P4 Stress and Strain

Dr. A.B. Zavatsky HT08

Lecture 8 Plane Strain and Measurement of Strain

Plane stress versus plane strain. Transformation equations. Principal strains and maximum shear strains. Mohrs circle for plane strain. Measurement of strain and strain rosettes.
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Plane stress versus plane strain

Plane Stress z=0, xz=0, yz=0 x, y, xy may be non-zero. xz=0, yz=0 x, y, z, xy may be non-zero. Plane Strain xz=0, yz=0 x, y, z, xy may be non-zero. z=0, xz=0, yz=0 x, y, xy may be non-zero.

Stresses

Strains

Plane stress and plane strain do not ordinarily occur simultaneously. One exception is when z = 0 and x = -y, since Hookes Law gives z = 0.
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Transformation Equations for Plane Strain

We want to derive equations for the normal strains x1 and y1 and the shear strain x1y1 associated with the x1y1 axes, which are rotated counterclockwise through an angle from the xy axes. Consider the change in length and orientation of the diagonal of a rectangular element in the xy plane after strains x, y, and xy are applied.

y
xdx cos

x1

Diagonal increases in length in the x1 direction by xdx cos. Diagonal rotates clockwise by 1.

y1
dy ds 1 xdx

1ds = x dx sin

dx

1 = x

dx sin ds

y
ydy sin

x1

Diagonal increases in length in the x1 direction by ydy sin. Diagonal rotates counterclockwise by 2.

y1

ydy dy 2 ds dx xydy cos

2 ds = y dy cos 2 = y

x x1

dy cos ds

Diagonal increases in length in the x1 direction by xydx cos. Diagonal rotates clockwise by 3.

y1

dy xy

ds 3

3ds = xy dy sin
xydy

dx

3 = xy

dy sin ds
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The total increase in the length of the diagonal is:

(ds ) = x dx cos + y dy sin + xy dy cos

The normal strain x1 is the change in length over the original length:

(ds ) dx dy dy x1 = = x cos + y sin + xy cos ds ds ds ds

ds dy

dx So, the normal strain x1 is:

dx = cos ds

dy = sin ds

x1 = x cos 2 + y sin 2 + xy sin cos

The normal strain y1 can be found by substituting +90 into the equation for x1.
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To find the shear strain x1y1, we must find the decrease in angle of lines in the material that were initially along the x1y1 axes.

y y1

x1

x1y1 = +
x

To find , we just sum 1, 2, and 3, taking the direction of the rotation into account.

= 1 + 2 3
dx dy dy sin + y cos xy sin ds ds ds = x sin cos + y sin cos xy sin 2

= x

= ( x y ) sin cos xy sin 2

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To find the angle , we can substitute +90 into the equation for , but we must insert a negative sign, since is counterclockwise and is clockwise.

= ( x y ) sin( + 90) cos( + 90) + xy sin 2 ( + 90) = ( x y ) sin cos + xy cos 2

So, the shear strain x1y1 is:

x1 y 1 = + x1 y1 = ( x y ) sin cos xy sin 2 ( x y ) sin cos xy cos 2 x1 y1 = 2 ( x y ) sin cos xy (sin 2 cos 2 ) x1 y 1
2 = ( x y ) sin cos

xy
2

(sin 2 cos 2 )

Using trigonometric identities for sin cos, sin2, and cos2 gives the strain transformation equations
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 x1 = x1 y1
2

x +y
=

x y
2

cos 2 +

xy
2

sin 2

y) 2

sin 2 +

xy
2

cos 2

Now, compare the strain transformation equations to the stress transformation equations:

x1 = x1 y1 =

x + y

2
x

x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2

y ) 2

sin 2 + xy cos 2

The equations have the same form, but with different variables:

x1 x1 x x y y

x1 y1 xy
2 2

x1 y1 xy
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So, the all the equations that we derived based on the stress transformation equations can be converted to equations for strains if we make the appropriate substitutions. Principal Strains and Principal Angles

1, 2 =

x +y
2

x y 2

xy + 2
2

xy tan 2 p = x y

Remember that z = 0 (plane strain). Shear strains are zero on the principal planes. Principal stresses and principal strains occur in the same directions.

