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Series 1 + R2 4 R3 3 R1 2

Here, we have three resistors (labeled R1 , R2 , and R3 ), connected in a long chain from one terminal of the battery to the other. (It should be noted that the subscript labeling those little numbers to the lower-right of the letter R are unrelated to the resistor values in ohms. They serve only to identify one resistor from another.) The dening characteristic of a series circuit is that there is only one path for electrons to ow. In this circuit the electrons ow in a counter-clockwise direction, from point 4 to point 3 to point 2 to point 1 and back around to 4. Now, lets look at the other type of circuit, a parallel conguration:

Parallel 1 + R1 8 7 6 5 R2 R3 2 3 4

Again, we have three resistors, but this time they form more than one continuous path for electrons to ow. Theres one path from 8 to 7 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. Theres another from 8 to 7 to 6 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. And then theres a third path from 8 to 7 to 6 to 5 to 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 8 again. Each individual path (through R1 , R2 , and R3 ) is called a branch. The dening characteristic of a parallel circuit is that all components are connected between the same set of electrically common points. Looking at the schematic diagram, we see that points 1, 2, 3, and 4 are all electrically common. So are points 8, 7, 6, and 5. Note that all resistors as well as the battery are connected between these two sets of points. And, of course, the complexity doesnt stop at simple series and parallel either! We can have circuits that are a combination of series and parallel, too:

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131

Series-parallel 1 + R2 6 5 4 R3 R1 2 3

In this circuit, we have two loops for electrons to ow through: one from 6 to 5 to 2 to 1 and back to 6 again, and another from 6 to 5 to 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 6 again. Notice how both current paths go through R1 (from point 2 to point 1). In this conguration, wed say that R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, while R1 is in series with the parallel combination of R2 and R3 .

This is just a preview of things to come. Dont worry! Well explore all these circuit congurations in detail, one at a time!

The basic idea of a series connection is that components are connected end-to-end in a line to form a single path for electrons to ow:

Series connection R1 R2 R3 R4

only one path for electrons to flow!

The basic idea of a parallel connection, on the other hand, is that all components are connected across each others leads. In a purely parallel circuit, there are never more than two sets of electrically common points, no matter how many components are connected. There are many paths for electrons to ow, but only one voltage across all components:

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Parallel connection These points are electrically common

R1

R2

R3

R4

These points are electrically common

Series and parallel resistor congurations have very different electrical properties. Well explore the properties of each conguration in the sections to come. REVIEW: In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a single path for electrons to ow. In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other, forming exactly two sets of electrically common points. A branch in a parallel circuit is a path for electric current formed by one of the load components (such as a resistor).

5.2

Simple series circuits

R1 3 k 10 k 5 k 4 R3 3 R2

Lets start with a series circuit consisting of three resistors and a single battery:

1 + 9V

The rst principle to understand about series circuits is that the amount of current is the same through any component in the circuit. This is because there is only one path for electrons to ow in a series circuit, and because free electrons ow through conductors like marbles in a tube, the rate of ow (marble speed) at any point in the circuit (tube) at any specic point in time must be equal.

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133

From the way that the 9 volt battery is arranged, we can tell that the electrons in this circuit will ow in a counter-clockwise direction, from point 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 4. However, we have one source of voltage and three resistances. How do we use Ohms Law here? An important caveat to Ohms Law is that all quantities (voltage, current, resistance, and power) must relate to each other in terms of the same two points in a circuit. For instance, with a single-battery, single-resistor circuit, we could easily calculate any quantity because they all applied to the same two points in the circuit:

1 + 9V 4

3 k

I=

E R 9 volts = 3 mA 3 k

I=

Since points 1 and 2 are connected together with wire of negligible resistance, as are points 3 and 4, we can say that point 1 is electrically common to point 2, and that point 3 is electrically common to point 4. Since we know we have 9 volts of electromotive force between points 1 and 4 (directly across the battery), and since point 2 is common to point 1 and point 3 common to point 4, we must also have 9 volts between points 2 and 3 (directly across the resistor). Therefore, we can apply Ohms Law (I = E/R) to the current through the resistor, because we know the voltage (E) across the resistor and the resistance (R) of that resistor. All terms (E, I, R) apply to the same two points in the circuit, to that same resistor, so we can use the Ohms Law formula with no reservation. However, in circuits containing more than one resistor, we must be careful in how we apply Ohms Law. In the three-resistor example circuit below, we know that we have 9 volts between points 1 and 4, which is the amount of electromotive force trying to push electrons through the series combination of R1 , R2 , and R3 . However, we cannot take the value of 9 volts and divide it by 3k, 10k or 5k to try to nd a current value, because we dont know how much voltage is across any one of those resistors, individually.

