a further aspect the prospective parents have the right to implant a fertilize embryo into a woman s uterus even if there is a large risk that the couple would have a disabled child. And is it right, that the parents decide to continue the monitoring on the child till it has appropriate age to decide for themselves. This could have a great impact on their lives knowing that they in some manner are different from other children. Are the parents being too egoistic when they decide to opt for the PGM other than trying adoption or donor gametes "Would you opt for a traumatic ... procedure that might

Dresser Rebecca, Designing Babies: Human Research Issues . Ethics and Human Research, Vol 26, No 5, September October 2004

give you a very slightly happier child, might give you a less happy, less talented child, might give you a deformed child, and probably would do nothing?
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Obviously these new reproductive technologies changed also the concept of family and parenthood and kinship in current Britain. Chris Shore in his article "Virgin Births and Sterile Debates: Anthropology and the New Reproductive Technologies" talks about this topic but from a diverse perspective, he sees the whole thing from a political and gender dimensional perspective. Chris Shore takes actual debates regarding fertility control and compares them with ancient anthropological debates which concern traditional beliefs about reproduction. On the other hand, Shore offers us a complete different reason why anthropology is very important in this sector." The task of anthropological inquiry is to explore their deeper structural and ideological implications. The assumption that the new reproductive technologies are controversial simply because they threaten established ideals of the family and motherhood is found wanting : instead, what is at issue is the vested interest that all societies have in the symbolic control of fertility and reproduction."5 These technologies became very controversial in past years especially after the case of the so-called Virgin Birth scandal. The anthropologist Chris Shore uses this episode to highlight diverse issues especially its legal and social implications. This episode presents us a young lady ( 20 years) who was a virgin but still she succeeded in having a baby by artificial insemination. This episode challenged the well-known ideas of motherhood and the natural birth. According to Douglas Long episodes like this which have to do with New Reproductive technologies are seen as threatening because they are out of our cultural values and system.
Dresser Rebecca, Designing Babies: Human Research Issues . Ethics and Human Research, Vol 26, No 5, September October 2004 5 Shore, Chris, Virgin Births and Sterile Debates: Anthropology and the New Reproductive Technologies . Current Anthropology, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jun., 1992), pp. 295-314.
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Anthropologists like Shore ask themselves if with these NRT's the value of human life is threathed in its sanctity which will eventually lead to a total genetic engineering which will later on arrive at the point of destructing human life. Shore also highlights the consequences of such technologies, one of them is that regarding the legal aspect. Shore asks himself whether it will be the social mother or the genetic or does the person who had given the sperm possess any right to claim the child as his. This anthropologist uses the example of some feminist writers where they ask what would be the impact of these NRT's on women's lives especially in places where women are regarded in terms of their ability of giving birth. Shore with the help of other anthropologists tries to show us the contrasting contradictions between "proper motherhood" and the " natural family". He also illustrates the perspective of who is responsible for the gift of life. This anthropologist emphasizes also the legitimation of these conception "There are interesting parallels between these debates and current controversies about embryology, infertility, and in vitro fertilization. In both cases similar questions are raised : When exactly does life occur, who is responsible for it, and what constitutes " legitimate" conception in a given cultural context?". 6 He says that recently the medical profession entered the debate of who is mainly responsible for conception, leaving aside God, woman the state and the church. Shore uses feminist writers to illustrate us the point that embryo research meant the loss of identity to women. According to Spallone this research which promotes " to improve on nature " in reality is hiding a more important message which says " to improve on women". These NRT's are seen as harming women because they destruct the women's integrity not only in its integrity but also they exploit their pro creativity. Many anthropologists observed that
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Shore, Chris, Virgin Births and Sterile Debates: Anthropology and the New Reproductive Technologies . Current Anthropology, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jun., 1992), pp. 295-314.

infertility is a real social stigma and not a simple medical problem. Ideologies regarding fertility and conception are set in a wider social and economic background. Anthropology shows us that in every society there is a general interest to control reproduction especially by powerful institutions like the church and the state. Anthropologists showed us that spiritual kinship gains life through baptism as it symbolizes birth but with modern technologies we have the potential to go further the symbolic natural birth. Even Jacqueline Campbell in her article I have two mums, one dad and two parents presents us with the rapid changes and implication that these NRT's brought with them. The concept of family changed in a drastic manner. The concept of parent also changed. Nowadays, not only married couples are having children "In 2020, babies and families will undoubtedly be created in ways not foreseen now by scientists, lawyers and social planners, nor by the community generally."7 Campbell also mentions the Diane Blood case, this episode shows us conception after death. This women succeeded in obtaining the permission to undergo ART after a sperm was removed from her husband which was dying. Anthropologists ask whether is it right that one person decides about the future of these sperms once the subject dies. But this case shows us that these new reproductive technologies are creating legislative problems as well. in fact, she challenged law as she wants their father's name on their birth certificate.

These New reproductive technologies have created various implications and challenges. Anthropologists try to study this controversial subject by looking at diverse cultural systems and comparing them with others. Nonetheless, this rapid social change has meant also a legislative change which is denominated by ethical debates. The debate over NRT s is that
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Campbell Jacqueline, I have two mums, one dad and two parents . Australian Population Association, 2002

they are being ethical or not. Anthropology is trying to outline how these rapid changes are changing the fundamental concepts of kinship and Parenthood . Although NRT s have

emerged in the field of anthropoloy the social issues raised by these technologies are far from resolved and they will continue to raise debates as public awareness will make them grow more sophisticated.

Bibliography: Campbell Jacqueline, I have two mums, one dad and two parents . Australian Population Association, 2002

Dresser Rebecca, Designing Babies: Human Research Issues . Ethics and Human Research, Vol 26, No 5, September October 2004

Simpson Bob, Bringing the Unclear Family into Focus: Divorce and Re-Marriage in Contemporary Britain . Man, New Series, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Dec., 1994)

Simpson Bob, Imagined Genetic Communities: Ethnicity and Essentialism in the TwentyFirst Century . Anthropology Today, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Jun., 2000) Shore, Chris, Virgin Births and Sterile Debates: Anthropology and the New Reproductive Technologies . Current Anthropology, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jun., 1992), pp. 295-314.

Warnock Committee, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilization and Embryology . 1984

Watt Helen, The Diane Blood Case . The Linacre Centre

Zylinska Joanna, The Secret of Life: Bioethics between Corporeal and Corporate Obligations . University of MIT 2009