Maximum Shear Strains

max
2

x y 2

+ 2

xy

x y tan 2 s = xy

The maximum shear strains are associated with axes at 45 to the directions of the principal strains.
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Mohrs Circle for Plane Strain

Plot x1 instead of x1. Plot (x1y1/2) instead of x1y1.

2 max/2

c R

x1

Principal strains 1, 2

s
(x1y1/2)

Maximum shear strain max with associated normal strain s

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Example
An element of material in plane strain has x = 340 x 10-6, y = 110 x 10-6, xy = 180 x10-6 Find the principal strains, the (in-plane) maximum shear strains, and the strains on an element oriented at an angle =30.

y
y

Plane strain means that z = 0.

Equations give 1 = 371 x 106 2 = 79 x 106 p = 19.0 and 109.0 max= 290 x 106 s = -26.0 and 64.0 The transformation equations with =30 give x1 = 360 x 10-6 x1y1 = -110 x 10-6 Using x + y = x1 + y1 gives y1 = 90 x 10-6

xy

x
x (based on Gere & Timoshenko, p 439)

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Mohrs Circle
c = avg = c=

Units on axes are strain x 10-6 B (=90) y = 110 x10-6 -(xy/2) = -90 x10-6 B (=90) 2p2

x + y
2

340 + 110 = 225 2

R = (340 225) 2 + (180 / 2) 2 R = 1152 + 90 2 = 146

2
c R

2p1

Principal Strains
1,2 = c R = 225 146 1,2 = 371, 79
90 340 225 2 p1 = 38.05 tan 2 p1 =

A (=0) A (=0) x = 340 x10-6 (xy/2) = 90 x10-6

p1 = 19.0
2 p 2 = 2 p1 + 180

/2
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p 2 = 109.0

Units on axes are strain x 10-6 Maximum Shear

( max / 2) = R = 146

max = 292
2 s1 = (90 2 p1 ) = (90 38.05) 2 s1 = 51.95

B (=90) y = 110 x10-6 -(xy/2) = -90 x10-6 B (=90) 2s2 2p1

s1 = 26.0
2 s 2 = 2 p1 + 90

c R
2s1 A (=0) A (=0) x = 340 x10-6 (xy/2) = 90 x10-6

s 2 = 64.0
s = c = 225

(max/2)

/2
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Strains when = 30
= 30
2 = 60

Units on axes are strain x 10-6 B (=90) y = 110 x10-6 -(xy/2) = -90 x10-6 B (=90) C (=30) 2

x1 = c + R cos(2 2 p1 ) x1 = 225 + 146 cos(60 38.05) x1 = 360

( x1 y1 / 2) = R sin( 2 2 p1 ) ( x1 y1 / 2) = 146 sin(60 38.05) ( x1 y1 / 2) = 55

c
D (=30+90) R 2p1 A (=0) A (=0) x = 340 x10-6 (xy/2) = 90 x10-6

x1 y1 = 110

y1 = c R cos(2 2 p1 ) y1 = 225 146 cos(60 38.05) y1 = 90

/2
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Principal Strains
y1 y
No shear strains

Maximum Shear Strain

y
s

y1

2 p2 p1 1

x1 x

max

x
s max= 290 x 10 6 smax = -26.0 s= 225 x 10 6 smax

1 = 371 x 106 2 = 79 x 10 6 p1 = 19.0 p2 = 109.0

x1

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Strains when = 30
y1
y1 x1

y x1

x1y1

x1 = 360 x 10-6 y1 = 90 x 10-6 x1y1 = -110 x 10-6

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Measurement of Strain
It is very difficult to measure normal and shear stresses in a body, particularly stresses at a point. It is relatively easy to measure the strains on the surface of a body (normal strains, that is, not shear strains). From three independent measurements of normal strain at a point, it is possible to find principal strains and their directions. If the material obeys Hookes Law, the principal strains can be used to find the principal stresses. Strain measurement can be direct (using electrical-type gauges based on resistive, capacitive, inductive, or photoelectric principles) or indirect (using optical methods, such as photoelasticity, the Moir technique, or holographic interferometry).
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Resistance Strain Gauges

Based on the idea that the resistance of a metal wire changes when the wire is subjected to mechanical strain (Lord Kelvin, 1856). When a wire is stretched, a longer length of smaller sectioned conductor results. The earliest strain gauges were of the unbonded type and used pillars, separated by the gauge length, with wires stretched between them.