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1 + 9V -

R1 3 k 10 k 5 k

2 R2

R3

The gure of 9 volts is a total quantity for the whole circuit, whereas the gures of 3k, 10k, and 5k are individual quantities for individual resistors. If we were to plug a gure for total voltage into an Ohms Law equation with a gure for individual resistance, the result would not relate accurately to any quantity in the real circuit. For R1 , Ohms Law will relate the amount of voltage across R1 with the current through R1 , given R1 s resistance, 3k:

IR1 =

ER1 3 k

ER1 = IR1 (3 k)

But, since we dont know the voltage across R1 (only the total voltage supplied by the battery across the three-resistor series combination) and we dont know the current through R1 , we cant do any calculations with either formula. The same goes for R2 and R3 : we can apply the Ohms Law equations if and only if all terms are representative of their respective quantities between the same two points in the circuit. So what can we do? We know the voltage of the source (9 volts) applied across the series combination of R1 , R2 , and R3 , and we know the resistances of each resistor, but since those quantities arent in the same context, we cant use Ohms Law to determine the circuit current. If only we knew what the total resistance was for the circuit: then we could calculate total current with our gure for total voltage (I=E/R). This brings us to the second principle of series circuits: the total resistance of any series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. This should make intuitive sense: the more resistors in series that the electrons must ow through, the more difcult it will be for those electrons to ow. In the example problem, we had a 3 k, 10 k, and 5 k resistor in series, giving us a total resistance of 18 k:

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 Rtotal = 3 k + 10 k + 5 k Rtotal = 18 k

In essence, weve calculated the equivalent resistance of R1 , R2 , and R3 combined. Knowing this, we could re-draw the circuit with a single equivalent resistor representing the series combination of R1 , R2 , and R3 :

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135

1 + 9V 4
Now we have all the necessary information to calculate circuit current, because we have the voltage between points 1 and 4 (9 volts) and the resistance between points 1 and 4 (18 k):

R1 + R2 + R3 = 18 k

Itotal =

Etotal Rtotal 9 volts = 500 A 18 k

Itotal =

Knowing that current is equal through all components of a series circuit (and we just determined the current through the battery), we can go back to our original circuit schematic and note the current through each component:

1 + 9V 4

R1

3 k

2 R2 10 k 3

I = 500 A I = 500 A R3 5 k

Now that we know the amount of current through each resistor, we can use Ohms Law to determine the voltage drop across each one (applying Ohms Law in its proper context):

ER1 = IR1 R1

ER2 = IR2 R2

ER3 = IR3 R3

ER1 = (500 A)(3 k) = 1.5 V ER2 = (500 A)(10 k) = 5 V ER3 = (500 A)(5 k) = 2.5 V
Notice the voltage drops across each resistor, and how the sum of the voltage drops (1.5 + 5 + 2.5) is equal to the battery (supply) voltage: 9 volts. This is the third principle of series circuits: that the supply voltage is equal to the sum of the individual voltage drops. However, the method we just used to analyze this simple series circuit can be streamlined for better understanding. By using a table to list all voltages, currents, and resistances in the

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circuit, it becomes very easy to see which of those quantities can be properly related in any Ohms Law equation:

R1 E I R Ohms Law

R2

R3

Total Volts Amps Ohms

Ohms Law

Ohms Law

Ohms Law

The rule with such a table is to apply Ohms Law only to the values within each vertical column. For instance, ER1 only with IR1 and R1 ; ER2 only with IR2 and R2 ; etc. You begin your analysis by lling in those elements of the table that are given to you from the beginning:

R1 E I R 3k

R2

R3

Total 9 Volts Amps Ohms

10k

5k

As you can see from the arrangement of the data, we cant apply the 9 volts of ET (total voltage) to any of the resistances (R1 , R2 , or R3 ) in any Ohms Law formula because theyre in different columns. The 9 volts of battery voltage is not applied directly across R1 , R2 , or R3 . However, we can use our rules of series circuits to ll in blank spots on a horizontal row. In this case, we can use the series rule of resistances to determine a total resistance from the sum of individual resistances:

R1 E I R 3k

R2

R3

Total 9 Volts Amps Ohms

10k

5k

18k

Rule of series circuits RT = R1 + R2 + R3

Now, with a value for total resistance inserted into the rightmost (Total) column, we can apply Ohms Law of I=E/R to total voltage and total resistance to arrive at a total current of 500 A:

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137

R1 E I R 3k

R2

R3

Total 9 500 Volts Amps Ohms

10k

5k

18k Ohms Law

Then, knowing that the current is shared equally by all components of a series circuit (another rule of series circuits), we can ll in the currents for each resistor from the current gure just calculated:

R1 E I R 500 3k

R2 500 10k

R3 500 5k

Total 9 500 18k Rule of series circuits IT = I1 = I2 = I3 Volts Amps Ohms

Finally, we can use Ohms Law to determine the voltage drop across each resistor, one column at a time:

R1 E I R 1.5 500 3k Ohms Law

R2 5 500 10k Ohms Law

R3 2.5 500 5k Ohms Law

Total 9 500 18k Volts Amps Ohms

Just for fun, we can use a computer to analyze this very same circuit automatically. It will be a good way to verify our calculations and also become more familiar with computer analysis. First, we have to describe the circuit to the computer in a format recognizable by the software. The SPICE program well be using requires that all electrically unique points in a circuit be numbered, and component placement is understood by which of those numbered points, or nodes, they share. For clarity, I numbered the four corners of our example circuit 1 through 4. SPICE, however, demands that there be a node zero somewhere in the circuit, so Ill re-draw the circuit, changing the numbering scheme slightly: