+ MODEL

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Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx – xxx

www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Sources and trends of environmental mercury emissions in Asia

Coby S.C. Wong a,⁎, Nurdan S. Duzgoren-Aydin a , Adnan Aydin a , Ming H. Wong b
a
Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, PR China
b
Croucher Institute for Environmental Sciences, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong, PR China
Received 16 August 2005; received in revised form 14 November 2005; accepted 15 November 2005

Abstract

This paper focuses on environmental mercury emissions in Asia and elaborates its probable trend in the future and associated
implications given the anticipated socioeconomic outlook and other macro-environmental factors. Among the various regions, Asia
has become the largest contributor of anthropogenic atmospheric Hg, responsible for over half of the global emission. In the next
few decades, a significant increase in anthropogenic Hg emissions in Asia is likely owing to rapid economic and industrial
development, unless drastic measures are taken. In particular, the dominance of Asia in some Hg-emitting industries, such as coal
combustion, steel production and gold mining, provokes a serious environmental concern over their potential contributions of
incidental Hg in the region. Moreover, the increasing prevalence of electrical and electronic manufacturing industry as a user and a
contributor of Hg in Asia is also worrying. Specifically, disposal of obsolete electrical and electronic wastes represents a
phenomenon increasingly encountered in Asia. In addition to escalating anthropogenic Hg emissions in Asia, associated
environmental and health implications may also exacerbate in the region for the probable effects of a unique combination of
climatic (e.g. subtropical climate), environmental (e.g. acid rain) and socioeconomic factors (e.g. high population density). Hence,
much effort is still needed to understand the role of Asia in global Hg cycle and associated environmental and health effects in the
region.
© 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Mercury; Sources; Anthropogenic emissions; Trends; Asia; China

1. Introduction sions originating from these natural processes can vary

Mercury is ubiquitous in the environment. It can be
released and mobilized through both natural processes
and anthropogenic activities. Natural processes of
significant Hg emissions include outgassing of the
earth's mantle/crustal material, evasion from surficial
soils, water bodies, vegetation surfaces, wild fires,
volcanic activities, and geothermal processes (Schroeder
and Munthe, 1998). Regionally, atmospheric Hg emis-
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2241 5487; fax: +852 2517
6912.
E-mail address: cobywong@hotmail.com (C.S.C. Wong).
0048-9697/$ - see front matter © 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.11.024
significantly. For instance, natural sources account for
approximately 40% of the total Hg released annually in
Europe (Pacyna et al., 2001). In the US, contributions of
natural sources range from 6% to 59% over the continent
(Seigneur et al., 2003, 2004). Regardless, significance of
these natural emissions relative to anthropogenic ones
has diminished since pre-industrial era.
Many studies have provided evidence of noticeable
increases in atmospheric Hg deposition compared to that
of the natural background (i.e., Pirrone et al., 1998;
Slemr and Scheel, 1998; Schuster et al., 2002; Bindler,
2003; Seigneur et al., 2004; Fitzgerald et al., 2005;
Shotyk et al., 2005). Among them, Bindler (2003)