Lo Later gauges were bonded, with the resistance element applied directly to the surface of the strained member. backing wire grid expanded backing view bonded to surface
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During the 1950s, foil-type gauges began to replace the wire-type. The foil-type gauges typically consist of a metal film element on a thin epoxy support and are made using printed-circuit techniques. Foil-type gauges can be made in a number of configurations (examples from www.vishay.com): planar single element three-element rosette alignment (0- 45- 90) marks solder tabs for wires Gauge length is typically around 1 mm. Performance of bonded metallic strain gauges depends on: grid material and configuration, backing material, bonding material and method, gauge protection, and associated electrical circuitry.
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It is possible to derive an equation relating strain and the change in resistance of the gauge R:

1 R = F R

F = gauge factor (related to Poissons ratio and resistivity) R = resistance of the gauge

A typical strain gauge might have F = 2.0 and R = 120 and be used to measure microstrain (10-6).

R = F R = (10 6 )( 2.0)(120) = 0.00024

This is a resistance change of 0.0002%, meaning that something more sensitive than an ohmmeter is required to measure the resistance change. Some form of bridge arrangement (such as a Wheatstone bridge) is most widely used.

cantilever
R1 tension R2 compression
(Perry & Lissner)20

Strain Rosettes and Principal Strains and Stresses

A 0-60-120 strain gauge rosette is bonded to the surface of a thin steel plate. Under one loading condition, the strain measurements are A = 60 , B = 135 , C = 264 . Find the principal strains, their orientations, and the principal stresses.

We can use more than one approach to find the principal stresses: transformation equations alone, Mohrs circle alone, or a combination.

120

60o A x
(Based on Hibbeler, ex. 15.20 & 15.21)
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Transformation equations From the measured strains, find x, y, and xy.

A = 60 , A = 0 B = 135 , B = 60 C = 264 , C = 120

A = 60 = x cos 2 0 + y sin 2 0 + xy sin 0 cos 0 A = 60 = x B = 135 = x cos 2 60 + y sin 2 60 + xy sin 60 cos 60 B = 135 = 0.25 x + 0.75 y + 0.433 xy C = 264 = x cos 2 120 + y sin 2 120 + xy sin 120 cos120 C = 264 = 0.25 x + 0.75 y 0.433 xy

3 equations, 3 unknowns Solve to find x = 60 , y = 246 , xy = -149

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Use x, y, and xy in the equations for principal strains to find 1 = 272 , p1 = -70.6, 2 = 34 , p2 = 19.4. Alternatively, use x, y, and xy to construct the Mohrs circle for (in-plane) strains and find principal strains and angles.

c = (60+246)/2 = 153 A 2p1

2 2p2
c R

A: x = 60 (xy/2)= -74.5

D: y = 246 (xy/2)= +74.5 R = 119

/2
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To find the principal stresses, use Hookes Law for plane stress (z = 0)

x = y =

E 1 E
2

( x + y ) ( y + x )

x = 1 = 272 x 10-6 y = 2 = 34 x 10-6

E = 210 GPa = 0.3

1 2

So, the principal stresses are: x = 1 = 65 MPa y = 2 = 26 MPa

B 2 19.4o -70.6 1
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Mohrs Circle
C B

A = 60 , B = 135 , C = 264 .

R?
120
o

60o A x

A = 60 = c + R cos 2 B = 135 = c + R cos 2(+60) C = 264 = c + R cos 2(+120)

3 equations, 3 unknowns

A
120o

c? 240o

/2

Solve the equations to get c = 153, R = 119, and 2 = 141.3 When you solve for 2, you may get 38.7. But we have drawn the diagram above such that 2 is positive, so you should take 2 = -38.7 + 180 = 141.3. Next, draw the Mohrs circle and find principal strains as before. Finally, find principal stresses using Hookes Law.
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