Lecture Note on Solid State Physics Ginzburg-Landau Theory for Superconductivity

Masatsugu Suzuki and Itsuko S. Suzuki Department of Physics, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902-6000 (Date January 16, 2007) Abstract Here we discuss the phenomenological approach (Ginzburg-Landau (GL) theory) of the superconductivity, first proposed by Ginzburg and Landau long before the development of the microscopic theory [the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) theory]. The complicated mathematical approach of the BCS theory is replaced by a relatively simple second-order differential equation with the boundary conditions. In principle, the GL equation allows the order parameter, the field and the currents to be calculated. However, these equations are still non-linear and the calculations are rather complicated and in general purely numerical. The time dependent GL theory is not included in this article. This article was originally prepared for a lecture (by M.S.) of the Solid State Physics course (1989). Since then, the note has been revised many times. The use of Mathematica was very useful in preparing this note. The students studying the solid state physics will avail themselves of the Mathematica for solving problems and visualizing the propositions. In particular, the variational packages (the VariationalD and FirstIntegrals for the variational calculation) are very useful for the derivation of the GL equation and the current density from the Helmholtz free energy. So far there have been many excellent textbooks on the superconductivity.1-7 Among them, the books by de Gennes,1 Tinkham,6 and Nakajima5 (the most popular textbook in Japan, unfortunately in Japanese) were very useful for our understanding the phenomena of superconductivity. There have been also very nice reviews,8,9 on the superconducting phenomena. We also note that one will find many useful mathematical techniques in the Mathematica book written by Trott.10 Content 1. Introduction 2. Background 2.1 Maxwells equation 2.2 Lagrangian of particles (mass m* and charge q*) in the presence of electric and magnetic fields 2.3 Gauge transformation: Analogy from classical mechanics 2.4 Gauge invariance in quantum mechanics 2.5 Hamiltonian under the gauge transformation 2.6 Invariance of physical predictions under the gauge transformation 3. Basic concepts 3.1 Londons equation 3.2 The quantum mechanical current density J 3.3 London gauge

Flux quantization Ginzburg-Landau theory-phenomenological approach 4.1 The postulated GL free energy 4.2 Derivation of GL equation and current density from variational method 4.2.1 Derivation of GL equation by variational method (Mathematica) 4.2.2 Derivation of current density by variational method (Mathematica) 5. Basic properties 5.1 GL free energy and thermodynamic critical field Hc 5.2 Coherence length 5.3 Magnetic field penetration depth 5.4 Parameters related to the superconductivity. 6. General theory of GL equation 6.1 General formulation 6.2 Special case 7 Free energy 7.1 Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies 7.2 Derivation of surface energy 7.3 Surface energy calculation for the two cases 7.4 Criterion between type-I and type-II superconductor: = 1 / 2 8. Application of the GL equation 8.1 Critical current of a thin wire or film 8.2. Parallel critical field of thin film 8.3. Parallel critical fields of thick films 8.4 Superconducting cylindrical film 8.5 Little Parks experiments 8.5.1 The case of d and d. 8.5.2 The case of d and d. 9. Isolated filament: the field for first penetration 9.1 Critical field Hc1 9.2 The center of the vortex 9.3 Far from the center of the vortex 10. Properties of one isolated vortex line (H = Hc1) 10.1 The method of the Greens function 10.2 Vortex line energy 10.3. Derivation of Hc1 10.4. Interaction between vortex lines 11. Magnetization curves 11.1 Theory of M vs H 11.2 Calculation of M vs H using Mathematica 12. The linearized GL equation (H = Hc2). 12.1. Theory 12.2 Numerical calculation of wave functions 13. Nucleation at surfaces: Hc3 13.1 Theory 13.2 Numerical solution by Mathematica 13.3 Variational method by Kittel 4.

3.4

Abrikosov vortex states 14.1 Theory 14.2 Structure of the vortex phase near H = Hc2 14.3 Magnetic properties near H = Hc2 14.4 The wall energy at = 1 / 2 . 15. Conclusion References Appendix A1. Parameters related to the superconductivity A2 Modified Bessel functions
Introduction It is surprising that the rich phenomenology of the superconducting state could be quantitatively described by the GL theory,11 without knowledge of the underlying microscopic mechanism based on the BCS theory. It is based on the idea that the superconducting transition is one of the second order phase transition.12 In fact, the universality class of the critical behavior belongs to the three-dimensional XY system such as liquid 4He. The general theory of the critical behavior can be applied to the superconducting phenomena. The order parameter is described by two components (complex number = e i ). The amplitude is zero in the normal phase above a superconducting transition temperature Tc and is finite in the superconducting phase below Tc. In the presence of an external magnetic field, the order parameter has a spatial variation. When the spatial variation of the order parameter is taken into account, the free energy of the system can be expressed in terms of the order parameter and its spatial derivative of . In general this is valid in the vicinity of Tc below Tc, where the 1.

14.

amplitude is small and the length scale for spatial variation is long. The order parameter is considered as a kind of a wave function for a particle of charge q* and mass m*. The two approaches, the BCS theory and the GL theory, remained completely separate until Gorkov13 showed that, in some limiting cases, the order parameter (r ) of the GL theory is proportional to the pair potential (r ) . At the same time this also shows that q* = 2e (<0) and m* = 2m. Consequently, the Ginzburg-Landau theory acquired their definitive status. The GL theory is a triumph of physical intuition, in which a wave function (r ) is

introduced as a complex order parameter. The parameter (r ) represents the local

2

density of superconducting electrons, ns (r ) . The macroscopic behavior of superconductors (in particular the type II superconductors) can be explained well by this GL theory. This theory also provides the qualitative framework for understanding the dramatic supercurrent behavior as a consequence of quantum properties on a macroscopic scale. The superconductors are classed into two types of superconductor: type-I and type-II superconductors. The Ginzburg-Landau parameter is the ratio of to , where is the magnetic-field penetration depth and is the coherence length of the superconducting phase. The limiting value = 1 / 2 separating superconductors with positive surface

energy ( < 1 / 2 ) (type-I) from those with negative surface energy ( > 1 / 2 ) (typeII), is properly identified. For the type-II superconductor, the superconducting and normal regions coexist. The normal regions appear in the cores (of size ) of vortices binding individual magnetic flux quanta 0 = 2 c / q* on the scale , with the charge q* = 2 e appearing in 0 a consequence of the pairing mechanism. Since >, the vortices repel and arrange in a so-called Abrikosov lattice. In his 1957 paper, Abrikosov14 derived the periodic vortex structure near the upper critical field Hc2, where the superconductivity is totally suppressed, determined the magnetization M(H), calculated the field Hc1 of first penetration, analyzed the structure of individual vortex lines, found the structure of the vortex lattice at low fields. 2. Background In this chapter we briefly discuss the Maxwells equation, Lagrangian, gauge transformation, and so on, which is necessary for the formulation of the GL equation. Maxwell's equation The Maxwells equations (cgs units) are expressed in the form E = 4 1 B E = c t , (2.1) B = 0 4 1 E B = j+ c c t B: magnetic induction (the microscopic magnetic field) E: electric field : charge density J: current density c: the velocity of light H: the applied external magnetic field The Lorentz force is given by 1 F = q[E + ( v B )] . (2.2) c The Lorentz force is expressed in terms of fields E and B (gauge independent, see the gauge transformation below)). The equation of continuity
j +
B = A , 1 A , E= c t where A is a vector potential and : scalar potential.

2.1

= 0, t

(2.3) (2.4) (2.5)

2.2

Lagrangian of particles with mass m* and charge q* in the presence of electric and magnetic field

The Lagrangian L is given by 1 1 L = m*v 2 q* ( v A ) , (2.6) 2 c where m* and q* are the mass and charge of the particle. Canonical momentum L q* = m* v + A . (2.7) p= v c Mechanical momentum (the measurable quantity) q* * = m v =p A. (2.8) c The Hamiltonian is given by q* 1 1 q* H = p v L = (m* v + A) v L = m* v 2 + q* = (p A ) 2 + q* . c 2 2m* c (2.9) The Hamiltonian formalism uses A and , and not E and B, directly. The result is that the description of the particle depends on the gauge chosen. Gauge transformation: Analogy from classical mechanics15,16 When E and B are given, and A are not uniquely determined. If we have a set of possible values for the vector potential A and the scalar potential , we obtain other potentials A and which describes the same electromagnetic field by the gauge transformation, A' = A + , (2.10) 1 '= , (2.11) c t where is an arbitrary function of r. The Newtons second law indicates that the position and the velocity take on, at every point, values independent of the gauge. Consequently, r ' = r and v' = v , or (2.12) '= , * q Since = m* v = p A , we have c * q q* p' A ' = p A , (2.13) c c or q* q* p' = p + (A ' A ) = p + . (2.14) c c In the Hamilton formalism, the value at each instant of the dynamical variables describing a given motion depends on the gauge chosen. 2.3 2.4 Gauge invariance in quantum mechanics In quantum mechanics, we describe the states in the old gauge and the new gauge as

We denote and ' the state vectors relative to these gauges. The analogue of the relation in the classical mechanics is thus given by the relations between average values. ' r ' = r (gauge invariant), (2.15)

' ' = (gauge invariant),

' p ' = p +

(2.16)

q . (2.17) c We now seek a unitary operator U which enables one to go from to ' : ' =U . (2.18)

From the condition, ' ' = , we have U +U = UU + = 1 . From the condition, ' r ' = r , U + rU = r , or U . [r,U ] = 0 = i p U is independent of p .

(2.19) (2.20) (2.21)

q From the condition, ' p ' = p + , c q U + p U = p + , (2.22) c or q [p, U ] = + U = U. (2.23) c i r Now we consider the form of U . The unitary operator U commutes with r and : * iq U = exp( ). (2.24) c The wave function is given by iq * (2.25) r ' = r U = exp( ) r . c For the wave function, the gauge transformation corresponds to a phase change which varies from one point to another, and is not, therefore, a global phase factor. Here we show that q* q* (2.26) ' p A' ' = p A , c c q* q* q* q* A ' ' = p + ( A + ) = p A , 'p c c c c (2.27) since

 ' p ' = p + and

q* , c

(2.28)

'
2.5

* q* q* q A' ' = U + A 'U = ( A + ) . c c c

(2.29)

Hamiltonian under the gauge transformation i =H , t i ' = H' ' , t i U = H 'U , t

or U + U ] = H 'U . t t U iq* = Since U, t c t q* = H 'U , U + Ui c t t or q* U + UH = H 'U , c t or q* H 'U = U + UH . c t Thus we have q* + H '= + UHU . c t Note that q U + p U = p + , c or q pU = U ( p + ) , c or q pU = Up + U , c or q UpU + = (p ) . c i [

(2.30) (2.31) (2.32)

(2.33)

(2.35)

(2.36)

(2.37)

(2.38)

(2.39)

(2.40)

(2.41)

(2.42)

From this relation, we also have * * * * (p q A)U + = (p q A q ) = (p q A' ) , U (2.43) c c c c * q* q U (p A) 2U + = (p A ' ) 2 . (2.44) c c Then * * ' = q + U [ 1 (p q A) 2 + q* ]U + , H (2.45) c t 2m* c or q* 1 q* 1 q* H '= + (p A' )2 + q* = (p A ' )2 + q* ' . (2.46) c t 2m* c 2m* c Therefore the new Hamiltonian can be written in the same way in any gauge chosen.
2.6 Invariance of physical predictions under a gauge transformation The current density is invariant under the gauge transformation. 1 q* J = * Re[ p A ] , (2.47) m c * q* q A ' ' = U + (p A ' )U , (2.48) 'p c c * * q* q* q q (2.49) U + (p A' )U = p + A ' = p A , c c c c q* q* 1 1 J ' = * Re[ ' p A ' ' ] = * Re[ p A ] . (2.50) m c m c The density is also gauge independent.

'= r '
3. 3.1

= = r

(2.51)

Basic concepts Londons equation We consider an equation given by q* * p = m v + A. c We assume that p = 0 or

(3.1)

q* A =0. c The current density is given by m* v +

2 2 * 2

(3.2)

q* J = q v = * A . (London equation) (3.3) mc This equation corresponds to a London equation. From this equation, we have 2 2 2 2 q* q* J = * A = * B . (3.4) mc mc

Using the Maxwells equation 4 B = J , and B = 0 , c we get

( B ) = where
2

4 4n*q* J = * 2 B, c mc
2

(3.5)

n* = = constant (independent of r)

L =
2

m*c 2 4n*q*
2

: L penetration depth. 1

Then ( B ) = ( B ) 2B = or 2B = 1

L 2

B,

(3.6)

L 2

B.

(3.7)

In side the system, B become s zero, corresponding to the Meissner effect. 3.2 The quantum mechanical current density J The current density is given by
*2 2

q q* J= A. [ * * ] * 2m i m*c Now we assume that = e i . Since

(3.8) (3.9) (3.10)

* * = 2i ,
2

we have

J= or

q* q* 2 2 ( A) = q * v s * m c

q* (3.12) A + m* v s . c This equation is generally valid. Note that J is gauge-invariant. Under the gauge transformation, the wave function is transformed as iq* ' (r ) = exp( ) (r ) . (3.13) c This implies that q* '= + , (3.14) c Since A' = A + , we have
=

(3.11)

q* q* q* q* A' ) = [( + ) (A + )] = ( A) . (3.15) c c c c So the current density is invariant under the gauge transformation. Here we note that (r ) = (r ) exp[i (r )] . (3.16) and
{exp[i (r )] (r ) } = [i (r ) (r ) + exp[i (r )] (r ) ] . i (3.17) If (r ) is independent of r, we have i
p (r ) =

J ' = ( '

p (r ) = [ (r )] (r ) p = (r ) . Then we have the following relation q* p = = A + m* v s c when (r ) is independent of r. 3.3. London gauge 2 * Here we assume that = ns = constant. Then we have

or

q* p = = A + m* v s , c 2 * * J s = q v s = q*ns v s .
Then p = = We define . * 2 ns q * Now the above equation is rewritten as q* p = = A + q*J s , c * q p = ( A ) + q* ( J s ) = 0 , c or 1 ( A + Js ) = 0 , c or 1 B + Js = 0 . c

m*

(3.18) (3.19) (3.20)

(3.21) (3.22)

q* m* A + * * Js . c q ns

(3.23)

(3.24)

(3.25) (3.26)

(3.27)

(3.28)

10

From the expression q* p= A + q * J s c and p = 0, we have a London equation 1 Js = A. c For the supercurrent to be conserved, it is required that J s =

(3.29)

(3.30)

1 A = 0 or c (3.31) A = 0. From the condition that no current can pass through the boundary of a superconductor, it is required that J s n = 0 , or (3.32) A n = 0. The conditions ( A = 0 and A n = 0 ) are called London gauge. We now consider the gauge transformation: A' = A + 1 (3.33) Js '= A' , c 1 1 (3.34) Js '= A' = ( A + 2 ) = 0 , c c 1 1 J s 'n = A 'n = ( A n + n ) . (3.35) c c The London equation is gauge-invariant if we throw away any part of A which does not satisfy the London gauge. A' = A + , where 2 = 0 and n = 0 are satisfied,

3.4

Flux quantization We start with the current density q* q* 2 2 J s = * ( A) = q * v s . m c 2 * Suppose that ns = =constant, then we have

= or

m* q* Js + A , * c q* ns

m* q* (3.38) J s dl + A dl . * c q* ns The path of integration can be taken inside the penetration depth where J s =0. q* q* q* q* A dl = ( A) da = B da = , c c c c where is the magnetic flux. Then we find that q* = 2 1 = 2n = c

dl =

dl =

(3.36)

(3.37)

(3.40)

(3.41)

11

where n is an integer. The phase of the wave function must be unique, or differ by a multiple of 2 at each point, 2c = * n. (3.42) q The flux is quantized. When |q*| = 2|e|, we have a magnetic quantum fluxoid; 2c ch = 2.06783372 10-7 Gauss cm2 (3.43) 0 = = 2e 2e 4. 4.1 Ginzburg-Landau theory-phenomenological approach The postulated GL equation We introduce the order parameter (r ) with the property that

(4.1) which is the local concentration of superconducting electrons. We first set up a form of the free energy density Fs(r),

* (r ) (r ) = ns (r ) ,

q* B2 1 1 4 Fs (r ) = FN + + + ( A) + , c 2 2m* i 8
2

where is positive and the sign of is dependent on temperature. The derivation of GL equation and the current density by variational method We must minimize the free energy with respect to the order parameter (r) and the vector potential A(r). We set = Fs (r )dr (4.3) where the integral is extending over the volume of the system. If we vary (r ) (r ) + (r ) and A (r ) A(r ) + A (r ) , (4.4) we obtain the variation in the free energy such that + . By setting = 0 , we obtain the GL equation 1 q* + + * A = 0 , 2m i c and the current density
2


4.2

q q* Js = A [ * * ] * 2m i m*c
*2 2

or q* q* q* [ * ( A ) + ( A) * ] . (4.7) 2m* i c i c At a free surface of the system we must choose the gauge to satisfy the boundary condition that no current flows out of the superconductor into the vacuum. n Js = 0 . (4.8) 4.2.1 Derivation of GL equation by variational method
 

Js =

12

(4.2)

(4.5)

(4.6)

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5 5.1

Basic properties GL free energy and Thermodynamic critical field Hc A = 0 and = (real) has no space dependence. Why is real? We have a gauge transformation; iq* (5.1) A' = A + and ' (r ) = exp( ) (r ) . c We choose A ' = A + = A with = 0 = constant. Then we
0 ( )

' (r ) = exp(

iq* 0 iq* 0 ) (r ) , or (r ) = exp( ) ' (r ) . Even if ' is complex number, c c can be real number. 1 2 4 Fs = FN + + . (5.2) 2 F When = 0 , Fs has a local minimum at (5.3)

= ( / )1 / 2 = ( / )1 / 2 . Then we have 2 Hc 2 Fs FN = = , 2 8 from the definition of the thermodynamic critical field:

2 5

Hc =

1 1

4 2

1/ 2

T2 = H c (0)(1 2 ) . Tc 15

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have

(5.4)

6 4 4

(5.5)

Suppose that is independent of T, then T T T2 = H c (0)( 1) = 0 ( 1) , H c (0)(1 2 ) 2 4 4 Tc Tc Tc where 0 = 2

(5.6)

H c (0) . The parameter is positive above Tc and is negative below Tc. 4 Note that >0. For T<Tc, the sign of is negative:
1 4 , 2 where 0>0 and t = T/Tc is a reduced temperature.
Fs FN = 0 (t 1) +
2

(5.7)

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'' ' ' & )

0 t 0

' ' ' '( ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ( ' & ' %

 

 

 

' ' ' '( ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' (' ' & %  

'' ' ' &

"

5 4 4 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 33 2  1 

33 3 3 2

" !