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2 C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx
documented that atmospheric Hg deposition rate in the
modern time had increased to 23–25 μg/m2/year from
the historical background of 0.5–1 μg/m2/year recorded
in the period of 4000–500 BP. Schuster et al. (2002) also
reported a 20-fold increase in atmospheric Hg deposi-
tion since pre-industrial times and that 70% of total Hg
input was of anthropogenic origin in the last century.
Even in remote areas away from human activities, such
as Northern Alaska, Hg influxes ranging from 2 to 20
μg/m2/year in freshwater sediments of five lakes were
recorded in the last decade (ca. 1990–2000) (Fitzgerald
et al., 2005). Despite of the differences in locality and
type of environmental media studied, there is over-
whelming and consistent evidence of increases in global
atmospheric Hg deposition largely attributable to
anthropogenic activities through intentional uses and
incidental releases of Hg.
In the past five hundred years (1500–2000), approx-
imately 923,000 tonnes of Hg was extracted from
primary production predominantly from cinnabar ore
(HgS) and as by-product from mining of other metals.
Mercury produced during the pre-industrial times was
primarily consumed by Spanish-American silver mines
and gold mining in North America (Camargo, 2002). It
later became highly demanded for its versatility in
manufacturing and industrial processes and its use in
dentistry and medicine in the 20th century. At its peak
between 1961 and 1970, Hg production amounted to
approximately 92,000 t, averaging nearly 8000 tonnes
per year. The annual global Hg production has since
declined to less than 2000 tonnes in recent years (US
EPA, 1997; Camargo, 2002; Hylander and Meili, 2003).
The significant decline in Hg production was a result of
international efforts through governmental initiatives
and regulatory measures to reduce global Hg emissions
in recognition of its associated adverse environmental
and health effects (OECD, 1993; UN/ECE, 2005). Since
the adoption of Hg-free products and processes policy,
Hg applications have been strictly limited and even
eliminated in some countries where viable alternatives
are available. A trade ban was also implemented to curb
Hg export from Europe and North America. However,
these regulations and policies are “not uniform and
similarly enforced from country to country” (Sznopek
and Goonan, 2000). Hg emissions may therefore vary
significantly and are expected to be high in developing
countries with Hg-emitting industrial and manufacturing
activities and lax environmental enforcement, as dis-
cussed in Section 2. Today, Hg remains as a commer-
cially valuable metal for its unique physical and
electrochemical properties. Major applications of Hg
can still be found in electrolytic production of chlorine
and caustic soda in chlor-alkali plants, amalgamation in
gold production, and manufacture of electrical and
electronic (EE) devices, such as electrical switching
devices and florescence lamps in liquid crystal displays
(LCDs) widely found in electronic and computer
components. A list of Hg-containing products and
alternatives may be obtained from Inform Inc. (2003).
Mercury is infamous for its toxicity to biological
organisms. Excessive releases of Hg and its compounds
to the environment, whether in elemental, inorganic or
organic forms, can lead to long-term and severe
environmental and health consequences. Toxicological
effects of elemental Hg (Hg 0 ) exposure include
erethism, tremor, psellism, respiratory and renal failures,
cardiac arrest, and cerebral oedema, while subclinical
exposure may induce kidney, behavioral, and cognitive
dysfunctions (Yoshida, 1998; Kales and Goldman,
2002; WHO, 2003). Toxicity of lipophilic organic Hg
compounds is even more severe (Kulig, 1998). Low-
dosage exposure to organic Hg compounds can cause
neurological disorders with symptoms, such as pares-
thesia, impaired peripheral vision, slurred speech,
memory loss, cerebellar ataxia, and tremors (Cranmer
et al., 1996). Acute exposure to organic Hg can be lethal.
A particular concern is associated with excessive
exposure to methylmercury (MeHg), as it is teratogenic
and can penetrate the placenta causing poisoning of the
fetus with severe consequences, such as subtle devel-
opmental delays, mental retardation, coordination
disturbance, limb deformation, and severe cerebral
palsy of the unborn child. Hence, it has been identified
as one of the twelve major hazardous chemicals to
children's health by World Health Organization (WHO)
(Risher et al., 2002; WHO, 2004). Ecologically, MeHg
is bioaccumulative and can biomagnify in the food chain
(Mason et al., 1996; Chen et al., 2000; Tsui and Wang,
2004). It is known to be most bioaccumulative in fish
muscle, making up over 85% of Hg stored. Human
exposure to MeHg is principally through ingestion of
fish, shellfish and sea mammal (US EPA, 1997; Dopp et
al., 2004; Sakamoto et al., 2004). The most infamous
incident of Hg poisoning in humans took place in
Minamata Bay and Agano River of Japan in 1960s,
where MeHg and other mercury compounds were
discharged from an industrial plant over an extended
period of time. Consumption of the Hg-contaminated
fish resulted in 2217 confirmed cases of Hg poisoning
by 1989. The disease was subsequently named as
Minamata disease (WHO, 1996). Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations and WHO recently
revised Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake for MeHg
to 1.6 μg/kg of body weight from the previously
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C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx
recommended 3.3 μg/kg of body weight in order to
provide sufficient protection for the developing fetus
(JECFA, 2005).
In recent years, research on environmental Hg
contamination has generated valuable information on
major emission sources, distribution, geochemical
behaviors, and toxicological effects of Hg and its
compounds. Some researchers (i.e., Munthe et al.,
2003; Pirrone et al., 1996, 2001; Pacyna et al., 2001,
2003; Seigneur et al., 2003, 2004) have quantified
global and regional distribution and emissions of Hg.
Among them, Pacyna et al. (2003) gave a detailed
account of global and continental atmospheric Hg
emissions from five important anthropogenic sources
of incidental Hg. They were stationary combustion of
fossil fuels, non-ferrous metal production, pig iron and
steel production, cement production and waste disposal
primarily from incineration. These five sources collec-
tively contributed a total of 1912.8 t Hg in 1995 alone,
of which stationary combustion of fossil fuels, partic-
ularly coal, was the most dominant attributing over 75%
of the total. Regionally, anthropogenic Hg emissions
were exceptionally high in Asia (1074.3 t/year)
responsible for over half of the global anthropogenic
atmospheric Hg released. Even though there are
indications of some uncertainties in the calculations,
as suggested by Nelson et al. (2004) and Hagreen and
Lourie (2004), Pacyna et al. (2003) and others (Pirrone
et al., 1996; Seigneur et al., 2004; Renner, 2005)
demonstrated the overwhelming significance of Asia as
an anthropogenic Hg contributor.
Asia, especially SE Asia, is experiencing rapid
economic growth and industrial development. Driven
by a growing demand for energy, materials and
commodities, some industrial activities identified as
major incidental Hg sources have since intensified
considerably, and these trends are expected to continue
in the next few decades. Aside from the use and
subsequent disposal of Hg-containing products, inci-
dental Hg emissions in Asia will likely increase
substantially, probably even if Hg emission control
measures are to be improved relative to today's regional
standard. This issue may be compounded by a paucity of
representative scientific information, lack of environ-
mental and health awareness, and other environmental
and socioeconomic factors in the region. Through the
discussion below, this paper merely highlights three
important industries in Asia, namely coal combustion,
steel production, and gold mining, and elucidates their
potential regional and global influences in anthropo-
genic Hg emissions. It also embodies a brief account for
Hg use in EE products and subsequent emissions from
3
the primitive disposal of this waste stream in Asian
developing countries. Lastly, this paper attempts to
postulate that some climatic, environmental, and
socioeconomic factors unique in Asia may be of vital
importance to biogeochemical properties of Hg and thus
associated environmental and health consequences in
the region. It is the intention of this paper to bring forth
various factors that are of major concerns and may have
been overlooked in the effort to provoke scientific
interest in the subject and, more importantly, to
minimize anthropogenic Hg emissions in Asia.
2. Important anthropogenic Hg emissions in Asia
2.1. Coal combustion
According to US Energy Information Administration
(2005), the world's annual coal consumption in the past
two decades (1990–2001) was ∼ 4500 million tonnes
(Mt). In the next 25 years, coal consumption is expected
to reach 6800 Mt, and nearly half of which will be
driven by the demand in China. China is the largest coal
consumer in the world. As of 2001, China alone
consumed nearly 1270 Mt of coal, accounting for
26.2% of the world's total coal consumption, a 23.0%
increase from 1990 (Fig. 1). It is projected that its annual
coal consumption will double, reaching 2500 Mt by
2025. Its demand for coal will grow substantially far
exceeding those of all other countries in the world,
effectively representing over one third of the world's
total consumption (∼ 36.4%). Similarly but on a smaller
scale, India, as the third largest consumer of coal, will
also exhibit a strong demand for coal in the next few
decades. Its coal consumption will reach 554 Mt in
2025, an increase of 69.7% from 327 Mt in 2001. By
2025, Asia as a whole will be responsible for at least
50% of the world's total coal consumption. Since coal
combustion is one of the most important sources of
incidental Hg, Hg emissions from this source in Asia
will heavily influence the global outlook on anthropo-
genic Hg inventory.
The average Hg content in Chinese coals was 0.22
mg/kg (Wang et al., 2000a). The sheer volume of coal
consumed each year has already caused noticeable Hg
contribution in the atmosphere. As observed in some
Chinese cities, such as Shanghai and Beijing, coal
burning was responsible for ∼ 80% of total atmospheric
Hg (Liu et al., 2002; Xiu et al., 2005). As Asian
economies continue to rely on coal as their primary
energy source, it is inevitable that Hg emissions from
coal combustion will persist, unless drastic emission
control measures are implemented. It is expected that the
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4 C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Historical (a and b) and projected (c and d) coal consumption by region (data extracted from US Energy Information Administration, 2005).
implementation of Hg emission control strategies in
China will encounter economic and technical chal-
lenges. One of these challenges may be related to the
distribution of coal use in China. In China, only 33% of
coal was used in electric power generation in contrast to
86% in the USA in 1996. Consumption of a majority of
the remaining 67% was scattered across the nation for
industrial purposes and household uses (Wang et al.,
2000b). This low ratio of “centralized” to “scattered”
coal use may limit the installation of emission reduction
technologies, such as electrostatic precipitators and flue
gas desulfurization systems in coal-fired power plants,
weakening the overall effectiveness of Hg reduction.
This distribution of coal use is an inherited strategic
issue that must be taken into account during the
formulation and implementation of Hg reduction
strategy from coal combustion in China.
2.2. Steel production
Mining and smelting activities in Asia play a
significant role in global anthropogenic Hg emissions
primarily because of (1) predominance of Asia in the
production of some metals/minerals, (2) use of rudi-
mentary mining and smelting techniques and technol-
ogies, and (3) lack or inadequate pollution control
measures. The historical production statistics of steel
and blast iron in selected Asian countries are presented
below. Wherever appropriate, associations relevant to
anthropogenic Hg emissions are elucidated.
According to International Iron and Steel Institute
(2005), the world's crude steel production reached 965
Mt in 2003. The steel industry experienced a period of
moderate growth from the 1980s until the mid 1990s
(Fig. 2). In the past decade (1993–2003), an apparent
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C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx 5

1200
World crude steel production between 1970 and 2003
1000 965 Mt in 2003

Crude steel produced (Mt)

770 Mt in 1990
800 717 Mt in 1980

600
595 Mt in 1970
400

200

0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Fig. 2. World crude steel production (1970–2003) (data extracted from International Iron and Steel Institute, 2005).

increase in steel production was observed, where steel
production in the world increased by 32.2% from 730
Mt in 1993. The top 10 steel-producing countries
collectively accounted for over 70% of the world's total
production. Among them, China is by far the largest
producer of steel in the world, responsible for 220 Mt in
2003, followed by Japan (110 Mt) and USA (90.4 Mt).
Again, an emphasis is placed on China for its dominance
in the industry. Fig. 3 depicts regional crude steel
production in 1993 and 2003. Steel production in China
grew considerably to 22.8% of the world's output in
2003 compared to 12.3% in 1993. The increase in steel
production in China was most obvious, essentially
fueling the growth of the world's steel production over
the past decade. China and other Asian countries (Japan
and other Asia) were responsible for 45.7% of the
world's total steel production in 2003, compared to
36.3% in 1993. The world's blast furnace iron
production also displayed a similar trend. Briefly, blast
furnace iron production amounted to 655 Mt in 2003
globally, an increase by 7.7% from 2002. In Asia, blast
furnace iron production accounted for 53.4% of the
world's total, and China alone was responsible for
30.8% of the production. The other major producers in
Asia included Japan (82 Mt), South Korea (27 Mt),
India (27 Mt), and Taiwan (10 Mt). Asia as a whole
increased its output by 12.0% in 2003 (Sweeney, 2004).
Based on the statistics provided above, it is certain that
Asia as a region has dominated some sectors of metal
production.
Anthropogenic Hg emissions from mining and
smelting processes of a country can vary significantly
depending of the volume of production, the type of
processes employed, the level of pollution prevention
measures implemented and the quality of raw materials
used, resulting in vast differences in emission factors.

Fig. 3. World steel production by region in 1993 and 2003 (data extracted from International Iron and Steel Institute, 2005).
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6 C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx

Thus, all of these factors should be carefully considered (49.6%) (International Iron and Steel Institute, 2005).
and evaluated when assessing anthropogenic Hg emis- From an environmental point of view, the dominance of
sions from mining and smelting activities. With regard Asia in steel and blast iron production signifies a large
to steel production, the magnitude and rate of Hg quantity of Hg released relative to other countries. In
emissions are governed partly by the type of steel addition to the level of emission control measures
production processes used. Generally, steel can be made implemented, the dominant use of BOF in the region as
by three types of processes: basic oxygen furnace a smelting technique should also be considered. These
(BOF), electric arc furnace (EAF) and open-hearth inherited differences may imply that Hg emission rates
furnace (OHF). The type of production processes per unit production are likely high and may greatly limit
employed is vital to formulating Hg emission control the validity of data collected in North America and
strategies, as each type of production processes carries a Europe when used to estimate Hg emissions in Asia.
set of environmental pros and cons. Briefly, steel
making using a BOF requires coke-making and iron- 2.3. Primitive gold mining
making as preceding steps; whereas these preceding
steps are not needed in an EAF, implying that concerns Fig. 5 depicts the world gold production since the
of potential Hg emissions from BOF are usually greater beginning of the last century (USGS, 2005). The world
than those from EAF. Detailed descriptions of these annual gold production increased sharply in the last two
processes and related environmental issues are given in decades from approximately 1500 tonnes in the 1980s to
Sell (1992). 2500 tonnes in the 21st century. Annual gold production
Fig. 4 illustrates the relative proportion of these in recent years ranged between 2500 and 2650 tonnes.
processes used in different regions in 2003. BOF and In Asia, China and Indonesia are currently the only two
EAF are most common, while OHF is used in the former countries contributing more than 5% of the world's gold
USSR (30.1%) and sparingly in Asia (0.4%). On production (Fig. 6). As of 2004, China and India ranked
average, 63.3% of steel in the world was produced by the 4th and 8th largest gold producers in the world,
BOF, followed by EAF (33.1%) and OHF (3.6%). In yielding approximately 210 and 140 tonnes of gold,
China and Japan, the two largest steel producers in the respectively (USGS, 2005). While the former experi-
world, BOF was responsible for 83.2% and 73.6% of enced moderate growth in the past decade, the latter
steel produced, respectively. Overall, BOF and EAF showed a substantial increase in gold production.
were responsible for 72.0% and 27.5% of steel Besides Hg emissions proportional to the amount of
production in Asia, respectively. By comparison, the gold extracted, a major concern lies in the primitive and,
use of BOF was less dominant in other important steel- sometimes, illegal gold mining operations in these
producing regions, such as EU (59.5%) and NAFTA countries.

100%

90%
Crude steel production by process

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%
OHF
30% EAF
BOF
20%

10%

0%
China Japan NAFTA EU Former Other Asia World
USSR Europe (including
China and
Japan)

Fig. 4. Crude steel production by process in 2003 (data extracted from International Iron and Steel Institute, 2005). Notes: BOF—basic oxygen
furnace; EAF—electric arc furnace; OHF—open-hearth furnace.
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3000
World gold production between 1900 and 2004
2500

Gold produced (tonnes)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year

Fig. 5. Historical gold production in the world (1900–2004) (data extracted from USGS, 2005).

Mercury is used in amalgamation to extract gold in
gold mining. When proper emission controls are
implemented, Hg emissions can be kept minimal.
However, in the primitive and, sometimes, illegal gold
mining operations, Hg is often emitted into the ambient
air by evaporation and discharged into nearby water-
ways in the form of wastewater and tailings. In
Indonesia, it has been reported that illegal gold mining
increased dramatically since the economic crisis in 1997
(Tse, 2001). As reported in TIME Asia (Elegant, 2001),
primitive gold mining was active in the forested area of
Manado, North Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. The gold
mining operations employed primitive amalgamation
techniques using Hg to extract gold in the absence of
pollution control measures and protective wear through
open evaporation and discharge into nearby streams. It
was estimated that ∼ 100–200 tonnes of Hg could have
been released into the environment around the mining
site.
A similar situation has also been found in China.
Small-scale gold mines in China have been reported in
many provinces, including Jilin, Hebei, Henan, Shan-
dong, Shanxi, Hunan, Jiangxi, Sichuan and Hainan
Provinces (Lin et al., 1997). Lin et al. (1997) conducted
a detailed investigation in one of the small-scale gold
mining operations in Jiangxi Province, in which Hg
concentrations in the ambient environment and human
urine were measured. It was found that Hg concentra-
tions in air in a workshop were exceedingly high (1.95–
3.05 mg/m3) compared to the regulatory permitted level
of 0.01 mg/m3. Wastewater and solid tailings discharged
from the mining operation were also anomalously
contaminated with Hg (0.51–1.03 mg/L in wastewater
and 108–302 mg/kg in solid tailings). Since these Hg-

Fig. 6. Historical gold production by region in (a) 1994 and (b) 2004 (data extracted from USGS, 2005).
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8 C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx
contaminated wastes were discharged into the immedi-
ate surrounding, villagers were exposed to elevated Hg
levels. A majority of the villagers exhibited elevated
levels of Hg in urine. Out of 131 adult men examined,
125 had urine Hg concentrations N 20 μg Hg/L, while 17
out of 21 adult women showed signs of elevated Hg
exposure. A similar occurrence was also observed in
both male and female adolescents. Hg emissions from
gold mining are often characterized as point-source
discharges, but their impacts are rarely confined to their
origins, as observed in California, USA, where Hg
discharged during the gold rush during the 19th century
is still making its way into the atmosphere and
ecosystems downstream today (Slowey et al., 2005).
Despite of the potential environmental impacts of the
industry, official accounts for Hg emissions from gold
mining operations, legal or illegal, in Asian countries are
scarce.
2.4. Production and disposal of electrical and electro-
nic products
The EE manufacturing industry has been one of the
largest users of Hg in the world for at least two decades.
Nonetheless, it has received little scientific attention as
compared to other major Hg users, such as chlor-alkali
plants and gold mining. Limited scientific information
concerning the quantity of global and regional Hg
consumption by the industry was generated until
recently. A report prepared by Silicon Valley Toxics
Coalition (SVTC) suggested that 22% of the world's
annual consumption of Hg was used in electronics
(SVTC, 2005). Official US statistics indicated that Hg
use in the EE industry was significant in the US and has
grown steadily over the years. In 1993, Hg use in the
production of electric lighting (38 tonnes), wiring
devices and switches (83 tonnes), and batteries (10
tonnes) alone accounted for 23.5% of the total annual
US industrial Hg consumption. This figure was
conservative since it did not include Hg use in other
EE products beyond these three categories (Jasinski,
2005). Recent information showed that Hg consumption
in electronics in 2003 had grown to 33–50% of the total
US consumption. Again, this estimate excluded Hg use
in fluorescent lamps and switches, which are important
Hg-containing EE devices (Brooks, 2005).
According to Electronic Industries Alliance (2005),
Hg can be found in at least 26 categories of EE devices,
including electrical lighting, switching devices, control
instruments, thermostats, devices with florescence
lamps in LCDs (e.g. laptop/notebook computers, mobile
phones, flat panel LCD display TVs and monitors), and
semiconductors (Randall, 1995; Lee et al., 2000; Jang
and Townsend, 2003). Hg contents in laptop/notebook
computers, flat panel LCD display TVs, multimedia
monitors and LCD projector TVs are among the highest.
A laptop/notebook computer or a flat panel (LCD)
display monitor can have up to 50 mg Hg, while as
much as 100 mg Hg can be found in a multimedia
monitor or an LCD projector TV (Electronic Industries
Alliance, 2005). Even though there has been a reduction
in Hg content in some electronic products, the reduction
may be counteracted by the increasing popularity of
some Hg-containing EE devices (Randall, 1995; How-
land et al., 2005). For instance, flat panel LCD monitors
and flat panel LCD TVs are increasingly popular,
gradually replacing traditional monitors and TVs with
cathode ray tubes. It is projected that 14 million units of
LCD TVs will be sold by 2006, a significant increase
compared to less than 300,000 LCD TVs sold in 2001
(Consumer Electronics Association, 2005). By 2008,
one out of every three TVs sold in the world will be an
LCD (Schuman, 2004). A growing demand for these
Hg-containing EE products due to shifts in consumer
preferences has inevitably fueled their production. The
increasing prevalence of the industry as a user
(manufacture) is of a potential concern in Asia, as
mass manufacturing of EE devices tends to concentrate
in Asia. Since Hg consumption in the production and
related Hg emissions are rarely monitored and docu-
mented, it is difficult to evaluate the kind of impact, if
any, the industry has had on global Hg inventory.
Like all consumer products, EE devices are
discarded and disposed of at the end of their useful
life. EE wastes are one of the fastest growing waste
types. It was estimated that, between 1997 and 2004,
approximately 315 million computers were disposed of
in the US alone, from which 180,000 kg of Hg could
have been released to the environment. By 2005, one
computer would become obsolete for every computer
entering the market, while 130 million mobile phones
could be discarded in 2005 alone (Realff et al., 2004).
The disposal of these devices have proven to be
challenging, as complexity in the design and compo-
sition of these devices render them undesirable for
recycling and reuse for technical and economic reasons
(Randall, 1995; Basdere and Seliger, 2003; Berkhout
and Hertin, 2004; Toffel and Horvath, 2004). Where
proper disposal methods are unavailable, Hg may
escape from the waste stream, resulting in environ-
mental Hg emissions. In Canada, Hg from this pool of
products was recently evaluated by Hagreen and Lourie
(2004). They found that fluorescent lamps and
industrial switches/relays represented reservoirs of
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8100 and 233,400 kg Hg in Canada, respectively.
Disposal of these devices would result in the release of
Hg to air (554 and 277 kg/year, respectively) and land
(3476 and 7503 kg/year, respectively) in Canada alone.
Even though statistics of related Hg reservoirs in other
countries are limited, it is reasonable to postulate that a
much greater amount of Hg is residing in the pool of
EE devices worldwide. If not disposed of properly, the
Hg-containing EE devices can become an important
contributor of anthropogenic Hg.
The disposal of obsolete EE devices represents a
phenomenon increasingly encountered particularly in
developing countries in Asia, as these wastes are
reportedly exported to developing countries in Asia for
recycling and disposal. It was estimated that ∼ 10.2
million computer units were illegally exported annually
from the US to developing countries, including China,
India and Pakistan (The Basal Action Network and
SVTC, 2002; South China Morning Post, 2005). In
Guiyu, a village situated in southeast Guangdong
Province, China, a large volume of electronic and
computer wastes has been dismantled and processed to
salvage recyclable materials using primitive disposal
methods, such as grilling printed circuit boards over an
open flame, strong acid leaching to extract precious
metals from which the waste acid was then discharged
directly into nearby streams, and open burning of
plastic wastes, all in the absence of emission control
measures (personal visits). Disposal of obsolete EE
devices in this manner can potentially cause excessive
Hg releases. With an increasing demand for some Hg-
containing EE devices, both manufacture and disposal
of these devices pose as a long-term environmental
concern in the region.
3. Other influential factors
3.1. Lack of scientific information in Asia
Critical importance of Asia in terms of anthropogenic
Hg emissions is indisputable. Yet, there is a lack of
reliable and, more importantly, representative scientific
information concerning emissions, distribution and
biogeochemical behaviors of Hg in Asia. Asia is
probably the largest piece of the puzzle in terms of
anthropogenic Hg releases. The absence of this piece
could curtail accurate assessments of the situation not
only in Asia but also globally by introducing a great deal
of uncertainties in the estimation of anthropogenic Hg
releases. For instance, Hg emissions from chlor-alkali
plants in the US and Europe have been characterized in
details (Kinsey et al., 2004; Southworth et al., 2004). As
9
environmental regulations in these regions tighten over
the years, losses of Hg from chlor-alkali plants have
decreased drastically to as low as 0.2 g Hg per t of
chlorine produced from ∼ 200 g Hg per t in the 1960s
(Bunce and Hunt, 2005). These low emission rates,
however, may not be valid in some developing Asian
countries. Furthermore, some 40 chlor-alkali plants
using Hg cells in Europe will be decommissioned by
2007 and replaced by alternative Hg-free production
technology. On the other hand, there is a significant
growth in the chlor-alkali industry in Asia, particularly
India and China. Given the increasing portion of the
chlor-alkali sector in developing Asian countries and the
phase-out of Hg-cell chlor-alkali plants in Europe, Hg
emissions will likely shift towards Asia where relevant
scientific data is limited (Sznopek and Goonan, 2000).
As the majority of previous studies were conducted
mostly in North America and Europe where process
controls and emission control measures are compara-
tively effective, estimation of anthropogenic Hg emis-
sions from similar processes in Asia based on data
collected elsewhere may become unrealistic and im-
practical. Incorporation of representative data pertaining
to Asia is therefore critical. In the event of data
unavailability, caution must be exercised when extrap-
olating worldwide industrial contribution based on data
from other regions.
This concern is equally valid in simulating global Hg
scenarios. Computer modeling has been used as a tool to
estimate and stimulate regional and global Hg emissions
and deposition in many studies (i.e., Bergan et al., 1999;
Seigneur et al., 2001; Dastoor and Larocque, 2004).
These models offer useful and sophisticated means to
interpret multi-dimensional and intricate relationships
and to aid visualization of the outputs. However, the
results could be compromised if data representative of
the Asian region was missing, as exemplified by Bergan
et al. (1999). Bergan et al. estimated global distributions
of Hg0 and divalent Hg compounds using a climato-
logical transport model (MOGUNTIA). Their results
indicated that “the relative magnitude of man-made
emissions has been underestimated or that large
variations occur in the natural part of the mercury
cycle”. They further suggested that the observed
increase in Hg emissions likely originated in parts of
Asia during recent years, but these uncertainties could
only be addressed by additional data from the tropics,
subtropics and mid to high latitudes in the Southern