1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 t 0.2

 

Graphics Fig.2 The order parameter as a function of a reduced temperature t = T/Tc. We use 0 = 3 and = 1 for this calculation.

5.2

Coherence length We assume that A = 0. We choose the gauge in which is real.

2 3

d2 + * 2 = 0 . 2m dx We put = f . d2 f + f f 3 =0. 2m * dx 2 We introduce the coherence length * 2 2 2n 2 2 = * = * = * s 2 , 2 m 2m m Hc where 2 Hc2 = , 2 = = ns , 2 8 or

2

or

d 2 df dx 2 dx


d f4 f2 ( ), dx 4 2

17

2m 0 Then we have d2 f 2 2 + f f 3 = 0, dx with the boundary condition f = 1, df/dx = 0 at x = df d 2 f df 2 + ( f f 3) = 0, 2 dx dx dx or

*

|1

T 1 / 2 | . Tc



0.4

0.6

0.8

(5.8)

(5.9)

(5.10)

(5.11)

(5.12)

(5.13) and f = 0 at x = 0. (5.14)

(5.15)

or df 1 = (1 f 2 ) . dx 2 The solution of this equation is given by x . f = tanh 2 ((Mathematica Program-4)) (* Ginzburg-Landau equation; coherence length*)
2 . eq2 1
    #  !              

eq1


f' x
  

1 fx
$ $

; eq2 DSolve eq1, f 0

$ $

0 ,f x ,x ;

f x_
Tanh

fx
x
(

ExpToTrig

Simplify

(*tangential line at x = 0*) eq3=D[f[x],x]//Simplify

4 3 2 2 22 1 66 6 6 5 0

Sech

x 2
7

eq4=eq3/.x 0
1
A @@ @ @ 9

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 1

a a

Graphics Fig.3 Normalized order parameter f(x) expressed by Eq.(5.18) as a function of x/. Plot[eq3/. 1,{x,0,5},PlotStyle Hue[0.7],Prolog AbsoluteThi ckness[2],Background GrayLevel[0.7],AxesLabel {"x/ ","f'(x) "}, PlotRange {{0,5},{0,0.8}}]
b 8 8 8 8 8 8 b

18

X W

f x
Y

H F

P E

T P P

G G

PlotStyle Background PlotRange

I I

T S

RR R R

H G

Plot Evaluate f x
D C B B

x , x, 0, 5 , 2 Hue 0.7 , Hue 0 , Prolog AbsoluteThickness 2 , GrayLevel 0.7 , AxesLabel "x ", "f x " , 0, 5 , 0, 1.2

1,

"

 

2 df 2 dx

1 = (1 f 2 ) 2 , 4

(5.16)

(5.17)

(5.18)

1
$

 

'' ' ' & %

0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 1

a a

Graphics Fig.4 Derivative f ' ( x ) as a function of x/.

5.3

Magnetic field penetration depth

*2 2

q q* [ * * ] Js = A. * 2m i m*c We assume that = (real). q* Js = A (Londons equation), m*c

2 2

q* q* Js = A = B, m*c m*c
2 2 2 2

where
B =

4 Js , c
2

B = A ,
2

B = 0 .

Then we have c q* ( B) = B, 4 m*c or 4q * ( B ) = ( B ) B = B. m*c 2 Then we have Londons equation 1 2B = 2 B , where

2 2 2

4q* = . m*c 2 is the penetration depth

2 2 2

m*c 2 4q*
2 2

m*c 2 4q *
2

The solution of the above differential equation is given by BZ ( x) = BZ ( x = 0) exp( x / ) ,

19

X W

f' x 0.8
Y

(5.19)

(5.20) (5.21)

(5.22)

(5.23)

(5.24)

(5.25)

(5.26)

(5.27)

(5.28)

where the magnetic field is directed along the z axis. ex e y ez c c c J= B = = (0, Bz ( x ),0) . 4 4 x y z 4 x 0 0 Bz ( x) The current J flows along the y direction. cB ( x = 0) Jy = z exp( x / ) . 4

(5.29)

(5.30)

Fig.5 The distribution of the magnetic induction B(x) (along the z axis) and the current density (along the y axis) near the boundary between the normal phase and the superconducting phase. The plane with x = 0 is the boundary.
5.4 Parameters related to the superconductivity Here the superconducting parameters are listed for convenience.

n = = , 2 4 H c = 4
* s 2

H c = 4n = 4
2 * s

= 4 ,
2

(5.31) (5.32)

Hc

, ,

Hc

, ,

0 =

4q *
2

2m*

Then we have
*

H c m*

1 = , 0 2 2H c

2 q* H c = , 2 c

= 2 2H c , 2 0

20

m*c 2 4ns q*
2

2ns

cm* H c , * 2 2 ns q *

m*c 2

cm* = . 2 q *

2 c , q*

(5.33) (5.34)

(5.35)

(5.36)

Hc =

c . 2 q *

We also have 0 2 22 H c 2Hc = , . = 2 0 Note: * q* = 2e (>0) m* = 2m , ns = ns / 2 . ((Mathematica Program-5)) (*n1=ns*, q1=Abs[q*],

2 m1 1 PowerExpand
 

1= /.rule1//PowerExpand
&& & & % ' && & & & & %

2
(

n1
(

1= /.rule1//PowerExpand
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ) 00 0 0 0 0 )

Hc
4

m1

1= /.rule1//PowerExpand
c Hc m1
D C BB B B A

2
E F

2 n1 q1

2 Hc q1 c
T T

6. 6.1

Formulation of GL equation General theory2 In summary we have the GL equation;

q* 1 + + * A = 0 , c 2m i
2 2
X X ` Y c a a

and 21

VV V V U

2 Hc

0 . rule1
T

G G

. rule1

88 8 8 7

2
@

2 Hc
@

6 6

6 00 0 0 0 0 )

. rule1

n1

&& & & & & %

m1 q1

"

c m1


q1

PowerExpand

PowerExpand

PowerExpand

4 n1

q1

             

rule1


, 0 4 n12

Hc2

Hc2

                    

(5.37)

(5.38)

1=Abs[ ], m1=m* *)
m1 c2 ; 4 q12 1

  II I I H 5 Q R 3

 $

(6.1)

q c c q* [ * * ] Js = ( A) = [( A) 2 A] = A, * 4 4 2m i m*c (6.2) (6.3) B = A . The GL equations are very often written in a form which introduces only the following dimensionless quantities. B = f , r= , h= , (6.4) 2Hc where
*2 2 2 2 4q* 4 2 2 2 , 2 = * = , Hc = = , , = = * 2 * 2m 2m mc (6.5) 2 c 2 c 0 = * = * (since q* = 2e<0), (6.6) q q
2

1 2 , = 2 0 2H c We have

2 H c 2 =

0 , 2

1 ~ + A i

f = f f f,
2

~ 2 A= A. 0 Here we use the relation 1 B h= = A = 2Hc 2Hc or ~ h = A ,

where

0 1 ~ ~ A = A , 2 H c 2

Js =

c c [( A ) 2 A ] ( A) = 4 4
*2 2


q q* [ * * ] = A * 2m i m*c
c


~ q* 0 2 ~ 1 q* 0 f A, 2 [ f * f ff * ] ( A) = m*c 2 42 2 2m*i (6.13) ~ i 2~ ( A) = [ f * f ff * ] f A , (6.14) 2

2 2

since 4q* = m*c 2

2
2

22

(6.7)

(6.8)

(6.9)

(6.10)

(6.11)

(6.12)

(6.15)

42 2 q * 42 2 q * 1 m * c 2 2 c 1 2 1 = = * * *2 2 0 2q * c 0 2m c 0 2m 4q , (6.16) 2 c 1 1 = = 0 2 q* q* c 2 = . * mc 42 In summary we have the following equations:

1 ~ 2 + A f = f f f , i ~ i 2~ ( A) = [ f * f ff * ] f A , 2 ~ h = A . Gauge transformation: A = A 0 + ,

(r ) = exp(

~ 2 A= A, = f , 0 ~ ~ 2 ~ 2 1 ~ 1 2 ) , A = A0 + = A 0 + = A0 + ( 0 0 0

iq* ) 0 (r ) , c

iq* i 2 (6.25) ) f 0 = exp( ) f . c 0 2 Here we assume that = 0 . Then we have 0 ~ ~ 1 A = A 0 0 . (6.26) f = exp(i 0 ) f 0 , We can choose the order parameter f as a real number f0 such that f0 is real, f0 is a ~ ~ constant. A = A 0 . f = exp(
1 ~ 3 + A0 f0 = f0 f0 , i ~ 2~ ( A 0 ) = h = f 0 A 0 , ~ h = A0 ,
  

1 ~ 3 + A0 f0 = f0 f0 i . 1 1 ~ 2 ~ ~ 2 = 2 f 0 + A 0 f 0 + [ ( A 0 f 0 ) + ( A 0 f 0 )] i
 

( )

23

    

and

(6.17)

(6.18) (6.19) (6.20) (6.21) (6.22) (6.23) (6.24)

(6.27) (6.28) (6.29)

(6.30)

Using the formula of the vector analysis ~ 2~ [ ( A 0 )] = 0 = ( f 0 A 0 ) ~ ~ ~ 2 ~ 2 2 = f 0 A 0 f 0 A 0 = 2 f 0 f 0 A 0 f 0 A 0 or ~ ~ 2 A 0 f 0 = f 0 A 0 , We also have ~ ~ ~ ( A 0 f 0 ) = A 0 f 0 + f 0 A 0 . We have 1 1 ~ 2 ~ ~ 3 2 f 0 f 0 = 2 f 0 + A 0 f 0 + [ f 0 A 0 + 2A 0 f 0 ] i , 1 ~ 2 2 = 2 f0 + A0 f0

(6.31)

(6.32) (6.33)

( )

( )

(6.34)

or
1
2

We also have 2~ h = f0 A0 , ~ 1 A0 = 2 h , f0 ~ 1 h = A 0 = [ 2 h] f0

~ 2 2 3 f0 + A0 f0 = f0 f0 .

( )

(6.35) (6.36) (6.37)

= or
h=

1 1 ( h) 2 ( h) 2 f0 f0

(6.38)

2 1 f 0 ( h) 2 ( h) , 3 f0 f0 2 f 0 ( h) ( h) . f0

or f0 h =
2

In summary, 1 1 2 2 3 2 f 0 + 3 ( h ) = f 0 f 0 , f0 2 2 f 0 h = f 0 ( h) ( h) , f0 ~ 1 A0 = 2 h . f0
6.2 Special case

(6.39)

(6.40)

(6.41) (6.42) (6.43)

24

We now consider the one dimensional case. For convenience we remove ~ and r =(x, y, z) instead of . We also use A for A 0 and f for f0. f is real. 1 1 2 2 2 f + 3 ( h ) = f f 3 , f 2 f 2h = f ( h) ( h) , f 1 A = 2 h , f h = A.

the subscript

(6.44) (6.45) (6.46) (6.47)

Fig.6 The direction of the magnetic induction h(x). x, y and z are dimensionless.
ex h = x 0 ey y 0 ez dh = (0, ,0) , dx z h( x)
2 2

(6.48)

d 2h ( h) = ( h) h = h = 2 e z , dx

(6.49) (6.50)

1 d2 f 1 dh + 3 2 2 f dx dx

f 2h = or

2 df dh d 2 h + f dx dx dx 2

h=

1 h ( ), x f 2 x 1 dh A= 2 ey . f dx

= f f3,

for the z component,

(6.51)

(6.52) (6.53)

25

(a) 1 (type I superconductor) 1 d2 f f f3+ 2 =0. dx 2 The solution of this equation is already given above. (b) 1 (type-II superconductor)

(6.54)

f f3

7 7.1

Free energy Helmholtz and Gibbs free energies The analysis leading to the GL equation can be done either in terms of the Helmholtz free energy (GL) or in terms of the Gibbs free energy. (a) The Helmholtz free energy It is appropriate for situations in which B =<H>; macroscopic average is held constant rather than H, because if B is constant, there is no induced emf and no energy input from the current generator. (b) The Gibbs free energy It is appropriate for the case of constant H. The analysis leading to the GL equations can be done either in terms of the Helmholtz free energy or in terms of the Gibbs energy. The Gibbs free energy is appropriate for the case of constant H. 1 B H (Legendre transformation). g= f (7.1) 4 B is a magnetic induction (microscopic magnetic field) at a given point of the superconductors. The Helmholtz free energy is given by

1 1 q* B2 4 ( A) + fs = fn + + + , 2 2m* i 8 c The Gibbs free energy is expressed by

2 2

1 1 q* 1 B2 4 g s = fn + + + ( A) + B H . (7.3) * 2 2m i c 8 4

(i)

At x =- (normal phase) 2 H f () = f n + c , 8 2 2 2 Hc Hc Hc g () = g n = f n + = fn . 8 4 8 (ii) At x = (superconducting phase) 2 1 H 2 2 4 g s = g s () = f s = f n + + = f n = fn c . 2 2 8 The interior Gibbs free energy

1 h f 3 x

= 0.

(6.55)

(7.2)

(7.4) (7.5)

(7.6)

26

= dr[ f n g n + or

1 + 2

q* 1 + ( A ) c 2m * i

q* 1 1 1 4 E g = dr[ + + ( A) + (B Hc )2 ] * c 2 2m i 8
2

7.2

Derivation of surface energy We have a GL equation;

1 q* + + * A = 0 . 2m i c
2


If one multiplies the GL equation by * and integrates over all r by parts, one obtain the identity 1 * q* dr[ + + A ]=0, 2m* i c which is equal to
2 4 2
         

1 q* dr[ + + ( A) ] = 0 , 2 m* i c Here we show that the quantity I defined

( " ( %

I = dr[
'

q* q* A ( A) ] . i c i c
! !

is equal to 0, which is independent of the choice of and *. The variation of I is calculated as I = dr[ + * ] (7.13) using the Mathematica 5.2 (VariationalD). We find that = = 0 for any and *. I is independent of the choice of and *. When we choose = * = 0. Then we have I = 0. ((Mathematica Program-6)) (*Surface energy calculation -integral*) <<Calculus`VariationalMethods` Needs["Calculus`VectorAnalysis`"] SetCoordinates[Cartesian[x,y,z]] Cartesian[x,y,z]
)

27

E g = dr[ g s (r ) g n ]

&

$ $

B2 1 BH c ] 8 4 (7.7) (7.8)

(7.9)

(7.10)

(7.11)

(7.12)

symbol " ". More

eq3=eq1-eq2//Expand
0,0,1
"  !  ! # " !  !  

q
 

x, y, z

c x, y, z A3 0,0,1 x, y, z 2cm
#

2m
 !

2m
 !

2m

VariationalD[eq3, c[x,y,z],{x,y,z}] 0 VariationalD[eq3, [x,y,z],{x,y,z}] 0 ________________________________________________________________________

% %

28

" 

"

2
"  

1,0,0

x, y, z c 2m

1,0,0

x, y, z

c x, y, z

"

 !

 !

q A1 x, y, z
 

x, y, z 2cm

c 1,0,0 x, y, z

" 

 !

q A1 x, y, z
 

c x, y, z 2cm

1,0,0

"

q


x, y, z

c x, y, z A1 1,0,0 x, y, z 2cm x, y, z

2,0,0

x, y, z

" 

"

2
"  

0,1,0

x, y, z c 2m

0,1,0

x, y, z

c x, y, z

"

 !

 !

q A2 x, y, z
 

x, y, z 2cm

c 0,1,0 x, y, z

" 

 !

q A2 x, y, z
 

c x, y, z 2cm

0,1,0

"

q


x, y, z

c x, y, z A2 0,1,0 x, y, z 2cm x, y, z

0,2,0

x, y, z

" 

"

2
"  

0,0,1

x, y, z c 2m

0,0,1

x, y, z

c x, y, z

"

 !

 !

q A3 x, y, z
 

x, y, z 2cm

c 0,0,1 x, y, z

 !

q A3 x, y, z
 

c x, y, z 2cm

x, y, z

General ::spell1 : Possible spelling error : new symbol name " c" is similar to existing


0,0,2

x, y, z

OP3 OP3

x, y, z

 

 

 

A A1 x, y, z , A2 x, y, z , A3 x, y, z ; eq1 1 q A x, y, z . Grad x, y, z 2m c q A c x, y, z Grad c x, y, z c q A1 x, y, z # & ; OP1 : D #, x c q D #, y OP2 : A2 x, y, z # & ; c q OP3 : D #, z A3 x, y, z # & ; c eq2 1 c x, y, z 2m OP1 OP1 x, y, z OP2 OP2 x, y, z Expand;
     

Expand;

Subtracting Eq.(7.11) from Eq.(7.8), we obtain the concise form 1 1 4 (B Hc )2 ] . (7.14) E g = dr[ + 2 8 Suppose that the integrand depends only on the x axis. Then we can define the surface energy per unit area as : 1 1 4 (7.15) = dx[ + ( B H c ) 2 ] , 2 8 which is to be equal to 1 2 = Hc . (7.16) 8 Then we obtain a simple expression

B (7.17) = dx[ 4 + (1 ) 2 ] . Hc The second term is a positive diamagnetic energy and the first term is a negative condensation energy due to the superconductivity. When f and B/Hc are defined by B f = , h= . (7.18) 2H c Here we use x = ~ ( ~ is dimensionless). For simplicity, furthermore we use x instead x x of ~ . x Then we have

= dx[ f 4 + (1 2h) 2 ] = 2 dx[ (1 f 4 ) + h 2 2h] .

7.3 Surface energy calculation for the two cases (a) 1 (type-I superconductor)

x , we have 2

4 2 4 2 (7.20) = = 1.8856 >0, 3 3 a result first obtained by Ginzburg and Landau. So the surface energy is positive.

dx(1 f 4 ) =


_______________________________________________________ (b) 1 (type-II superconductor) Here we assume that is much larger than . 29

(( ( ( '

2 3

&

  



Simplify

1 Tanh

# % $ $ $ $

"

((Mathematica Program-7))
      

x,

= f 4 with f = tanh When h = 0 for x>0 and 4

4

1 2

(7.19)

h f (1 f ) = . x As h must decrease with increasing x, we have 1 h = (1 f 2 )1 / 2 , 2 f x and 1 h h = ( 2 ) = (1 f 2 )1 / 2 . x x f x Here f obeys the following differential equation, From Eq.(7.22) we have h 2 = 2 (1 f 2 )1 / 2 . x x Using Eq.(7.21), h 2 = 2 (1 f 2 )1 / 2 = (1 f 2 )1 / 2 f 2 , x x or 2 (1 f 2 )1 / 2 = (1 f 2 )1 / 2 ( f 2 1 + 1) = (1 f 2 )1 / 2 (1 f 2 )3 / 2 . 2 x When u = (1 f 2 )1 / 2 , we have
2 4 2

2u = u u3 , z 2
1 = u 2 u 4 + const . 2 du du When u =0, = 0 (at f = 1 (x = ) at = 0 ), so we have dx dx
 

u z

du dx

1 1 = u 2 u 4 = u 2 (1 u 2 ) , 2 2

or
du 1 = u (1 u 2 )1 / 2 , dx 2 since du/dx must be negative. We solve the problem with the boundary condition; u = 1 when x=0. 1 = dx[ (1 f 4 ) + h 2 2h] , 2 or u2 u2 = dx[2u 2 (1 ) 2u (1 )1 / 2 ] , 2 2 or
 

(7.21)

(7.22)

(7.23)

(7.24)

(7.25)

(7.26) (7.27)

    

(7.28)

(7.29)

(7.30)

(7.31)

30

 = du[2u 2 (1
0

u2 u2 dx ) 2u (1 )1 / 2 ] du , 2 2 du

(7.32) (7.33)

u2 u2 1/ 2 1 = du[2u (1 ) 2u (1 ) ] du 1 2 2 1 u (1 u 2 )1 / 2 2
2

or

= du[2u (1

u 2 1/ 2 4 ) 2 ]du = ( 2 1) < 0 , 3 2

(7.34)

Thus, for 1 the surface energy is negative. ((Mathematica Program-8))

0


2u

((Mathematica Program-9)) (*Negative surface energy*) Clear[u]

2
6 0 & 5 $ # & % $

eq1 u' x
8 7 6

ux
1

eq2=DSolve[{eq1,u[0] 1},u[x],x]//Simplify
S S R H PP P P I H S R G PP P P I

u[x_]=u[x]/.eq2[[1]]//Simplify
` U XX X X W

3 2
V

2x
a

Plot[u[x],{x,0,5},PlotStyle Hue[0],Prolog AbsoluteThickness[2], PlotPoints 100,Background GrayLevel[0.7], AxesLabel {"x","u"}]

u 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 x 1
b a a a a

Graphics

Y XX X X W

U T

2
U

3 2
H

2x

u x
C B B

, u x

3 2

31

Q PP P P

Q PP P P

G F

@ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @8@ @ @ @ @

u x

u x

u x 2

1 2 2

ux 2
#

2 12

( ' ) )

 

4 3

         

"

5 4

u2 2

2 2

x 2x

Fig.7 Plot of u = (1 f 2 )1 / 2 vs x. x (dimensionless parameter) is the ratio of the distance to .

Plot 1 u x 2 , x, 0, 5 , PlotStyle Hue 0 , PlotPoints 100, Prolog AbsoluteThickness 2 , PlotRange 0, 5 , 0, 1 , Background GrayLevel 0.7 , AxesLabel "x", "f"
f 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 x 1 2 3 4 5
b

Graphics

Fig.8 Plot of f = 1 u 2 vs x.
ux2 u x 2 12 2ux 1 Simplify; 2 2 Plot F, x, 0, 10 , PlotStyle Hue 0 , Prolog AbsoluteThickness 2 , PlotPoints 100, Background GrayLevel 0.7 , AxesLabel "x", "F"
F x 2 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.25
b

Graphics

Fig.9 Plot of the surface energy s = 2u 2 (1

Integrate[F,{x,0, }]
'

u2 u2 ) 2u (1 )1 / 2 as a function of x. 2 2

%//N -0.552285 F1=D[F,x]; Plot[F1,{x,0,10},PlotStyle Hue[0],Prolog AbsoluteThickness[2], PlotPoints 100,Background GrayLevel[0.7], AxesLabel {"x","dFdx"}]

32

3 22 2 2 1

4 3

&

&

&

!! ! !

F 2u x
  

   

&

   

# #

"

   

    

& $ 

b b

10

dFdx 0.1 x 2 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 4 6 8 10

Graphics Fig.10 Plot of the derivative ds/dx with respect to x. FindRoot[F1 0,{x,1,2}] {x 1.14622}
A b b

Criterion between type-I and type-II superconductor: = 1 / 2 The boundary between the type-II and type-I superconductivity can be defined by finding the value of which corresponds to a surface energy equal to zero. 1 (7.35) = dx[ (1 f 4 ) + h 2 2h] . 2 2 It is clear that this value is zero if 1 (1 f 4 ) + h 2 2h , (7.36) 2 or 1 1 [h (1 f 2 )][h (1 + f 2 )] = 0 (7.37) 2 2 or 1 h= (1 f 2 ) (7.38) 2 Substituting this into the two equations 7.4
3

d 2 h 2 df dh f h= 2 dx f dx dx
2

From the calculation by Mathematica, we conclude that = 1 / 2 .

     

((Mathematica Program-10))
Clear[f,h]
h x f x
# #  

Determination of fx
 %

'

$ #

% $

f x
#

f x

f x

33

 

&&

&

 

eq1 f x
 

f'' x

h' x

"

1 fx

1 d2 f 1 h f f + 2 3 2 f x dx

=0

(7.39) (7.40)

2
&
9 A @8 @ @ @

eq3=eq1/.rule1//Simplify Solve[eq3,f''[x]] eq4=eq2/.rule1//Simplify Solve[eq4,f''[x]]//Expand

s s i q p i r r X X Q P S R Q C B G

2 2

f x
a

f x

8. 8.1

Application of the GL equation Critical current of a thin wire or film1,4

Fig.11 The direction of the current density. The direction of current is the x axis. The direction of the thickness is the z axis. The following three equations are valid in general. q* q* 2 2 J s = * ( A) = q * v s , m c 1 1 q* B2 4 , ( A ) + f s fn = + + 2 2m* i 8 c
2
u t t

(r ) = (r ) ei (r ) . We consider the case when 2 (r ) = ns * = constant Then we have

h i

f x

f x 4 2f x 2f x

e `

h g

h gg

f x
Y f f

2f x

f x

f x

2f x

bb

f x

f x f x

2f x

P I

UT

D C

f x
B

f x

f x
B

2f x f x

77 7 7 6

EE

P II

1 f #1 2 2
5 4 3

"

rule1
1 2 0 2 2 2 (

1 f#

&

% ' & & & &

        

h x
$

f x 2h x

2f x h x f x

34

h'' x

eq2 f x 2 h x

2 f' x h' x fx

H H

(8.1)
2

(8.2) (8.3) (8.4)

q* q* ( A) = ( A ) = (m* v s ) , i c c and

(8.5)

1 m* 2 2 B 2 2 4 fs fn = + + . (8.6) vs + 2 2 8 2 * We now consider a thin film. We assume that d(T) in order to have = ns = constant. has the same value everywhere. The minimum of fs with respect to is obtained for m* 2 + + vs 2 = 0 , (8.7) 2 for a given vs, where B 2 /(8 ) is neglected. Here = and = f with = / = / . Then we have
2

m* 2 2 vs = f 2 = (1 f 2 ) . 2 The corresponding current is a function of f,

J s = q * vs = q *
2 2

(8.8)

2 m
*

f 2 1 f 2 .

(8.9)

We assume that J 1 = f

1 f 2 . 2 3 3 at f = 2 3 (8.10)

This has a maximum value when J 1 / f = 0 ; J 1 max = Js = 2 3 3 q *

2

2 3 3

q *

m *

((Mathematica Program-11)) (* Critical current of a thin wire*)

f2

1 f2
 

Plot[J1,{f,0,1}, PlotStyle Hue[0.7],Background GrayLevel[0.7], Prolog AbsoluteThickness[2], AxesLabel {"f","J1"}]

J1
 

Graphics

J1 f2 1 f2

12

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.2


0.4

35

f 0.6 0.8 1

Fig.12 The normalized current density J1vs f. J1 = f 2 1 f 2

H1=D[J1,f]//Simplify;H2=Solve[H1 0,f]
  

f 2

0 , f

2 , f 3

2 3

max1=J1/.H2[[3]]
 

8.2.

Parallel critical field of thin film

Fig.13 Configuration of the external magnetic field H and the current density J. Helmholtz free energy: 1 m* 2 2 B 2 2 4 fs fn = + + . (8.11) vs + 2 2 8 Gibbs free energy: 1 m* 2 2 B 2 1 2 4 vs + gs = fn + + + BH , (8.12) 2 2 8 4 or m * 2 2 (B H ) 2 H 2 1 2 4 vs + gs = fn + + + . (8.13) 2 2 8 8 So the Gibbs free energy per unit area of film is d /2 d /2 2 1 4 m * 2 2 (B H ) 2 H 2 ]dz , vs + Gs = g s ( z )dz = [ f n + + + 2 2 8 8 d / 2 d / 2 (8.14) * * q q 2 2 (8.15) J x = * ( Ax ) = q * vx . x c m When is constant, q* vx = * Ax ( z ) . (8.16) mc A ( z ) B = (0, B y ( z ),0) = A = (0, x ,0) . (8.17) z


36

or
By ( z) =

Ax ( z ) , z Ax ( z ) H, z

(8.18)

or
By ( z ) =

(8.19) q* Hz , m*c

or Ax ( z ) = Hz ,
d /2

vx =

(8.20)

Gs = =

d / 2

d / 2

When the last term is negligibly small, we obtain



or 1 H2 q* H 2 d 2 2 4 )+ ]. Gs Fn + d [( + 2 8 24m*c 2 Similarly, d/2 2 4 1 m* 2 2 B 2 vs + ]dz , Fs = Fn + [ + + 2 2 8 d / 2

2 2

1 B2 q* H 2 d 3 2 4 + ) + . 2 8 24m*c 2 2 Minimizing the expression of Fs with respect to , we find Fs = Fn + d ( +

2

q* H 2 d 2 + + = 0, 24m*c 2
2

q* H 2d 2 H2 d2 H2 2 = 1 , = 1 2 = 1 2 2 24m*c 2 H c 24 H c 24 2
or
!

H Hc

24

(1 f ),
2

where

This is rewritten as

37

 

H2 m* 1 4 Gs ( f n + + )d + 2 8 2

q* H m*c

2 d 3 2

[ fn +

d /2

1 + 2

H 2 m* + 8 2

q* H m* c

g s ( z )dz
2

, (B H ) 2 z + ]dz 8 (8.21)
2 3

(8.22)

(8.24)

(8.25) (8.26)

(8.27) (8.28)

"

% # # $

(8.29)

(8.30)

H2 , (8.31) 2 H c // where H c // is defined as H H c // = 2 6 c . (8.32) This parallel critical field H c // can exceed the thermodynamic critical field Hc when is f 2 = 1 lower than 2 6 = 4.899 . We now consider the difference between Gs and Gn. H2 Gn = Fn d 8 where Fn = df n , and Gn = dg n The difference is given by H2 1 H2 q * H 2d 2 2 2 4 )+ ]. Gn Gs = ( ) [( + 8 2 8 24m*c 2 or Gn Gs = [( +
2 2

(8.33)

(8.34)

1 q* H 2 d 2 2 4 ) + ]. 2 24m*c 2

(8.35)

Noting that q* H 2 d 2 + + = 0, 24m*c 2 we obtain 1 1 4 4 4 Gn Gs = + = > 0 . 2 2 The superconducting state is energetically favorable.
2 2

(8.36)

(8.37)

8.3. Parallel critical fields of thick films1 We now consider the case when an external magnetic field is applied to a thick film with a thickness d. The field is applied along the plane. We solve the GL equation with the appropriate boundary condition. The magnetic induction and the current density are given by f cosh( z ) , (8.38) By ( z ) = H f cosh( ) 2 and fz sinh( ) dB y ( z ) c cfH . (8.39) J sx ( z ) = = 4 dz 4 cosh( f ) 2 Note that

38

 = f ,
J sx ( z )

2 =

m *c 2 4q* 2
2 *

, sinh( fz

(8.40)

) J sx ( z ) q H , vsx ( z ) = * 2 = * 2 2 = * q f m cf cosh( f ) q 2 sinh( f ) ( 1) d/2 1 1 H 2 q*22 f 2 2 . vsx = [vsx ( z )] dz = d d / 2 2 m*2c 2 f 2 cosh 2 ( f ) 2 Helmholtz free energy: 1 m* 2 2 B 2 2 4 fs = fn + + + vs + 2 2 8 2 On minimizing this with respect to
f s
2

(8.41)

(8.42)

= 0,
2

m* 2 + + vs = 0 , 2 or

= f

) 2 . sinh( f ) [ 1] f We now discuss the Helmholtz free energy

1 m* 4 f s = fn + + + 2 2
2

with m* + + vs 2 Then we have

2 2

H Hc

= 4 f 2 (1 f 2 )

cosh 2 (

vs

B + , 8

=0.

39

f 2 =1

q Hc H 4 m*c 2 H c

*2 2

(8.43)

(8.44) (8.45)

m* 2 vs 2 =1 2
2

m*
2

2 sinh( f ) ( 1) 1 1 H f = 1 2 f f 4 Hc cosh 2 ( ) 2

vs

=1

m* 2 vs , 2
2

(8.46)
sinh( f ) 1) f , f cosh 2 ( ) 2 (8.47)

1 f2

   

(8.48)

(8.49)

(8.50)

B2 1 4 2 2 f s = f n + + + ( ) + 2 8 , B2 1 4 = fn + 2 8
2

(8.51)

or
2 2 Hc 4 B fs = fn f + , 8 8 d /2 1 f + sinh( f ) B2 = [ B y ( z )]2 dz = H2, d d / 2 f [1 + cosh(f )]

(8.52) (8.53)

and

f 1 2H B y ( z )dz = tanh( ) . f d d / 2 2 Gibbs free energy: 2 B2 B H B H Hc 4 g s = fs = fn f + , 4 8 8 4 2 f H H 2 f + sinh( f ) 4 g s = fn c f 4 + [ tanh( )] . 8 8 f [1 + cosh(f )] f 2 Since H 2 BH H2 gn = fn + = fn , 8 4 8 where B = H. From the condition that g s = g n at the critical field H = Hl, 1 f + sinh( f ) f 2 4 H 2 tanh( ) = H 2 , Hc f 4 + H 2 2 f [1 + cosh(f )] f or
d/2

B =

or
f4 = . f + sinh( f ) f 4 1+ tanh( ) f [1 + cosh(f )] f 2 In the limit of f 0, Hl 24 1 1 24 81 2 4 ) f + O[ f ]6 . = 2 + 24( 2 ) f 2 + ( + Hc 5 5 350 From the above two equations, we get
     

Hl Hc

H Hc

{1 +

(8.54)

(8.55) (8.56)

(8.57)

(8.58)

 

   

f + sinh( f ) f 4 tanh( )} = f 4 , 2 f [1 + cosh(f )] f

(8.59)

(8.60)

(8.61)

40

4 f 2 (1 f 2 )

) f4 2 = , f + sinh( f ) f sinh( f ) 4 [ 1] 1 + tanh( ) f f [1 + cosh(f )] f 2

cosh 2 (

(8.62)

or 1 f [cosh(f ) 1] f2 . (8.63) = 2 6(1 f ) 3 sinh( f ) f In the limit of f 0, 1 2 1 4 (1 ) f 2 + ( + (8.64) ) f 4 + O[ f ]6 . 6 5 6 12600 Using Mathematica, 1. we determine the value of f as a function of . 2 2. we determine the value of (H l / H c ) as a function of f or f2 for each . There occurs the first order transition because of discontinuous change of order parameter. 1+ ((Mathematica Program-12)) Here we discuss the problem dscribed in the book of de Gennes, page 189 <<Graphics`ImplicitPlot`



Cosh


f 2

cfm
df
Y X e d c W V b P

Calculationof H2 Hc2,
l

4 q2 c2 m

o g n m

q2 2

j i

h l

Hc2

c2 m

d d

2 c2 f3

1 f2 m 1 Cosh f 2 2 f q Sinh f

eq3=Solve[eq2,x]/.d

2 c2 d f3 m

1 Cosh f

y x

ut

q2 x

df

Sinh

rule3

H2

x ; eq2 eq1 . rule3

df

f2

2 c2 d f3 m

1 Cosh f

UT

d2 H2 q2 2
S B A

df

Sinh

//Simplify

41

G G

Vavsq

1 d

d2

vsx z

H q Sech


f 2

Sinh

fz

Simplify; eq1 f2

'

) (

'

rule2

4 3 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 2 &

f 0, 02
1 " "

% $

4
# ! " !

m c2 2 4 q2 2 2 mc ; vsx z_ 4 q2

c f H Sech


f 2

Sinh

fz

 

Jx z_

c D hy z , z 4

Simplify

hy z_

Cosh z

; rule1

Jx z . rule2 q f2 02

m Vavsq 2

d2
A @ 9

eq7=Solve[eq6 0,y]
t t

eq8=y/.eq7[[1]]//FullSimplify

We now consider the solution of de Gennes model

Evaluation of critical magnetic field as a function of the thickness Series[K[f, ],{f,0,5}]

K f_, _ : 1

f Cosh f 1 3 f Sinh f

30

12600

L1[ _]:=Module[{f1,g1, 1,f2}, 1= ;g1=FindRoot[K[f1, 1] 0,{f 1,0.2,0.99}];f2=f1/.g1[[1]]]

s1=Table[{ ,L1[ ]},{ ,0.22,10,0.01}];ListPlot[s1,PlotStyle {Hue[0],PointSize[0.015]},Background GrayLevel[0.7], AxesLabel {" ","f"}]

42

1 6

f2

1 6

f4 O f 6

f2 6 1 f2

} y

~ } y

f5 1 Cosh f 2 Cosh f 3 Sinh f

~ } y | { z y

v p

2f

f Sech f

Sech f

Sinh f

8 Tanh f

x x

2 f5

16 f
m

2f

l k i

f4 Hc2 8

Hc2 y 8

eq6 Gs Gn . H2

Fn

H2 8

Gn Fn

H2 8

y Hc2
f 2 2

Hc2 y Sech

Sinh f

Hc2 y Tanh

16 f

2f

Fn

f4 Hc2 8

Gs Fs
u

B1 H 4
H2 Sech
f 2 2

16 f

Fn

Sinh f

t s q

f4 Hc2 8

H2 Sech

Fs Fn
`

Hc2 4 f 8

2 H Tanh

d2 f 2

Hsqave 8
f 2 2

R R

G F

B1

hy z

1 d

d2

2f

z .d

D C @

H2 Sech

f 2

Sinh f

Simplify

Sinh f

2 2

Hsqave

hy z

1 d

d2

# "

' & $

q2


x . eq4 1 c2 m

z .d

Simplify

  

H2 Tanh

rule4

; eq5

 

x . eq4 1

 

q2 c2 m

. rule4

f 2

f 2

n n

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Plot L1 , , 5 , 3 , PlotStyle Hue 0 , Thickness 0.015 , Background GrayLevel 0.7 , PlotRange 2.1, 3 , 0, 0.7 , " ", "f" AxesLabel
f 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
                 

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

Graphics Fig.14(b) Detail of Fig.14(a). The order parameter f vs (= d/). f reduces to zero at = 5.
Evaluationof H Hc 2 vs Comparison with the approximation for H Hc 2 vs : 24 2 f3 1 f2 1 Cosh f Hcrsq _, f_ : f Sinh f

2
 

Series[Hcrsq[ ,f],{f,0,5}]
24
C B A ) ) 1 ) 2 ( 1 )

43

Q Q E

R Q Q

P P

Q E

P P

PlotStyle Background
I

Hue 0 , Thickness 0.01 , Hue 0.7 , Thickness 0.01 GrayLevel 0.7 , PlotRange 2, 8 , 0, 6

HH H H

F E E C

Plot

, Hcrsq , L1

5, 8 , ,

7 8 8

4 5 5

f2

24
(

24 5

24

24 5

81 2 4 f O f 6 350

Graphics Fig.14(a) The order parameter f vs (= d/). f tends to 1 in the large limit of


10

'

" !

" !

&

'

&

% $

"

6 5 4 3 2 1

Graphics Fig.15 ( H / H c )2 vs (red line) and the approximation 24/2 vs (blue line). These agree

well only in the vicinity of = 5 .

Evaluationoff2 vs H Hc 2 with asa parameter. Approximation for H Hl 2 vs : 24 2

<<Graphics`MultipleListPlot` fsq1[ _,hsq1_]:=Module[{f1,g1, 1,f2, hsq2}, 1= ;hsq2=hsq1;g1=FindRoot[hsq2==Hcrsq[ 1,f1],{f1,0.6, 1}];f2=f1/.g1[[1]]] The value of f for H/Hc= 1 Plot[fsq1[ ,1],{ ,2,10},AxesLabel {" ","f"}, PlotStyle {Hue[0],Thickness[0.01]}, Background GrayLevel[0.7]]
f 0.97 0.965 0.96 0.955 0.95 0.945 4 6 8 10

Graphics Fig.16 Plot of f at H/Hc = 1 as a function of .

X1 _ : Table Hcrsq , fsq1 , hsq1 , fsq1 , hsq1 2 , hsq1, 0, 1, 0.01 MultipleListPlot X1 5 , X1 2.5 , X1 3 , X1 4 , X1 4.5 , X1 5 , X1 7 , X1 9 , X1 11 , X1 20 , X1 30 , AxesLabel " H Hc 2", "f2"
' & 2 '  1  0 & ) ( '  & '   & ' ' &  & ' & % $$ $ $ # "  ' ! & "   ' &   ' &      

f2 vs H Hc

with

5 , 2.5, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 7, 9, 11, 20, and 30

44

f2 0.2 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.9 0.88 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

H Hc

Graphics Fig.17 Plot of f2 vs (H/Hc)2 with =

hny t_, f_, _
  

Magnetic field distribution Plot[Evaluate[Table[hny[t,L1[ ], ],{ ,2.5,10.0,0.2}]],{t,1/2,1/2},PlotStyle Table[Hue[0.05 i],{i,0,20}],Prolog AbsoluteThickness[1.5], Background GrayLevel[0.7],AxesLabel {"x/d","h"}]
h 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 x d -0.4

8 6 7 6 6 7 7 7

Graphics Current density distribution Plot[Evaluate[Table[Jnx[t,L1[ ], ],{ ,2.5,10.0,0.2}]],{t,1/2,1/2},PlotStyle Table[Hue[0.05 i],{i,0,20}],Prolog AbsoluteThickness[1.5], Background GrayLevel[0.7],AxesLabel {"x/d","J"}]
6 7 6 6 7 7 7

f f Sech 2
1

Sinh f t

-0.2

0.2

45

'

&

Jnx t_, f_, _

!

fSech

Sinh

,z

td

0.4

&

Cosh f t


Sech
"

f 2

f 2

fz

Cosh

f 2

 

,z

td

5 , 2.5, 3, 4, 4.5, 5, 7, 9, 11, 20, and 30.

d

Cosh z

J 1

0.5

x d -0.4 -0.2 0.2 0.4

-0.5

-1

Graphics Fig.18 Plot of (a) the magnetic field distribution and (b) the current density as a function of x/, where e is changed as a parameter. = 2.5 10.0. = 0.2.

8.4 Superconducting cylindrical film1 We consider a superconducting cylindrical film (radius R) of thickness (2d), where 2dR. A small axial magnetic field is applied to the cylinder.

Fig.19 Geometrical configuration of a cylinder (a radius R) with small thickness. Rd. q* q* 2 2 ( A) = q * v s . * m c 2 * 2 Suppose that ns = = =constant, then we have

Js =

c m*c = 2 * J s + A . (8.67) q* q * ns Integrating the current density around a circle running along the inner surface of the cylinder,

(8.65)

46

 and

42 0 dl = J s dl + A dl , 2 c

A dl = ( A ) da = B da = i ,

where i is the flux contained within the core of the cylinder. The magnetic flux f is defined as f = 0 dl . (8.70) 2 Then we have 42 f = J s dl + i , (8.71) c or c J s dl = ( f i ) . (8.72) 42 The phase of the wave function must be unique, or differ by a multiple of 2 at each point, 2c f = * n . (8.73) q In other words, the flux is quantized. When the radius is much larger than the thickness 2d, the magnetic field distribution is still described by d2 1 (8.74) Bz ( x) = 2 Bz ( x ) , 2 dx with the boundary condition, Bz ( d ) = H i and Bz (d ) = H 0 . The origin x = 0 is shown in the above Figure. x x sinh( ) cosh( ) H 0 Hi H0 + Hi + . (8.75) Bz ( x ) = d d 2 2 sinh( ) cosh( )

The current density Jy(x) is given by J y ( x) = c dBz ( x ) c = 4 dx 4 H i cosh(

The value of current flowing near the inner surface is 2d H i cosh( ) H 0 c . J y (d ) = 2d 4 sinh( )

Then we have
J s dl = 2RJ y ( d ) =

c 42

( f i ) ,

(8.68) (8.69)

dx

) H 0 cosh( 2d

d+x

) . (8.76)

sinh(

(8.77)

(8.78)

47

or 2R or f +

c 4

H i cosh(

2d

) H0 )

sinh(

2d

c 42

( f i ) ,

(8.79)

or The Gibbs free energy is given by 1 2 G = dr[ ( B) 2 + (B H 0 ) 2 ] , 8 8 or

d


2 Bz ( x) G = { 8 x d
  

+ [ Bz ( x ) H 0 ]2}dx ,

where the constant terms are neglected and Hi is given by Eq.(8.80). For a fixed H0, we need to minimize the Gibbs free energy with respect to the fluxsoid f . We find that the solution of G f = 0 f leads to f = i , where R/ = 10 50 and d/<1. To prove this, we use the Mathematica for the calculation. ((Mathematica Program-13)) de Gennes book p. 195 Cylinder
      

Bz

d
 

Bz1=Bz/.rule1//Simplify
b b

C1=D[Bz1,x]//Simplify

48

p p e

R R 2 Coth
g

q p p e

H0 R2 Sinh
f

d x

2d

Csch

2 H0 R Cosh

f Sinh

2d

X Y ` ` ` `

R2 1
T U U S U U

Hi

2 Coth 2d

d x

f 2 H0 R Csch 2d
Q P I H G

A B B B B

R2 1
8 9 9 7 9 9

2 R

Cosh 2d Sinh 2d
4

'

rule1

Hi

2 H0 R Sinh 2d

d x

$ #

"

&

1 x d H0 Hi Cosh Sech 2
$ # % $ # " !

1 d x H0 Hi Csch Sinh 2

H0

Hi Sinh 2 Sinh

H0

Hi Cosh 2 Cosh

Hi =

2 H 0R 2d sinh( )

2 2d coth( ) R 2 1 + R

(8.80)

(8.81)

(8.82)

1 8 3
"   

d2 d2

G4=Solve[G3 0, f]//Simplify
5d 2
f

F1= f/.G4[[1]]//Simplify
3d 2
u v u t

H0 R Sech
x s w

2d R Cosh

3 5 3 5 Cosh 2 Sinh 2 Sinh 2 2 2 2 f is the local m inimum value of the Gibbs free energy. Plot of f H0 R2 vs d 0 1, where R 10 50

Plot[Evaluate[Table[F2, { ,10,50,10}]],{ ,0,1},PlotRange {{0,1},{0,1.5}}, PlotPoints 100, PlotStyle Table[Hue[0.2 i], {i,0,5}], Prolog AbsoluteThickness[1.5], Background GrayLevel[0.7] ]
h

49

g g e

p o

p o

Cosh

Sech 2

F2 F1

H0

R2

rule1={d {d ,R

, R }

}
Simplify

. rule1

R R Cosh

2 Sinh

2 Sinh

5d 2

3d 2

r r q g

p g

R Cosh
`

2 Sinh

2 Sinh

3d 2

H0 R Sech

2d

R R Cosh

3d 2

5d 2

R Q Q Q F

3d 2d f Cosh 2 5d 3d 5d H0 R R R Cosh 2 Sinh 2 Sinh 2 2 2 2 2d 2d 4 3 R2 2 Cosh R Sinh

D E D P F H F D D E W X X V Q F E D I E D H F P D F D E H F E ` D E Y G H C D F C D E

Sinh

H0 R2 Cosh

9 9

9 9

6 5

G2
DC

G1 x

Simplify; G3 D G2, f

Simplify

) &

'

"

) ) &

2 Sinh
7

R2 R 2 Coth
%

5d 2

2 3 3 1

2 3 3 1

! !

0 2 3 3 1

d x
'

2d

' &

"

&

"

&

Csch

f Cosh

H0 R R Cosh

'

2d

d x

d x
2

'

) ) ) &

R R 2 Coth
' "

"

0 ) ) &

'

R2 Sinh

d x

2d

'

&

( '

&

"

&

"

H0

Csch

2 H0 R Cosh

f Sinh

'

2d

 

G1

C12

1 8

Bz1 H0

R 2 Coth

2d
2

Simplify

d x

H0 R R Cosh

2 Sinh

d x

Csch

2d

f Cosh

d x d x

! !

b a a

T U U

! !

d x

H0

1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Graphics Fig.20 Plot of the normalized magnetic flux /(R2H0) as a function of ( = 0 1), where = 10 50. = 10.

8.5 Little Parks experiments1,4 8.5.1 The case of d and d, The thickness d of the superconducting cylinder is much shorter than the radius R. It is also shorter than and . Since d, the change of B inside the superconducting layer is slight. The current density (proportional to derivative of B) is assumed to be constant. The absolute value of the order parameter is constant in the superconducting layer. The following three equations are valid in general. q* q* 2 2 J s = * ( A) = q * v s , (8.83) m c
1 1 q* B2 4 , ( A ) + f s fn = + + 2 2m* i 8 c
2

(8.84) (8.85) (8.86)

(r ) = (r ) ei (r ) . We consider the case when 2 (r ) = ns * = constant or (r ) = e i (r ) . Then we have q* q* ( A) = ( A ) = (m* v s ) , i c c and 1 m* 2 2 B 2 2 4 vs + f s = fn + + + , 2 2 8 Js q* vs = * 2 , = A + m* v s , c q

Then we have
dl = [ ] =

q* A dl + m * v s dl , c

where [ ] represents the change in phase after a complete revolution about the cylinder. [ ] = 2n (n; arbitrary integer).

(8.87)

(8.88) (8.89)

(8.90)

50

 represents the flux contained in the interior of the cylinder. vs = * (n + ), 0 mR where 2c 0 = * . q

Here we see from the free energy density that the free energy will be minimized by m* 2 2 choosing n such that |vs| is minimum since f is proportional to vs . 2 vs = min[ * | n + |] . (8.94) mR 0

Fig.21 Plot of the velocity vs as a function of / 0 . The current density is equal to zero when = n 0 .

Since vs is known, we can minimize the free energy with respect to and find f / = 0 ,
2

or

+ + m*vs 2 = 0 ,
2

1 2

or

= ( + m*vs 2 ) / 0 ,
2

1 2

or
1 * 2 m vs 2

or

m*vs 2 .

1 2

51

-3

-2

A dl =

( A) da = B da = = R 2 B .
A

(8.91)

(8.92)

(8.93)

vs 2m R 0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 -1 1 2 3

(8.95) (8.96)

(8.97)

(8.98)

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

Fig.22 Plot of

vs2

vs / 0 . The horizontal lines denote y = for several .

The transition occurs when 1 = m*vs 2 = 0[1 T ( ) / Tc ] , 2 0 where 0 = 2

H c (0) . 4

In the above figure, the intersection of the horizontal line of at fixed T and the curve
vs gives a critical temperature. In the range of / 0 where the horizontal line is located
2

above the curve vs , the system is in the superconducting phase. In the range of / 0 where the horizontal line is located below the curve vs , on the other hand, the system is in the normal phase.
2

8.5.2 The case of d and d. The thickness d of the superconducting cylinder is longer than and . The current density (proportional to derivative of B) is zero. The absolute value of the order parameter is constant in the superconducting layer. q* q* 2 2 J s = * ( A) = q* v s = 0 , (8.100) m c or q* = A, (8.101) c q* q* q* A dl = B da = , dl = [ ] = (8.102) c c c
or
= 2c n = n 0 . q*

Then the magnetic flux is quantized. We consider a superconducting ring. Suppose that A=0 inside the ring. The vector potential A is related to A by 52

-3

-2

-1

vs 2

2m R

(8.99)

(8.103)

A ' = A = 0 , A = . The scalar potential is described by ( L) (0) = dl A = da ( A) = da B = = ext + i ,

(8.104) (8.105) (8.106)

or

where is the total magnetic flux. We now consider the gauge transformation. A and A are the new and old vector potentials, respectively. and are the new and old wave functions, respectively. A ' = A + ( ) = 0 , (8.107) iq* ) (r ) . (8.108) c Since A = 0, is the field-free wave function and satisfies the GL equation

' (r ) = exp(

'+ ' '

2

2 *

2m

In summary, we have iq* iq* (r ) = ' (r ) exp[ ] = ' (r ) exp[ ] = ' (r ) exp[ 2i ] , (8.110) c c 0

since

q* c

2 and q*<0. 0

9. Isolated filament: the field for first penetration2 9.1 Critical field Hc1 We have the following equations;

1 ~ + A i

f = f f f,
2

or A =

~ = 0 A 2r 2

or Far from the center of the vortex,

53

~ i 2~ ( A) = [ f * f ff * ] f A , 2 ~ h = A . The vector potential in cylindrical co-ordinates takes the form B ~ 2 , A= A = (0, A ,0) , h = A, r= 0 2Hc Stokes theorem B da = ( A ) da = A dr = 2rA = ,
  

2 ' = 0 .

(8.109)

(9.1) (9.2) (9.3) (9.4)

(9.5) (9.6)

~ 1 1 1 = A = = = , r 0 0 0 for = 0 . Near the center of the vortex, ~ A = H (0) . or A 2r = H (0)r 2 , 0 We assume that f = ( )e i , where ( ) is a real positive function of . ~ A ~ 1 ~ 1 ~ h = A = ez ), ( A ) = e z ( A + ~ ~ 2 A 1 1 1 A ~ h = e [ 2 A ( + 2 )] = e [ ( A )] . GL equation can be described by 1 1 d 1 ~ 2 d ( ) + ( 2 + A ) = 3 . d d The current equation: e component. d 1 d ~ 1 ~ 2 [ ( A )] + ( + A ) = 0 . d d The above equations can be treated approximately when 1. We assume that ( ) =1 in the region > 1 / . 1 d 1 1 ~ d2 + (1 + 2 )]( + A ) = 0 2 d d The solution of this differential equation is 1 ~ + A = c1K1 ( ) [

(9.7)

(9.8)

(9.9)

(9.10) (9.11)

(9.12)

(9.13)

(9.14)

(9.15)

or ~ 1 A = + c1K1 ( )
~ A 1 1 1 1 ~ dK ( )) )= [ ], hz = ( A + + c1K1 ( ) + ( 2 + c1 1 d

(9.16) (9.17)

or hz = or c1

[ K1 ( ) +

dK1 ( )) c1 ] = [ K 0 ( )] = c1 K 0 ( ) . d

(9.18) (9.19) (9.20)

hz = c1K 0 ( ) , from the recursion formula dK ( ) + K1 ( x) = K 0 ( ) , 1 d

54

What is the value of c1? ~ When 0 , A should be equal to zero.

because K1 ( ) 1 / . Then we have

c1 = 1

~ 1 1 c1 + c1K1 ( ) =0, A =

(9.21)

(9.22)

In fact,
0 2 B 0 1 h= = 2 K 0 ( ) = K0 ( ) = K 0 ( ) , 2 2H c 2H c 2 2 H c

(9.23)

or
h= 1

K0 ( ) ,

(9.24)

since

0 . 2 In summary, we have ~ 1 1 A = K1 ( ) 2 H c 2 =

(9.25)

h=

(9.26)

K0 ( )

((Note)) The total magnetic flux through a circle of radius of 1 is given in the following way. ~ 1 1 1 A = K1 ( ) . (9.27)

Then we have = 2 ( ) A = 2

0 ~ 1 = 0 . A = 2 0 2 2

(9.28)

9.2 The center of vortex4 First we consider the behavior at the center of vortex, as 0. d 1 1 d 1 ~ 2 2 + A ) = 3 , ( ) + ( d d with ~ 2 A = H (0) , 0 or 1 1 d 1 2 d ( ) + [ 2 + H (0)]2 = 3 . d d 0
55

(9.29)

(9.30)

(9.31)

We assume that can be described by series = k (a0 + a1 + a2 2 + a3 3 + ...) , where a0 0. Using the Mathematica 5.2, we determine the parameters; k =1 a1 = 0 a2 = a0 a3 = 0 0 . 2 2 Then we have where H c 2 = H (0) )] . Hc2 8 The rise of ( ) starts to saturate at = 2 / .

(9.32)

2
8

[1 +

2 2 H (0) 2 H (0) , ] = a0 [1 + ] 0 8 Hc2

(9.33)

( ) = a0 [1

2 2

(1 +

(9.34)

((Summary)) If the vortex contains 1 flux quantum, we have f ( ) = e i ( ) ,

(9.35) (9.37)

( ) = a0 {1
9.3

[1 +

H (0) ] + ...} . Hc2

Far from the center of the vortex d 1 1 d 2 ( ) = 3 , d d

~ 1 A = .

(9.38)

with

(9.39)

In the region where ( ) 1 , for simplicity we assume that ( ) = 1 ( ) , ' ( ) + "( ) [1 ( )]3 = 1 ( ) . 2
This equation can be approximated by ' ( ) + " ( ) 1 3 ( ) = 1 ( ) , 2

This differential equation is simplified as. 1 1 [ " ( ) + ' ( )] + ( ) ( )3 = 0 . 2

(9.40)

(9.41) (9.42)

(9.43)

or

"( ) +

' ( ) 2 2 ( ) = 0 .

(9.44)

56

The solution is given by ( ) = C1 I 0 ( 2 ) + C 2 K 0 ( 2 ) . Since I 0 ( 2 ) increases with increasing , C1 should be equal to zero. Then we have ( ) = C 2 K 0 ( 2 ) . For large , e x e x , . K 0 ( x) K1 ( x) 2 x 2 x

(9.45)

(9.46)

(9.47)

10. 10.1

Properties of one isolated vortex line (H = Hc1) The method of the Greens function 2 J s = q* v s ,
2

(10.1) (10.2)

1 1 4 f s = fn + + + 2 2m*
2 *

q* 1 2 A + B , i c 8

When = ei and = ns = independent of r, 1 m* * 2 B 2 * 2 f s f n = ns + ns + ns vs + . (10.3) 2 2 8 J 4 Js . vs = * s * and B = (10.4) c q ns Then the net energy can be written by 1 E = E0 + dr[B 2 + 2 ( B)2 ] . (10.5) 8 When (10.6) B B + B , , E E + E , 1 E = dr[B + 2 ( B)] B . (10.7) 4 The integrand can be calculated by using VariationalD of the Mathematica 5.2.
*

( )

((Mathematica Program-14)) Variation method (*Derivation of London's equation*) <<Calculus`VariationalMethods` Needs["Calculus`VectorAnalysis`"] SetCoordinates[Cartesian[x,y,z]] Cartesian[x,y,z]
h h1 x, y, z , h2 x, y, z , h3 x, y, z ; eq1 h.h 2 Curl h . Curl h Expand
! $                    

h1 x, y, z 2 h2 x, y, z 2 h3 x, y, z 2 2 h1 0,0,1 x, y, z 2 2 2 2 2 2 h2 0,0,1 x, y, z h3 0,1,0 x, y, z h2 0,0,1 x, y, z h1 0,1,0 x, y, z 2 2 0,1,0 2 0,1,0 h3 x, y, z 2 h1 x, y, z h2 1,0,0 x, y, z 2 2 2 2 h2 1,0,0 x, y, z h3 1,0,0 x, y, z 2 2 h1 0,0,1 x, y, z h3 1,0,0 x, y, z
  $ $ # # " ! ! !  $    # $ $ # " # # % " !   $ $  $  # # # ! " " " ! % %  !    $ $ $ # # #  " " "

eq3=VariationalD[eq1,h2[x,y,z],{x,y,z}]/2//Expand;eq4=Variat

57

ionalD[eq1,h3[x,y,z],{x,y,z}]/2//Expand;eq2=VariationalD[eq1 ,h1[x,y,z],{x,y,z}]/2//Expand; (*London's equation*)

 

eq2-eq5[[1]]//Simplify 0 eq3-eq5[[2]]//Simplify 0 eq4-eq5[[3]]//Simplify 0

Demanding that E be a minimum leads to the London equation; E = 0, B + 2 ( B ) = 0 . This is called the second Londons equation. ((Note)) B 2 B 2 + 2B B , ( B )2 ( B) 2 + 2( B) ( B ) . Then we have 1 E = dr[B B + 2 ( B) ( B)] . 4 Since ( B ) ( B) = B [ ( B)] + [B ( B)] , 1 1 E = dr[B + 2 ( B)] B + da [B ( B)] . 4 4 The second term is equal to zero. Here we assume that (i) . (ii) The hard core of radius is very small, and we shall neglect contribution to the energy
  

(10.8)

(10.9) (10.10) (10.11) (10.12) (10.13)

completely its

58

 



h1 x, y, z h2 x, y, z h3 x, y, z

h1 0,0,2 x, y, z h1 0,2,0 x, y, z h3 1,0,1 x, y, z h2 1,1,0 x, y, z , h2 0,0,2 x, y, z h3 0,1,1 x, y, z h1 1,1,0 x, y, z h2 2,0,0 x, y, z , h2 0,1,1 x, y, z h3 0,2,0 x, y, z h1 1,0,1 x, y, z h3 2,0,0 x, y, z

eq5 h

Curl Curl h

Fig.23 Top view of the geometrical configuration of a single vortex. The line energy is given by 1 = d 2r [B 2 + 2 ( B) 2 ] . (10.14) r > 8 Demanding that be a minimum leads to the Londons equation. B + 2 [ ( B)] = 0 , (10.15) for r > . In the interior of hard core, we can try to replace the corresponding singularity by a 2D delta function. B + 2 [ ( B)] = 0e z 2 (r ) , (10.16)

B da + 2 [ ( B )] da = 0e z 2 (r ) da = 0 ,

Using Stokes theorem, B da + 2 ( B) dl = 0e z 2 (r ) da = 0 .

Fig.24 The path of line integral where < r << . If the circle of the path integral has a radius r ( <<r<<), the first term I1 is on the order of 0 r 2 / 2 and is negligibly small. In the second term I2, dl = e rd , (10.19)
B = e d B(r ) . dr

(10.17) (10.18)

(10.20)

59

Then we have

I2 =

( B) dl =

2 2 0

[ e

d B(r )] e rd dr

(10.21)

d = 2 2r B(r ) = 0 dr or
dB(r ) 0 = , dr 22 r B(r ) = 0 [ln( ) + const ] , 2 2 r

(10.22)

or

(10.23)

for < r << We now consider the exact solution B + 2 [ ( B)] = 0e z 2(r ) , and Note that ( B) = ( B) 2B = 2B . Thus we have 1 2B 2 B = 20 e z 2(r ) , where 2(r) is a 2D delta function. ((Note)) 2D case Green function Modified Helmholtz (i) 2 (1 k 2 )G (r1 , r2 ) = 2(r1 r2 ) , 1 G (r1, r2 ) = K 0 (k r1r2 ) . 2 Modified Bessel function (ii) ( 2 k 2 ) (r ) = f (r ) ,

B = 0 .

(10.24) (10.25) (10.26)

(10.27) (10.28)

(10.29) (10.30)

(r ) = G (r, r ' ) f (r ' )dr ' ,

( 2 k 2 ) (r ) = ( 2 k 2 )G (r , r ' ) f (r ' )dr ' = (r r ' ) f (r ' )dr ' = f (r ) The solution of the equation 1 2B 2 B = 20 e z 2(r ) ,

is that
B(r ) = e z G (r , r ' )

or

(10.31)

(10.32)
0 r K0 ( ) , 2 2

2(r ' ) = e z

(10.33)

60

0 r K 0 ( ) (in general). 2 2 ((Asymptotic form)) For <r, r B(r ) = 0 2 [ln( ) + 0.115932] . 2 For r, 0 r exp( ) . B(r ) = 2 2 2r The magnetic flux (r ) inside the circle with a radius r is B(r ) =
2

(10.34)

(10.35)

(10.36)

(r ) = 2r ' dr ' B(r ' ) =

r ' dr ' K 0 ( ) = 0

r'

r/

xdxK 0 ( x ) = 0[1

r K1 ( )] .

(10.37) The current density c c d J= B = e B(r ) . 4 4 dr

(10.38)
,B

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 x -4 -2 2 4

Fig.25

Schematic diagram for the plots of the magnetic induction B (blue line) and the magnitude of the order parameter (red line) as a function of x (the distance from the center of the vortex) for an isolated vortex line in a mixed phase of type-II superconductor.

((Mathematica Program-15)) (* the radial distribution of h(r)*)

Plot BesselK 0, x , x, 0, 2 , PlotPoints 100, PlotStyle Hue 0.5 , Prolog AbsoluteThickness 2 , Background GrayLevel 0.7 , AxesLabel "r ", "h 0 2 2"
     

61

5 4 3 2 1 r 0.5

1.5

Graphics

Fig.26 Plot of the normalized magnetic induction B(r ) / x = r/.

x

0 = K 0 (r / ) as a function of 22

BesselK 0, y y y
0
 

1-x BesselK[1,x] Plot[ ,{x,0,10},PlotPoints 100, PlotStyle Hue[0.5], PlotRange {{0,10},{0,1}},Prolog AbsoluteThickness[2],Backgr ound GrayLevel[0.7],AxesLabel {"r/ "," / 0"}]
0 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 r 2
         

10

Graphics

Fig.27 Magnetic flux (r ) / 0 = [1 reduces to 1 as x . 10.2. Vortex line energy

r K1 ( )] as a function of x = r/. (r ) / 0

62

0 2

Cylinder with a radius . Fig.28 Geometrical configuration of a single vortex. The vortex is approximated by a cylinder.

Now let us find the line tension or free energy per unit length. neglecting the core, we have only the contributions 1 1 = d 3r [B 2 + 2 ( B)2 ] . (10.39) 8 Vector identity ( B )2 = B [ ( B)] + [B ( B )] . (10.40) 1 1 1 = d 3r[B + 2 ( B )] B + d 3r2 [B ( B )] , (10.41) 8 8

63

2 1 3 1 = (10.42) d r[ 0e z 2 (r )] B + da [B ( B)] . 8 8 We use the Stokes theorem for the second term. We now neglect the core contribution (the first term). The integral da is to be taken
over the surface of the hard core (cylinder of radius ).

2 da [B ( B)] . 1 = 8
Note that B ( B) = Bz ( )

Bz ( ) e

and

da = e da

Bz ( ) B ( ) 2 2 e (e )]da = [ Bz ( ) z 1 = [ Bz ( ) 2 ] = . 8 8 (10.45) 1 dBz ( ) = 02 2 d we have Since (10.46)

2

0 0 [ln( ) + 0.115932] . Bz ( ) = 8 4 More exactly 0 K 0 ( ) K1 ( ) . 1 = 4 (see the derivation of this equation in the Mathematica Program-16).
2

1 =

((Mathematica Program-16)) (*vortex line energy*) <<Calculus`VectorAnalysis` SetCoordinates[Cylindrical[ , ,z]] Cylindrical[ , ,z] h={0,0,hz[ ]} {0,0,hz[ ]} Cross[h,Curl[h]]//Simplify
2
F

16 2 3
h g

e d

e d

02 BesselK 0,
c

BesselK 1,

64

` `

Y W

Y W X

Y W X

1
b a R

hz

hz
7

&

D hz

I Q PH P P P P

0 BesselK 0,
C

#1

. rule1

'

@ B 9 A A A A A

&

rule1

hz

BesselK 0,

&

6 5

"! $

"!

hz

hz

, 0, 0

Simplify

   

or

(10.43)

(10.44)

(10.47)

(10.48)

BesselK 0, 1 BesselK 1, 1

Limit[f1-Log[x],x ]//N 0.115932 (*graph, Comparison with ln( / )+0.115932*)

Plot Log x 0.115932, f1 , x, 1, 10 , PlotPoints 100, PlotRange 0, 10 , 0, 2.5 , PlotStyle Hue 0 , Hue 0.5 , Prolog AbsoluteThickness 2 , Background GrayLevel 0.7 , " ", " 1 02 16 2 2" AxesLabel
& 2                      

02 16 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

'

2 2

Fig.29 Plot of 1 / ( 0 / 4 ) =
2

1 K 0 (1 / x) K1 (1 / x ) [blue line] as a function of x = / . x For comparison, the approximation given by (lnx+0.115932) is also shown by a red line.

10.3. Derivation of Hc1 H G=F hd 3r . (10.49) 4 By definition, when H = Hc1, the Gibbs free energy must have the same value whether the first vortex is in or out of the system; Gs|no flux = Gs|first vortex,` (10.50) where Gs|no flux = Fs . (10.51) H Gs|first vortex = Fs + 1L c1 L 0 , (10.52) 4 where L is the length of the vortex line in the system and Bd 3r = L Bda = L 0 . (10.53) Then we have
Fs = Fs + 1L H c1 L 0 , 4
4 5 5

or H c1 =

41 , 0 65

Graphics

( ' &

2
3

10

% $

"! 

10 '

  

f1

1 1 1 BesselK 0, BesselK 1, x x x

(10.54)

(10.55)

or H c1 =

H 0 ln( ) = c ln( ) . 2 4 2

(10.56)

10.4. Interaction between vortex lines Suppose that there are two vortices in the 2 D plane. 1 2 B 2 B = 20 [ 2(r r1 ) + 2(r r2 )] .

(10.57)

Using the Green function r r' 1 G (r , r ' ) = K0 ( ). 2 Then we have B = dr ' G (r, r ' ) 20 [ 2(r r1 ) + 2(r r2 )] , B= or B (r ) = where r r1 r r2 0 [ K0 ( ) + K0 ( )] = B1 (r ) + B2 (r ) . 2 2 r r' 0 dr ' K 0 ( )[ 2(r r1 ) + 2(r r2 )] , 2 2

(10.58)

or

r r1 0 K0 ( (10.62) ), 2 2 r r2 ). B2 (r ) = 0 2 K 0 ( (10.63) 2 B1 (r2 ) = B2 (r1 ) . (10.64) The total increase in free energy per unit length can be rewritten as = 0 [{B1 (r1 ) + B2 (r1 )} + {B1 (r2 ) + B2 (r2 )}] 8 . (10.65) 0 0 B1 (r1 ) + 2 B1 (r2 ) =2 8 8 The first tem is the energy of individual vortex line. We have the interaction energy 2 0 0 r U12 = B1 (r2 ) = 2 2 K 0 ( 12 ) , (10.66) 4 8 where r12 = r1 r2 The interaction is repulsive, in which the flux has the same sense in both vortices. B1 (r ) = 11. Magnetization curves 11.1 Theory of M vs H We consider the Gibbs function given by

(10.59)

(10.60)

(10.61)

66

BH . (11.1) 4 i> j The first term is an individual energy of the lines. nL is the number of lines per unit area (cm2). B = nL 0 . (11.2) The second term is a repulsive interaction between vortices. 2 r 0 U ij = 2 2 K 0 ( ij ) , (11.3) 8 where rij =| ri r j | One can distinguish three regimes between Hc1 and Hc2. (a) H H c1 : nL 2 1, r> (b) (c)

<r< nL 2 1 2 H H c 2 : nL 1 r B BH G Gs 0 = 1 + U ij 0 4 i> j

(a) At very low densities (low B) the interaction is small and we neglect it completely. H G Gs 0 = ( 1 ) B . (11.5) 0 4 H or H<Hc1, the lowest G is obtained for B = 0. When 1 > 0 4 H When 1 < , we can lower G by choosing B 0. There is some flux penetration. 0 4 4 1 0 H c1 = = ln( ) . (11.6) 2 0 4 (b) When H > H c1 d: distance between neighboring lines (d>). (i) Square lattice zs = 4
nL = or 0 B Triangular lattice ds = (11.8) 1 B = 2 0 ds (11.7)

(ii)

G Gs 0 = nL1 +

U ij

(11.4)

67

zt = 6 nL = or
4 0 0 (11.10) dt = = 1.07457 3 B B We neglect all contributions except those of the nearest neighbors. 2 B z 0 d Bz 0 d (11.11) U ij = K0 ( ) = K0 ( ) 2 2 2 2 0 2 8 16 i> j Then we have B 1 d G Gs 0 = [( H c1 H ) + z 0 2 K 0 ( )] (11.12) 4 2 2 or G Gs 0 B ( H H c1 ) d B d 2H c1 H = + K 0 ( )] = 1) + K 0 ( )] , [ [ ( 1 0 1 0 4 zH c H c1 4 z z 2 2 2 2 22 (11.13) or 2H c1 H d G Gs 0 B (11.14) [ ( = 1) + K 0 ( )] , zH c 4 zH c H c1 2 or
1/ 4
  

B = 0

1 3 2 dt 2

(11.9)

2H c1 H G Gs 0 B = [ ( 1) + K 0 ( 0 0 zH c zH c H c1 B 4 2 where 0 = 2 2H c
  

The B vs H curve can be obtained from G = 0. B or 2H c1 H d 1d d 1 ( K0 '( ) = 0 1) + K 0 ( ) zH c H c1 2 B or

! $ " #  ! $ " #  !

(11.19) Here we note that

68

2H c1 H 1) + K 0 ( 0 0 ( zH c H c1 B
$ " #

 

1/ 2

)] ,

(11.15)

(11.16)

(11.17)

(11.18)
K1 ( 0 0 B

1/ 2

1 1 0 ) + 0 2 B B

1/ 2

1/ 2

)=0

0 =
and

2H c1 , zH c
1/ 2

(11.20)

0 B where 0 = 1 for the square lattice and 1.07457 for the triangular lattice. K 0 ' ( x ) = K1 ( x ) d

= 0

(11.21) (11.22)

11.2 Calculation of M vs H using Mathematica We make a plot of the free energy vs B and B vs H using the Mathematica 5.2. ((Mathematica Program-17)) (*Gibbs free energy h=H/Hc1 *)
B
     

F a_, b_ :

BesselK 0,

b h 1

K[a_,b_]:=Plot[Evaluate[Table[F[a,b],{h,1,3,0.1}]],{B,0,5},P lotStyle Table[Hue[0.1 i],{i,0,10}],Prolog AbsoluteThickness[1.5],Background GrayL evel[0.7]] Table[K[a,1],{a,0.4,1.2,0.4}]

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1
# # #

1 -0.1 0.2 0.1

1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3

69

! " " "  "

    

B 4

0.2 0.1 1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 2 3 4 5

{ Graphics , Graphics , Graphics } B a [b(h 1) + K 0 ( ) as a function of B, where h Fig.30 Gibbs free energy given by 4 B (=H/Hc1) is changed as a parameter (h = 1 3, h = 0.1). b (= 1) is fixed.. The parameter a is chosen appropriately. (a) a = 0.4, (b) a = 0.8, and (c) a = 1.2.

Simplify

G[a,b]
$ #

1 8


2b 2bh

<<Graphics`ImplicitPlot` p11=ImplicitPlot[Evaluate[G[1,1] 0,{h,1,1.15},{B,0.01,0.15} ],PlotPoints 50,PlotStyle {Hue[0],Thickness[0.015]},Background GrayLevel [0.7],AxesLabel {"h","B"}]

#

70

'' ' ' &

'' ' ' &

2 BesselK 0,
%

00 00 )

a BesselK 1,
%

a B

2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 (

  

! " " " " " " " " " "

BesselK 0,

b h 1 ,B

  

     

 

B 4

G a_, b_ :

B 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 h 1

1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12 1.14

ContourGraphics Fig.31 The magnetic induction B vs h (=H/Hc1) above h = 1. h = 1 (H = Hc1). p11=ImplicitPlot[Evaluate[G[1.2,1] 0,{h,1,1.03},{B,0.01,0.0 8}],PlotPoints 50,PlotStyle {Hue[0],Thickness[0.015]},Background GrayLevel [0.7],AxesLabel {"h","B"}]
B 0.08
#

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

h 1 1.0051.011.0151.021.0251.03

ContourGraphics Fig.32 The detail of the magnetic induction B vs h (=H/Hc1) near h = 1 (H = Hc1).

71

12. The linearized GL equation (H = Hc2). 12.1. Theory 2 When the term can be dropped in the GL equation, we obtain linearized GL equation
1 q* + * A = 0 . 2m i c This omission will be justified only if << = / .
2 2 2 2 2m* 1 q* A = = = E , 2 2m* i c 2m* 2m* 2 2
     

. and E = . 2m* 2 2m* When B = H (//z), we choose the gauge A = (0, Hx,0) . (12.3) Note that we use A = (H r ) / 2 = (-Hy/2, Hx/2, 0). = Hxy/2, A A + = (0, Hx,0) (gauge transformation). This problem is reduced to the eigenvalue problem in the quantum mechanics. H = E , (12.4)
2

where =

1 q* 2 2 H= [ p x + ( p y Hx) 2 + pz ] . 2m c This Hamiltonian H commutes with p y and p z . [ H , p y ] = 0 and [H , p ] = 0

z

H n, k y , k z = En n, k y , k z , and p y n, k y , k z = k y n, k y , k z , pz n, k y , k z = k z n, k y , k z , x, y, z p y n, k y , k z = k y x, y, z n, k y , k z , x, y, z pz n, k y , k z = k z x, y, z n, k y , k z , or
   

ik y y n, k y , k z = k y y n, k y , k z , y n, k y , k z e y . (12.10) i y x, y, z n, k y , k z = k z x, y.z n, k y , k z x, y, z n, k y , k z eik z z . i z (12.11) Schrdinger equation for ( x, y, z ) = x, y, z n, k y , k z ,

* 2 q 1 2 + [( ) +( Hx ) 2 + ( ) ] ( x, y, z ) = E ( x, y , z ) , (12.12) * 2 m i x i y c i y
" ! " " !

( x, y, z ) = e

ik y y + ik z z

( x) ,
72

(12.1)

(12.2)

(12.5)

(12.6) (12.7) (12.8)

(12.9)

(12.13)

c ky .

q H

We assume the periodic boundary condition along the y axis. ( x, y + Ly , z ) = ( x, y, z ) , or ik L e y y = 1, or 2 n y (ny: integers). Ly Then we have c " ( ) = [( 0 ) 2 + * ( 2m * E + q H ky = We put
2 1 kz . E = c ( n + ) + 2 2m* where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, (Landau level). or *

2m*E = or
2

1 2 * k z + 2m* c (n + ) = 2
2

kz +
2

2q

q H 1 (n + ) . E= k + * * z 2m mc 2 Finally we get a differential equation for ( )

" ( ) + [2n + 1 ( 0 ) 2 ] ( ) = 0 .
The solution of this differential equation is

n ( ) = ( 2 n!)
n

1 / 2

( 0 ) 2 2

H n ( 0 ) ,

with

0 =
=


c ky = q* H c
*


ky ,

q H


,


x0 =

0 =

H 0

ky

73

0 =

c ky

c ky = q* H

k z )] ( ) .
2

* m*c x = , with = =

q* H

1
H

and c =
*

q* H m*c

(12.14) (12.15)

(12.16) (12.17)

(12.18)

(12.19)

(12.20)

1 (n + ) , 2

(12.21)

(12.22)

(12.23)

(12.24)

(12.25)

(12.26) (12.27)

The coordinate x0 is the center of orbits. Suppose that the size of the system along the x axis is Lx. The coordinate x0 should satisfy the condition, 0<x0<Lx. Since the energy of the system is independent of x0, this state is degenerate.
H
 

0 < x0 = or
2

0 =

0 =

k y < Lx ,

(12.28)

ky =

2 Ly

n y < Lx ,

or
ny < Lx Ly

2 q H q H 1 1 2 (n + ) . (12.31) = k + E= k z + * (n + ) = * * z * 2 * 2m 2m 2 2m 2 mc mc 2

2q H 1 4H 1 (n + ) = (n + ) . kz = 2 2 2 c 0 1
2

or 1

where

kz =
2

2
2
H

1 (n + ) , 2

0 =

2 c , q* c = 0 . q H 2H
   

2
H

Then we have


H=

0 1 2 kz . 2 4 (n + 1 / 2) 0 , (12.36) 2 2

((Ground state)) If kz=0 and n = 0, this has its highest value at H = H H c 2 = or

H c2 = 2 H c . (12.37) This is the highest field at which superconductivity can nucleate in the interior of a large sample in a decreasing external field. 1 1 2H . (12.38) = 2 = 2 0 H

12.2

Numerical calculation of wave finctions

74

(12.29)

,
* *

(12.30)

(12.32)

(12.33)

(12.34)

(12.35)

((Mathematica Program-18)) (*Simple Harmonics wave function*) (*plot of n[ ]*)

conjugateRule Complex re_, im_ Complex re, im ; Unprotect SuperStar ; SuperStar : exp_ : exp . conjugateRule; Protect SuperStar


{SuperStar}
2
  #  #" ! 

n_, _, 0_ : 2
   

Exp

HermiteH n,

pt1=Plot[Evaluate[Table[ [0, , 0],{ 0,-2,2,0.4}]],{ ,4,4},PlotLabel {0},PlotPoints 100,PlotRange All,PlotStyle T able[Hue[0.1 i],{i,0,10}],Background GrayLevel[0.7],Prolog AbsoluteThick ness[1.5]]
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 -4
) ) (

-2

Graphics pt2=Plot[Evaluate[Table[ [1, , 0],{ 0,-2,2,0.4}]],{ ,4,4},PlotLabel {0},PlotPoints 100,PlotRange All,PlotStyle T able[Hue[0.1 i],{i,0,10}],Background GrayLevel[0.7],Prolog AbsoluteThick ness[1.5]]
0.6 0.4 0.2 -4 -2 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 2 4
(

Graphics pt3=Plot[Evaluate[Table[ [2, , 0],{ 0,0,4,0.4}]],{ ,2,6},PlotLabel {0},PlotPoints 100,PlotRange All,PlotStyle T able[Hue[0.1 i],{i,0,10}],Background GrayLevel[0.7],Prolog AbsoluteThick ness[1.5]]
& & & & % & & ) )

75

&

&

&

&

&

&

 # 

n2

14

12

 & & ' '

  & &

  

&

&

 

0.6 0.4 0.2

-2 -0.2 -0.4

Fig.33. Plot of the wave function with the quantum number (a) n = 0 (an even parity), (b) n = 1 (an odd parity), and (c) n = 2 (even parity) centered around = 0, as a function of .

13. 13.1

Nucleation at surfaces: Hc3 Theory 1 "( ) = [( 0 ) 2 + H 2 ( 2 + k z 2 )] ( ) ,

and the boundary condition: Js|n = 0 at the boundary ( = 0). d ( ) / d = 0 at = 0. (13.2) For x0 = H 0 >> , the harmonic oscillator function is nearly zero at = 0 and the boundary condition is satisfied. The problem is reduced to a model with a 1D parabolic potential well, where x0 is a constant corresponding to the center of orbit. Let us now consider a double well consisting of two equal parabolic well lying symmetrically to the plane = 0: the wave function is either an even or an odd function). The corresponding wave function should be an even function since d ( ) / d = 0 at = 0. The ground level of a particle in the double well is below that in the single wall. The eigenvalue associated with the double well potential is smaller than the eigenvalues associated with the potential ( 0 ) 2 .

" ( ) = [( 0 )2 + g 0 )] ( ) . ' ( ) = 0 at = 0.
where

g0 =

2
H

+ kz ) .
2

When kz = 0, g0 =

2 H 2

= (2n + 1) ,

((Mathematica Program-19))


1 x


f1

x 1

Graphics

Fig.32

76

'

(13.1)

(13.3) (13.3) (13.4)

(13.5)

Plot[{f1,f2[x]},{x,-2,2}, PlotStyle {Hue[0],Hue[0.7]},AxesLabel {" / 0","V( )"},Prolo g AbsoluteThickness[2], Background GrayLevel[0.7]]

2


1.5 1

0.5
  

-2


-1

Graphics

Fig.34 The harmonic potential (denoted by red line) and the symmetrical potential (denoted by dark blue line). From the book of Eugene Merzbacher,16 we have " ( ) + [2 + 1 ( 0 )2 ] ( ) = 0 . We put z = 2 ( 0 ) , where 0 > 0 Then the differential equation can be rewritten as 2 1 z "( z ) + ( + ) ( z ) = 0 , 2 4 where is generally not an integer. The boundary condition: (1) ( z = ) = 0 .

(2) ' ( z = 2 0 ) = 0 . (13.9) The solution of this differential equation is 2 1 z2 (1 / 2) 1 3 z 2 z (1 / 2) ; ; )] , D ( z ) = 2 / 2 e z / 4[ F1 ( ; ; ) + F1 ( 1 1 [(1 ) / 2] 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ( / 2) (13.10) where 1 F1 is the confluent hypergeometric (or Kummer) function. For even (z ) the boundary condition is given by D ' ( z = 2 0 ) = 0 . (13.11) Imagine the potential well about = 0 to be extended by a mirror image outside the surface. Lowest eigenfunction of a symmetric potential is itself symmetric; ' ( ) = 0 at the surface.

77

 

f2 x_ : f2 x_ :

x 1 x 1

;x 0 ;x 0

(13.6) (13.7)

(13.8)

(i) 0 Wave function (z ) will be localized around = 0, and nearly zero at the surface. Therefore the boundary condition will automatically be satisfied. (ii) 0 0 . The function still satisfies the boundary condition and Eq.(13.8).

13.2

Numerical solution by Mathematica

((Mathematica Program-20)) Nucleationof surface superconductivity

2 Exp

eq1= '[z]//Simplify <<Graphics`ImplicitPlot`

Q IP

p11 ImplicitPlot Evaluate eq1 0 . z 2 0, , 0.3, 0.1 , PlotPoints 50, Hue 0 , Thickness 0.01 , PlotStyle Background GrayLevel 0.7 , AspectRatio 1, AxesLabel " 0", " "
I HH H H E G F E Q U D T C E U B S Q T R U T B S Q I P P E E E F RP A

Gamma
@

1 2

8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Hypergeometric1F1
!

1 , z2 2 2

78

Gamma
!

00 0 0 )

$ #

z2 4

z Hypergeometric1F1

1 2

3 , z2 2 2

0, 0, 3 ,

z


1 Gamma 1 2 3 z2 Hypergeometric1F1 , , 2 2 2 2 Gamma 2

00 0 0 0 0 0 ) & (' ' ' ' ' ' ' %

Gamma 1 2 Hypergeometric1F1 Gamma 12

    

     

" !

z_

z2 4

1 z2 , 2 2

0.1

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

Fig.35 Plot of as a function of 0, satisfying the condition. D ' ( z = 2 0 ) = 0 . = 0 at 0 = 0, corresponding to the ground-state wave function for the simple harmonic potential.
p111 ImplicitPlot Evaluate eq1 0 . z 2 0, 0, 0.75, 0.80 , , 0.20496, 0.2048 , PlotPoints PlotStyle Hue 0 , Thickness 0.01 , Background GrayLevel 0.7 , AspectRatio 1, AxesLabel " 0", " "
                       

-0.2048 -0.204825 -0.20485 -0.204875 -0.2049 -0.204925 -0.20495 0

0.75

0.76

0.77

0.78

0.79

ContourGraphics Fig.36 Detail of Fig.38. The plot of as a function of 0 around 0 = 0.768 ( = = 0.20494), satisfying the condition D ' ( z = 2 0 ) = 0 .

79

ContourGraphics

50,

0.8

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

p12 ImplicitPlot Evaluate eq1 0 . z 2 0, 0, 0, 5 , , 0, 6 , PlotPoints 50, Hue 0 , Thickness 0.01 , PlotStyle Background GrayLevel 0.7 , AspectRatio 1, 02 1 " 0", " " ; p13 Plot AxesLabel , 0, 0, 5 ; 2 Show p11, p12, p13
            

Graphics Fig.37 Plot of as a function of 0, satisfying the condition. D ' ( z = 2 0 ) = 0 . = 2 and = 4 at 0 = 0, corresponding to for the wave function (n = 2 and n = 4). 2 The solid line denotes the curve given by . = ( 0 1) / 2 .

Plot of the wave function in the ground state

F 2 Abs 0 . 0.20494, 0 0.768 ; Plot Evaluate F , , 0.1, 0.1 , 0.03, 0.03 , 1.21702, 1.217032 , PlotRange PlotStyle Hue 0 , Thickness 0.01 , Background GrayLevel 0.7 , AspectRatio 1, AxesLabel " ", " "
3 3 3 2 2 $ 3 % 3 # & 0 2 % 1 0 3 # % 3 & $ 0  % $ & % $# # % & 0 0 $ # 0 0 2 2 2 2 " !! ! !   #  ) ( '

80

 

0 4 5

1.21703

1.21703

1.21703

1.21703

1.21702

1.21702

Graphics Fig.38 The plot of the ground state wave function with 0 = 0.768 and = -0.20494. Plot[Evaluate[F],{ ,-5,5}, PlotRange {{-5,5},{0, 1.2171}},PlotStyle {Hue[0],Thickness[0.01]}, Background GrayLevel[0.7],AspectRatio 1, AxesLabel {" "," "}]
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

Graphics Fig.39 Overview of Fig.41 for the same wave function with 0 = 0.768 , = -0.20494

It is clear by inspection that this new surface eigenfunction must have a lower eigenfunction that the interior ones, because it arises from a potential curve that is lower and broader than the simple parabora about = 0 . The exact solution shows that this eigenvalue is lower by a factor of 0.59.

81

-4

-2

-0.03

-0.02

-0.01

0.01

0.02

0.03

Hc2 = 1.695H c 2 = 1.695( 2H c ). 0.59 2 q* H 1 1 * = ( + ) = ( + ) . E= * 2 * 2m 2 2 mc When = n = 0, 2 q* H c 2 = 2m* 2 2m*c or c 0 H c2 = * 2 = 2 2 q H c3 =

(13.12) (13.13)

where 0 =

2c q*

((Surface superconductivity)) When = -0.20494, 0 = 0.768, 2 q* H q* H c 3 = (0.20494 + 0.5) = 0.29506 2m* 2 m*c m*c or c = (0.29506 2) H c 3 = 0.5901H c 3 q* 2 or
c = H c 2 = 0.5901H c 3 , q* 2

or H c 3 = 1.695H c 2 . (13.19)

13.3 Variational method by Kittel We assume a trial function given by ik y ( x, y ) = e y exp( ax 2 ) , (13.20) The parameter a and ky are determined variationally so as to minimize the Gibbs free energy per unit area
q* 1 1 4 g s = fn + + + + ( A) , c 2 2m* i
2 2

or 1 2 g s fn + [ 2 + ( + A ) ] , * 2m i 0 with A = (0, Hx,0) .

2

(13.14)

(13.15)

(13.16)

(13.17)

(13.18)

(13.21)

(13.22)

82

2H We now calculate

x0 =

k y 0

.
2

(13.23)

1 2 G = [ 2 + ( + A) ]dx . * 2m 0 i 0
2

After the calculation of G, we put 1 a= 2. 2 We take a derivative of G with respect to x0. We have x0 = H c3 =

0 = 1.6589 H c 2 . 2 2 2

((Mathematica Program-21))
conjugateRule Complex re_, im_ Complex re, im ; Unprotect SuperStar ; SuperStar : exp_ : exp . conjugateRule; Protect SuperStar


{SuperStar}
x_, y_ : Exp a x2 Exp ky y ; K1 K2 y x, y Simplify; 1 K3 x, y x, y K1 K1 K2 K2 2
    &   '   #  $ $ " ! &    2      % 5 "                 

x:

D #, x & ; y :

D #, y

4 02
y y

G4=Simplify[G3, >0]
4 H2
v

4
v

3 2 x0 3

2 x02

02

G5=D[G4,x0]//Simplify
02

4 H2

x0

G6 G4 . x0

Simplify

02

83

b aa a a a a a

b aa a a a a a

1 2

4 H2

3 2 x0

1 2

2 x02

02

r s s sq s

r s s h sq p s

S S

d c e e e e

d c e e e e

G3 G2 . a
S ` Y XX X X R W

1 2 2

Simplify

4 a3 2

02

B F

DD D D D D D C @

H G

DD D D D D D C @

DD D D C

B A

xx x x

H2

a x0

1 4 a x02

G1

K3 x; G2 Simplify G1, a 0

General ::spell1 : Possible spelling error : new symbol name " y" is similar to existing symbol

" x". More

1 a

02

$ $

. ky
)

$ $

"

 

0 x

Hx# & ; x, y Simplify; H x0 0

( &

(13.24)

(13.25)

(13.26) (13.27)

 V v

Simplify;

2 4 02


Solve[G6 0,H]
                                     

1.6589

14. Abrikosov vortex states14 14.1 Theory (1) All k are orthogonal because of the different e iky factor. (2) Each of these solutions is equally valid exactly at H = Hc2 and all give the same Hc2. 4 (3) term is not longer negligible. We expect a crystalline array of vortices to have lower energy than a random one. ( k y )2 ( x xk y )2 ik y y ik y y ] = Ck y e exp[ ], L ( x, y ) = Ck y e exp[ 2 2 2lH ky ky (14.1) with c 2 x = = lH , lH = * = 0 = 2 , (14.2) q H 2H
xk y = lH k y ky =

k = lH k y ,
y

xk y = lH k y = lH kn = lH
2 2

2 n = kn , b

where
k=

2 , b

( x lH nk )2 L ( x, y ) = Cn exp[ + inky ] , 2 2lH n Here we assume that Cn is independent of n. We define the period in the x direction. 2 2 2 a = lH k = lH , b ( x na) 2 L ( x, y ) = C exp[ + inky ] , 2 2lH n
2
) (

'

L ( x, y ) =

Ck y eikny exp[

ky

( x lH kn) 2 ], 2 2lH
2

84

&

$ $

" !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

, H

"

 

4 H2

02

0
2 2

2n , b

(14.3) (14.4)

(14.5) (14.6) (14.7)

(14.9) (14.10)

( x + a na )2 (14.11) + inky ] , 2 2lH n 1 L ( x + a, y ) = Ce iky exp[ 2 ( x (n 1)a )2 + i (n 1)ky ] = eiky L ( x, y ) , 2lH n (14.12) 2 ( x na ) 2iny (14.13) L ( x, y ) = C exp[ + ]. 2 b 2lH n

L ( x + a, y ) = C

((Mathematica Program 22)) Square vortex lattice rule1={a 1,b 1,LH 0.40} {a 1,b 1,LH 0.4}
 
x na 2 2 ny , n, m, m 2 LH2 b ContourPlot Evaluate Abs f 200 2 , x, 1.5, 1.5 , y, 1.5, 1.5 , AspectRatio 1, PlotPoints 100
1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5 -1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

ContourGraphics Fig.40 The spatial configuration of = 1. b = 1. lH = 0.4

' '

near H = Hc2 for a square vortex lattice. a

This is a general solution to the linearized GL equation at H = Hc2, periodic by construction. The form of condition chosen by Abrikosov is given by (see also the paper by Kleiner et al.)17 ( x xn ) 2 (14.14) L ( x, y ) = Cn exp[ + inky ] 2 2lH n Cn + = Cn ( = integer), (14.15)

L ( x + x , y ) =

Cn exp[

( x + x xn ) 2 + inky ] , 2 2lH

85

"

&

" !!

&

f m_ : Sum Exp

 

exp[

. rule1

1.5

(14.16)

or

L ( x + x , y ) = e

iky

Cn e

i ( n ) ky

( x xn ) 2 exp[ ] = eiky L ( x, y ) , 2 2lH (14.17)

Fig.41 Rectangular vortex lattice Each unit cell of the periodic array carriers quanta of flux. k 0 2 Hx b = = 0 . 2 k 0 2 H = 2H 2 0 H = 2 22 H 1 1 = 2 2 Triangular lattice: Cn + 2 = Cn , C1 = iC0 = iC

(4.18) (4.19) (4.20) (4.21) (4.22)

( x, y ) = C[

n = even

where k = 2 / b . We define the period in the x direction 4 2 2 a = 2l H k = lH b We note that b = 3a for a triangular lattice.

1 2 exp[ +i ( x l H nk ) 2 + inky ] 2 2l H n = odd

exp[

1 2 ( x l H nk ) 2 + inky ] 2 2l H

(4.23)

(14.25)

86

Fig.42 Triangular vortex lattice, where red circles denote the centers of vortices.

( x, y ) = C[

exp[

n = even

1 2 ( x l H nk ) 2 + inky ] + 2 2l H

1 2 i ( x l H (n + 1)k ) 2 + i (n + 1)ky ] exp[ 2 2l H n = even or

n = even

+ i exp[

( x, y ) = C

n = even

+ i exp[

( x, y) = C

+ i exp[

( x, y ) = C

{exp[ 1 2l H

(14.26)

{exp[ 1 2l H
2

1 2l H
2

( x l H nk ) 2 + inky ]
2 2

( x l H ( n + 1) k ) 2 + i( n + 1) ky ]} 1 2l H
2

{exp[ 1 2l H
2

(x

na 2 ) + inky ] 2

(x 1

( n + 1) a 2 ) + i( n + 1) ky ]} 2 (x 2na 2 ) + i 2nky ] 2

2l H
2

(x

(2n + 1)a 2 ) + i (2n + 1)ky ]} 2

87

+ i exp(iky ) exp[

or

( x, y) = C

2iy 1 + i exp( ) exp[ ( x ( n + 1 / 2) a) 2 ]} 2 b 2l H

((Mathematica Program 23)) Triangular vortex lattice

    
a 1, b 3 , LH 0.31

f m_ :


n, m, m . rule1 ContourPlot Evaluate Abs f 200 2 , x, 1.5, 1.5 , y, 1.5, 1.5 , AspectRatio 1, PlotPoints 100
1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5 -1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

ContourGraphics Fig.43 The spatial configuration of

near H = Hc2 for a triangular vortex . a = 1,

b = 3 , and lH = 0.31.

14.2 Structure of the vortex phase near H = Hc2 We start with the following equation. This equation was derived previously.

88

&

#

8 77

6 6

& 

4 

$ #

Exp
#

Exp

Exp

 

x na 2 LH2
#

1 2 2 LH2

 10 1 1 1 1 )

'

'

Sum Exp
! " " " " "

 

ny

rule1

a


1, b

( x, y) = C

exp( i 2nky ){exp[ 1 2l H

2

1 2l H
2

( x na) 2 ]

(14.27)

( x (n + 1 / 2)a ) 2 ]}

exp(

4iny 1 ){exp[ ( x na ) 2 ] 2 b 2l H

(14.28)

3 , LH

0.31

1.5

where L is a linear combination of the solutions of the linearized GL equation A = A 0 + A1 . A0 is the vector potential which would exist in the presence of the field Hc2. Ginzburg-Landau equation for L is given by 1 q* L + * A 0 L = 0 , 2m i c and q L q* * * JL = A0 , [ L L L L ] * 2m i m*c
*2 2

or
 

JL =
or

q* iq* iq* * * * [ L ( L A 0 L ) L ( L + A 0 L )] , * 2m i c c

q* q* q* * * [ L ( A 0 ) L + L ( A 0 ) L ] . * 2m i c i c JL is the current associated with the unperturbed solution. 1 Denoting quantities of the form ... by a bar (V is a volume), V
1 q* L + L + ( A) L = 0 . c 2m * i Expanding Eq.(14.34) to the first order in A1, we obtain
2 4
    

JL =

L + L
2

q* 1 1 + ( A 0 ) L A1 J L = 0 . * c c 2m i

((Mathematica Program 24)) Proof of



1 q* ( A ) L c 2m * i


1 q* 1 = ( A 0 ) L A 1 J L . * c c 2m i

Proof of -<A1 JL>=average of kinetic energy <<Calculus`VariationalMethods` Needs["Calculus`VectorAnalysis`"] SetCoordinates[Cartesian[x,y,z]] Cartesian[x,y,z]

A0={A10[x,y,z],A20[x,y,z],A30[x,y,z]};A={A1[x,y,z],A2[x,y,z],

dr[ L + L
2

1 q* ( A) L ] = 0 , + 2m* i c

(14.29)

(14.30)

(14.31)

(14.32)

(14.33)

(14.34)

(14.35)

(14.35)

89

eq21=A11[x,y,z] eq2/.rule1//Simplify
1,0,0

eq3=VariationalD[eq1,A2[x,y,z],{x,y,z}]//Expand
G D C A @ B A G @ B A

q2 A2 x, y, z q
@ D

eq31=A21[x,y,z] eq3/.rule2//Simplify
0,1,0

eq4=VariationalD[eq1,A3[x,y,z],{x,y,z}]//Expand
G D C A @ B A G @ B A

q2 A3 x, y, z q
@ D

eq41=A31[x,y,z] eq4/.rule3//Simplify
0,0,1

seq1=eq21+eq31+eq41//Simplify
)

90

9 9 91

2 1

0 2 8 1

x, y, z

x, y, z

c 0,0,1 x, y, z

3 1

2 1

0 2 1

6 2 1

1 q A31 x, y, z 2 c2 m c c x, y, z
0 0 2 5 ) 4

2 q A30 x, y, z

x, y, z

c x, y, z

B A

@ B E

x, y, z c x, y, z c2 m 0,0,1 x, y, z c x, y, z 2cm
A @ F B A @

x, y, z c 0,0,1 x, y, z 2cm

9 9 91

2 1

0 2 8 1

x, y, z

x, y, z

c 0,1,0 x, y, z

3 1

2 1

0 2 1

6 2 1

1 q A21 x, y, z 2 c2 m c c x, y, z
0 0 2 ) 5 ) 4

2 q A20 x, y, z

x, y, z

c x, y, z

B A

@ B E

x, y, z c x, y, z c2 m 0,1,0 x, y, z c x, y, z 2cm
A @ F B A @

x, y, z c 0,1,0 x, y, z 2cm

9 9 91

2 1

0 2 8 1

x, y, z

x, y, z

c 1,0,0 x, y, z

3 1

2 1

0 2 1

6 2 1

1 q A11 x, y, z 2 c2 m c c x, y, z
0 0 2 ) 5 ) 4

2 q A10 x, y, z

x, y, z

c x, y, z

1 q2 x, y, z c x, y, z 2m c A11 x, y, z , A21 x, y, z , A31 x, y, z x, y, z 1,0,0 x, y, z q c x, y, z q x, y, z c 1,0,0 x, y, z 2cm 2cm

 ' &  # "    !    % $  (     '   &            % $



  

Grad

x, y, z

 

 

eq1 1 2m

q A x, y, z . c q Grad c x, y, z A c x, y, z c eq2 VariationalD eq1, A1 x, y, z , x, y, z



op1z :

op1y :

op1x :

Expand; Expand

     

rule3

A3

A30 #1, #2, #3 & ; rule3 q D #, x A10 x, y, z # & ; c q D #, y A20 x, y, z # & ; c q A30 x, y, z # & ; D #, z c

A3

A30 #1, #2, #3 & ;

A3[x,y,z]};A1={A11[x,y,z],A21[x,y,z],A31[x,y,z]};rule1={A1 (A10[#1,#2,#3]&)};rule2={A2 (A20[#1,#2,#3]&)};

B E B E

(*Current density*)
q2 x, y, z c x, y, z A0 mc q c x, y, z Grad x, y, z 2m Simplify
1 3 2     

Jeq1
    

x, y, z Grad c x, y, z


seq1-seq2 0

((Note)) * If one multiplies the linearized GL equation by L and integrates over all the volume by parts, one obtain the identity
F R I

[ L

1 q* * + L A 0 L ]dr = 0 2m* i c
E E H H

91

 

q A20 x, y, z q A30 x, y, z A31 x, y, z A31 x, y, z A21 x, y, z A21 x, y, z A11 x, y, z A11 x, y, z

A21 x, y, z x, y, z c x, y, z A31 x, y, z x, y, z c x, y, z 0,0,1 c x, y, z x, y, z 0,0,1 x, y, z c x, y, z 0,1,0 c x, y, z x, y, z 0,1,0 x, y, z c x, y, z 1,0,0 c x, y, z x, y, z 1,0,0 x, y, z c x, y, z

q 2 q A10 x, y, z A11 x, y, z

1 2 c2 m 2 2 c c c c c c

C C

seq2
D

1 Jeq1.A1 c
6)

Simplify
x, y, z c x, y, z

@ 9 9 9 2

1 3

7 3 2

c x, y, z

0,0,1

x, y, z

x, y, z

c 0,0,1 x, y, z

q 2 q A30 x, y, z
1 0 ) 0)

x, y, z

c x, y, z

9 9 9 2

1 3

7 3 2

c x, y, z
1

0,1,0

x, y, z

x, y, z

c 0,1,0 x, y, z

q 2 q A20 x, y, z
1 0 ) 3 0) 5

x, y, z

c x, y, z

9 9 9 2

1 3

7 3 2

c x, y, z
1

1,0,0

x, y, z

x, y, z

c 1,0,0 x, y, z

6)

6)

0)

1 2cm c 1 2cm c 1 2cm

q 2 q A10 x, y, z

x, y, z

c x, y, z

% #   ' ' & & $



 

 

 



q A20 x, y, z q A30 x, y, z A31 x, y, z A31 x, y, z A21 x, y, z A21 x, y, z A11 x, y, z A11 x, y, z

A21 x, y, z x, y, z c x, y, z A31 x, y, z x, y, z c x, y, z 0,0,1 c x, y, z x, y, z x, y, z c 0,0,1 x, y, z 0,1,0 c x, y, z x, y, z 0,1,0 x, y, z c x, y, z 1,0,0 c x, y, z x, y, z 1,0,0 x, y, z c x, y, z

q 2 q A10 x, y, z A11 x, y, z

"

1 2 c2 m 2 2 c c c c c c

x, y, z

c x, y, z

(14.36)

or
2

[ L

1 + 2m*

q* A 0 L ]dr = 0 i c
2

or
1 q* (14.38) L + * ( A 0 ) L = 0 . 2m i c Then we obtain 1 4 L A1 J L = 0 , (14.39) c 1 q* iq* iq* * * A1 J L = * [ L ( L A 0 ) L ( L + A 0 )] . (14.40) c 2m ci c c Note that 4 B( s) = B (1) = A1 , (14.41) JL , c 1 1 1 A1 J L = A1 B ( s ) = [B ( s ) ( A1 ) ( A1 B ( s ) )] , c 4 4 (14.42) or 1 1 ( s ) (1) 1 A1 J L = B B + ( A1 B ( s ) )] . (14.43) c 4 4 We use the formula of vector analysis ( A1 B ( s ) ) = B ( s ) ( A1 ) A1 B ( s ) (14.44) We note that ( A1 B ( s ) ) dr = ( A1 B ( s ) ) da (Stokes theorem). This value becomes zero on the
2

boundary surface of the system. Then we have 1 ( s ) (1) 4 L B B = 0. 4 What are the expressions for B(1) and B( s ) ? B (1) = H H c 2 + B ( s ) ,

where B( s ) gives the effect of the supercurrent. We introduce the canonical operator, * = p q A0 , (14.47) c which has the commutation relation iq* [ x , y ] = H. (14.48) c We introduce the raising (creation) and lowering (destruction) operators. + = x + i y , = x i y , (14.49)
 

92

(14.37)

(14.45) (14.46)

q* Bz . c The linearized GL equation can be described by + L = 0 . ((Note)) 1 q* L + * A 0 L = 0 , 2m i c



[ , + ] = 2i[ x , y ] = 2

(14.50) (14.51)

L +
Since

1 2 2 ( x + y ) L = 0 . 2m*

q* x y 2 + 2 = + + Bz , c q* x y 2 + 2 = + Bz , c we have 1 1 q* + L + Bz + 2m* ) L = 0 , ( * * 2m 2m c with q* 2m*c q* ( Bz ). Bz + = 2m*c 2m*c q* We also note that 2m*c c 0 = * 2 = = H c2 , * 2 2 q q q* 1 ( Bz H c 2 ) L = 0 . + L + 2m* 2m*c When Bz H c 2 = 0, + L = 0 . The ground state has the property L = 0 . or L q * L q * x y A0 L ) = 0 , A 0 L ) i( L = ( i x c i y c or q* y L q* x L i A0 L + i A0 L = 0 . c c x y i The substitution of L = L e into the above equation leads to
        

(14.52) (14.53)

(14.54) (14.55)

(14.56)

(14.57)

(14.58)

(14.59)

(14.60) (14.61) (14.62)

(14.63)

93

 L L iq* y q* x = 0. i + L A0 L i L A0 L + x x y y c c (14.64) The real part of Eq.(14.64) is L q* A0x L + L = 0, (14.65) c y x or L q * . (14.66) L ( A0x ) = y x c The imaginary part of Eq.(14.64) is L q* y A0 L L (14.67) = 0, c x y or q* (14.68) L ( A0y ) = L . x y c Then the current density is given by

J Lx
J Ly

L q* q * L 2 q* q* x = = * L ( A0 ) = * L , y x c m 2 m* y m
2

L q* q* L q* q* y 2 . A0 ) = * L = * = * L ( m m x y c 2 m x
2 2

We see that the current lines are the lines of constant ( L =const). We note that L
2

is perpendicular to the lines of constant ( L =const).

L = e x
2

2 2 2m* L + ey L = ( J Ly e x LLxe y ) x y q

and

J L L =
2

2m* 2m* ( J Lx e x + LLy e y ) ( J Ly e x LLxe y ) = ( J Lx J Ly LLx LLy ) = 0 . q q (14.72)

 

Since
 

94

ex 4 Bs = JL = x c 0 we have

ey y 0

ez Bs B = , s, 0 , z y x Bs

(14.69) (14.70)
2

(14.71)

(14.73)

q * L 2 m * y or

4 Bs = y c
2

q L 2 m * x
*

B 4 = s x c

(14.74)

2q* 2 Bs = * L mc or Bs = where fL = mc
*

(14.75)

2 q *

L =
2

Hc2 2 fL 2 2

(14.76)

L
= Hc2 . and
2 q Hc2 = , 2 2 m * c
*

(14.77) (14.78) (14.79) (14.80) (14.81)

2m*c q*

B1 = H H c 2 + Bs , 1 4 L Bs [ H H c 2 + Bs ] = 0 , 4 1 4 2 4 f L ( H H c 2 ) Bs + Bs = 0 . 4 Since
Bs = Hc2 2 fL , 2 2
4

(14.82)
2

we have

f L
4

1 H H 4 2 [ ( H H c 2 ) c 2 f L + c 24 f L ] = 0 , 2 4 2 4
4

(14.83)

or

Hc2
2

4 fL +
Hc2
2

1 H 1 2 1 1 4 1) 2 f L fL ] = 0 , ( 4 4 H c 2 2 4 4 1 2
2

(14.84)

or
(8 2

) f L (1
4

H 2 ) fL = 0 . Hc2

(14.85)

Noting that
8
2 4

2 = 8 2 = 4 2 2 = H c 2 2 , and
2 2 2

Hc 1 , = Hc2 2 (14.86) (14.87)

we get the final form 1 4 2 H (1 2 ) f L (1 ) fL = 0 . 2 Hc2 95

The quantities f L and f L may be calculated, depending on the vortex lattice symmetry and the lattice spacing. It turns out that near Hc2, the ratio
2

A =

fL fL

4 2

(14.88)

is independent of H. Then the above equation can be rewritten by H 1 H c2 2 fL = 1 A (1 2 ) 2 and fL = A fL

((Note)) Here we follow the discussion given by Tinkham. We assume that = c1 f L (14.91) where c1 ia an adjustable parameter. Then the free energy is expressed by ( f s f N ) = 2 + 1 4 = c12 f L 2 + 1 c14 f L 4 (14.92) 2 2 Minimizing this with respect to c12, we find that

fL c = f 4
2 1
L

Then the minimum free energy is given by

 

2 ( fs f N ) = 2

fL fL

If fL is constant, A = 1. If fL is not constant, A is larger than 1. The more A increases, the less favorable is the energy. It is found that A = 1.18 for the square lattice and A = 1.16 for the triangular lattice. The latter case is slightly more stable.

14.3 Magnetic properties near H = Hc21 We consider the magnetic properties near H = Hc2 based on the discussion given in the previous section.
(a) The magnetic induction B . It is given by H H 2 2 B = H + Bs = H c 2 f L = H c f L , 2 2 2

or 96

 

H 1 Hc2 = 1 A (1 2 ) 2 2


2 2 2 1 Hc 1 = = 2 A 8 A

(14.89)

 

(14.90)

(14.93)

(14.94)

(14.,95)

H c2 H H c2 H 1 . =H 2 2 (1 1 ) A (2 2 1) A 2 2 Note that B = H at H = Hc2, B=H (b) The magnetization M . It is described by Hc2 H . 4 M = H B = A (2 2 1)

(14.96)

(14.97)

The magnetization M is negative as expected (since superconductors are diamagnetic) for H<Hc2. It vanishes at H = Hc2. The transition at H = Hc2 is of second order. (c) The deviation (B) = B 2 B
2 2 2

(d)

The Helmholtz free energy F is given by

q* 1 2 1 1 4 F = F0 + dr[ + + ( A) + B ], * c 8 2 2m i
2
 

~ F F0 1 1 2 4 F= = L + B V 2 8 ~ 1 1 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 2 F = L + B = Hc fL + B , 2 8 8 8 Here we also note that 1 H H 2 2 ) 2 fL ] . B H c 2 = H H c 2 c 2 f L = H c 2 [(1 2 2 H c 2 2 Since H 1 2 A (1 2 ) f L = 1 Hc2 2 we have

or

97

B 2 , B and B 2 B are expressed as follows. 2 H HH c 2 H 2 2 4 B 2 = ( H c 2 f L )2 = H 2 f L + c 24 f L , 2 2 2 4 2 2 H HH c 2 H 2 2 2 B = ( H c 2 f L )2 = H 2 f L + c 24 f L 2 2 2 4 Then the deviation B is calculated as 2 H 2 ( B ) = B 2 B = c 2 A 1) f L , 2 2 or H c2 H . (B) = A 1 A (2 2 1)

 

(14.98)
2

(14.99)

(14.100)

(14.101)

(14.102)

(14.103) (14.104)

(14.105)

(14.106)

B Hc2 =

H c2 2 [1 + A ( 2 2 1)] f L 2 2

(14.107)

or

4 4 B H c 2 fL . = 2 H c 2 [1 + A (2 2 1)]2 Using this relation, we obtain the expression 2 2 2 2 1 Hc2 1 2 Hc2 2 ~ 2 F = fL + [B + ( 1) f L ] 8 2 2 8 4 4 2 2 1 2 Hc2 2 = [B fL ( + 1 + 2 2 )] , 4 8 4 or
2 2

B H c2 ~ 1 2 [B ]. F= 8 1 + A ( 2 2 1) Using this relation, we have ( 2 2 1) B + H c 2 ~ B Hc2 4 = A F = B =H 1 + A ( 2 2 1) 1 + A ( 2 2 1) B since A (2 2 1) B + H c 2 = [1 + A (2 2 1)]H So we can verify the thermodynamic relation as expected.

~ (e) The Gibbs free energy G ~ ~ The Gibbs free energy G is related to the Helmholtz free energy F by 1 2 ~ ~ H B H c2 H [B ] G=F B= B. 2 4 8 1 + A (2 1) 4 Using the relation Hc2 H B=H , A (2 2 1) we find that ~ 1 (H H c 2 )2 + H 2]. G= [ 8 A (2 2 1)

~ It is clear that the lower the value of A, the lower the value of G . Thus the triangular lattice is more stable than the square lattice.

14.4 The wall energy at = 1 / 2 .1 We show that the wall energy in a type I superconductor vanishes for = 1 / 2 . We consider the 2D GL equation, where the magnetic field is directed along the z axis. 1 2 2 2 x + y + + = 0 , (14.116) * 2m where

98

 

(14.108)

(14.109

(14.110)

(14.111)

(14.112)

(14.113)

(14.114)

(14.115)

We note that [ , + ] == 2i[ x , y ] , or * * * * x , y ] = [ p x q Ax , p y q Ay ] = q [ px , Ay ] + q [ p y , Ay ] . [ c c c c For any arbitrary function f, we have, [ px , Ay ] f = , Ay f = Ay f Ay f i x i x i x Ay Ay f f f Ay f. = = Ay + i i x i x x i x Similarly, we have Ax [ p y , Ax ] f = f. i y Then we get the relation q* Ay Ax i q* Bz , [ x , y ] = ( )= c i x i y c A A where Bz = y x . x y Using this commutation relation, we get q* [ , + ] = 2i[ x , y ] = 2 Bz . c Since x y + = ( x i y )( x + i y ) == 2 + 2 + i[ x , y ] , we get q* x y 2 + 2 = + + Bz . c Then the GL equation can be rewritten as 1 q* 2 Bz + + = 0 . + + * * 2m 2m c We now look for the solution such that + = 0 .
4 7 4 7

+ =

q* q* Ax + i Ay = 0 , i x c i y c
3 3 9 6 6 3 3 @

or q* = ( Ax + iAy ) . i x c y 99 (14.129)

 

&

'

'

&

'

"

&

'

6 6

x =

q* q* q* q* x Ax , y = y Ay , Ax = p Ay = p i x c i y c c c (14.117) + = x + i y , = x i y . (14.118)
   

(14.119)

(14.120)

(14.121)

(14.122)

(14.123)

(14.124) (14.125)

(14.126)

(14.127)

(14.128)

 When + = 0 , the GL eq. reduces to

q* 2 Bz + + = 0 . (14.130) * 2m c Note that the current density is given by q* q* q* * Js = [ ( A ) + ( A ) * ] (14.131) * 2m i c i c Then we have B q* q* Bz 2 q* 1 1 B = , z , 0 = * [ * ( A) + ( A) * ]) , x mc i c i c y (14.132) or 1 q* Bz 2 q* * 1 q* Ax ) * ] , Ax ) + ( = * [ ( (14.133) y mc i x c i x c and Bz 2 q* q* 1 q* * 1 i (14.134) = * i[ ( Ay ) + ( Ay ) * . x mc i y c i y c Then we have Bz B * * 2 q* 2q* i z = * [ * ( i ) + (i ) ( Ax + iAy ) * ] , y x y x x y mc c (14.135) or 2 q* * * B Bz [ * ( ) ( )] , (14.136) i i i z = m*c x y x y x y This relation must agree with the relation given by Using the relation (14.130), we have Bz B 2m*c 2m*c i z = [ * ( + * )] + i [ * ( + * )] , (14.137) y x y q x q or B q* Bz (14.138) i z + * ( i ) + ( * i * )] = 0 , * 2m c y x x y x y From the comparison between Eqs.(14.137) and (14.138), we find that . c 2 m *2 Since t is defined by cm* = = , 2 q* we obtain q* cm* 1 = = . * * cm 2 2 q
# # "

q*

100

 

   

(14.139)

(14.140)

(14.141)

((Note)) 2 2 2 2m*c 2m*c 2m*c 2 ( + ) = ( + ) = ( * 2 ) , Bz = * * * q q q 2m or

2 4 q * 2 2 2m*c 2 , ( * 2 ) = 2H c Bz = m*c q* 2m

(14.142)

(14.143)

where
2 0 c 0 2m*c 1 c = * 2 = = = H c 2 = 2H c , * 2 2 * 2c 2 2 q 2m q

and
2 * 4 q* 2 2 2m*c 2m*c 2 q 2 2 2 = = . 2 m*c q* q* c 2 m*

One can estimate the surface energy given by 1 1 4 = dx[ + ( Bz H c ) 2 ] . 2 8 In our case, 4 q* 2 2 , Bz = 2H c m*c with . 2 m* c 2 Then the integrand of is described by
2

= 2

This is equal to 0 when = 1 / 2 , leading to = 0.

15.

Conclusion We show that the phenomena of the superconductivity can be well explained in terms of the Ginzburg-Landau theory. The superconductors are classed into two types of superconductors, type I and type-II. The GL parameter has a limiting value = 1 / 2 separating superconductors with positive surface energy ( < 1 / 2 ) (type-I superconductors) from those with negative surface energy at large > 1 / 2 (type-II superconductors. The instability noticed by Ginzburg and Landau allowed the magnetic field to enter the superconductor without destroying it. This leads to the appearance of the mixed phase (the Abrikosov phase), where superconducting and normal regions coexist. The normal regions appear in the cores (of size ) of vortices binding individual magnetic flux quanta 0 = hc/2e on the scale , with the charge '2e' appearing in 0 a consequence
101

m cH c

m c

( 2 1)

(Bz H c )2 4 = H c 2

4 q *

q*

(14.145)

(14.146)

(14.147)

(14.148)

(14.149)
2 2

q*

*2 2

. (14.150)
4

of the pairing mechanism; since >, the vortices repel and arrange in a stable lattice. In his 1957 paper, Abrikosov derived the periodic vortex structure near the upper critical field Hc2. In 2003, Abrikosov and Ginzburg got the Nobel prize in physics for their "pioneering contributions to the theory of superconductors.

Acknowledgement We thank to Lyubov Anisimova for useful suggestions for preparing this article. All the Mathematica programs presented in this article were made with the seminar with her. References 1. P. G. Gennes, Superconductivity of Metals and Alloys (W.A. Benjamin, Inc. 1966). 2. D. Saint-Janes, E.J. Thomas, and G. Sarma, Type II Superconductivity (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1969). 3. S. Nakajima, Introduction to Superconductivity (in Japanese) (Baifukan, Tokyo, 1971). 4. M. Tinkham, Introduction to Superconductivity (Robert E. Grieger Publishing Co. Malabar, Florida 1980). 5. J.B. Ketterson and S.N. Song, Superconductivity (Cambridge University Press 1999). 6. L.M. Lifshitz and Pitaefski, Statistical Physics part 2 Theory of the Condensed State, Vol.9 of Course of Theoretical Physics (Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1991). 7. T. Tsuneto, Superconductivity and Superfluidity (Cambridge University Press 1998). 8. M. Cyrot, Reports on Prog. Phys. 36, 103 (1973). 9. G. Blatter, M.V. Feigelman, V.B. Geshkenbein, A.I. Larkin, and V.M. Vinokur, Rev. Mod. Physics 66, 1125 (1994). 10. M. Trott, The Mathematica Guide Book Vol.1-4 (Springer Verlag, 2006). 11. V.L. Ginzburg and L.D. Landau, Zh. Exp. Theor. Fiz 20, 1064 (1950). 12. L.D. Landau, Phys. Z. der Sowjet Union , 11, 26 (1937); ibid. 11, 129 (1937). 13. L.P. Gorkov, Sov. Phys. JETP 9, 1364 (1959). 14. A.A.A. Abrikosov, Soviet Physics, JETP 5, 1174 (1957). 15. J.J. Sakurai, Modern Quantum Mechanics Revised Edition (Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1994). 16. E. Merzbacher, Quantum Mechanics 3rd edition (John Wiley & Sons, New York 1998). 17. W.H. Kleiner, L.M. Roth, and S.H. Autler, Phys. Rev. 113, A1226 (1964). Appendix A. Superconducting parameters The definition of the parameters are given in the text.
Thermodynamic field Order parameter The parameters
Hc = 4 2

Hc , * 4ns
2

2 = ns* = / .
=

Hc

2 *2

4ns

102

Quantum fluxoid

0 =

2 c . q*

Magnetic field penetration depth

=
=

m*c 2 4q *
2

Coherence length

2m*

= =

H c m*

Ginzburg-Landau parameter

cm* = , 2 q *

cm* H c . * 2 2 ns q *

Some relations between Hc, Hc1, and Hc2

1 = , 0 2 2H c

2 q* H c = . 2 c

= 2 2H c , 2 0
2Hc =

Upper critical field (type II) Lower critical field (type II) Surface-sheath field

0 , 2 0 H c2 = . 2 2 H H c1 = 0 2 ln( ) = c ln( ) . 4 2 H c3 = 1.695 H c 2 .

2 22 H c . 0 Hc 1 . = Hc2 2

A.2. Modified Bessel functions The differential equation for the modified Bessel function is given by x 2 y ' '+ xy '( x 2 + n 2 ) y = 0 ,
1 n2 y ' '+ y ' (1 + 2 ) y = 0 , x x The solution of this equation is y = c1I n ( x ) + c2 K n ( x) , where I n ( x) = i n J n (ix ) ,
2 Recursion formula: K n ( x) =

i n +1[ J n (ix ) + iN n ( x)] =

( i n +1H n1) (ix) ,

103

m*c 2 4ns q*
* 2

2ns

2n K n ( x) x n K n ' ( x) = K n 1 ( x) K n ( x ) x n K n ' ( x) = K n +1 ( x ) + K n ( x) , x d n [ x K n ( x)] = x n K n 1 ( x) dx d n [ x K n ( x )] = x n K n +1 ( x) dx The parameter is the Euler-Mascheroni constant: = 0.57721. x K 0 ( x) = ln( ) = ln x + ln 2 = ln x + 0.11593718 2 , 1 K1 ( x ) = x for x 0 . K n +1 ( x ) = K n 1 ( x ) + ((Mathematica Program 25))
Plot[Evaluate[Table[BesselI[n,x],{n,0,5}]],{x,0.1,4},PlotPoi nts 50,PlotStyle Table[Hue[0.1 i],{i,0,5}],Prolog AbsoluteThickness[2],Background GrayLeve l[0.7]]
6 5 4 3 2 1

Graphics

Plot[Evaluate[Table[BesselK[n,x],{n,0,1}]],{x,0.1,1.5},PlotP oints 50,PlotStyle Table[Hue[0.2 i],{i,0,5}],Prolog AbsoluteThickness[2],Background GrayLeve l[0.7]]

104

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

Graphics Fig.44 Plot of (a) In(x) [n = 0 (red), 1, 2, 3, 4 (blue)] and Kn(x) [n = 0 (red) and 1 (yellow)] as a function of x.

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