Hemisphere. Although whether global Hg emissions
have been accelerated by Hg emissions in Asia has yet
been addressed, it is clear that, at this point, the lack of
scientific data in Asia has curtailed accurate assessments
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
10 C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx
of the issue and its associated environmental and health
effects.
3.2. Influences of other environmental factors
Asia, as a region, comprises a distinctive set of
climatic conditions, as a vast area of Asia is situated in
the tropical and subtropical region where climate is
characterized as mild, hot and humid with plentiful
precipitation. Biogeochemical behaviors of Hg and its
dynamic interactions in the environment are likely
different from those observed in the frequently studied
boreal and temporal regions (Gabriel and Williamson,
2004). The differences in temperature, solar radiation,
precipitation and relative humidity can affect the fate,
reactivity, mobility and potential bioavailability of Hg,
which can subsequently influence in the rates of re-
emissions (volatilization) to the air from surfaces,
dispersion of atmospheric Hg species, bioassimilation
by plants or animals, and biomethylation of Hg0 and
inorganic Hg into MeHg in aquatic environments
(Hintelmann et al., 1997; Bonzongo and Donkor,
2003; Canário and Vale, 2004; Booth and Zeller, 2005).
One important environmental factor that is worthy of
scientific attention is the probable effects of acid rain
deposition (pH ≤ 4.5) on biogeochemistry and bioavail-
ability of Hg in Asia. Acid rain deposition is prevalent in
Asia, particularly in China and Japan (Larssen and
Carmichael, 2000; Wang et al., 2000b; Tao et al., 2002).
Acid rain in the region is characterized as a typical
sulfate type, enriched with SO42−, Ca2+ and NH4+ and low
NO3− as compared to those observed in North America
and Europe (Wang et al., 2000b). In addition to reduced
pH, acid rain deposition provides additional SO42− into
the local terrestrial (soil) and aquatic (sediment)
environments. These conditions (low pH and additional
SO42− loading), coupled with a set of climatic factors,
may trigger a series of reactions on biogeochemical
behaviors of Hg, possessing both synergetic and
antagonistic influences on Hg contamination in the
food chain (Richardson et al., 1995; Branfireun et al.,
1999).
For instance, Hg released from coal combustion
sources is in the forms of Hg0 (20–50%) and Hg2+ (50–
80%), primarily as HgCl2 (Carpi, 1997; Pavageau et al.,
2002). Since Hg2+ is water-soluble, plentiful and
frequent rainfall in subtropical and tropical Asia could
enhance scavenging of soluble Hg2+ , as well as
particulate Hg, in the atmosphere. Reduced pH increases
solubility of Hg. Less soluble Hg species may also be
captured by acidic precipitation, resulting in a high
washout ratio. The removal of Hg from the atmosphere
consequently leads to Hg deposition in the local
terrestrial (soil) and aquatic (water and sediment)
ecosystems (Sakata and Marumoto, 2005). Soil acidifi-
cation is one of the direct consequences of acid rain
deposition. Even taking into account base cation
deposition in alkaline dust, soil acidification is expected
to worsen in China (Larssen and Carmichael, 2000).
Moreover, it has been shown that high temperature and
relative humidity can promote microbial activities,
resulting in elevated leaching of metals from soils
(Qureshi et al., 2003). If deposited in acidic soil coupled
with enhanced microbial activities, Hg may easily
become mobile and leach into surrounding aquatic
systems via runoff and seepage (Gabriel and William-
son, 2004). In addition to enhanced mobility, compar-
atively high temperature, soil moisture content and
sunlight intensity can also promote Hg volatilization
from soil and water surfaces (Feng et al., 2004).
Furthermore, a field experiment conducted in Canada
also demonstrated that addition of SO42− to peat soil
could cause a significant increase in pore water MeHg,
implying that additional SO42− derived from acid rain
deposition may promote the formation of MeHg and
increase MeHg fraction of total Hg species (Branfireun
et al., 1999). All of these environmental factors are
important to biogeochemical cycle of Hg in the
terrestrial environment.
Biomethylation of inorganic Hg to organic Hg in the
aquatic environment represents a very important
research area, as MeHg is highly bioaccumulative in
fish. Aquatic ecosystems in Asia, especially those in
China, may offer sites of special interest for such
investigation. S in the form of sulfide is known to limit
production and accumulation of MeHg in an estuarine
river by affecting the speciation and bioavailability of
dissolved and/or solid-phase Hg for methylation
(Benoit et al., 1998). S in the forms of SO42−, acid
volatile sulfide (AVS) and S-containing functional
groups in dissolved organic matter (DOM) is also
critically important in Hg-binding mechanisms in
aquatic sediments (Allen et al., 1993; Yin et al.,
1997; Chapman et al., 1998; Skyllberg et al., 2003;
Ravichandran, 2004). On the one hand, intricate
interactions of these S forms with Hg in the aquatic
environment may facilitate Hg–S binding for the high
affinity of Hg for S-containing organic matter. On the
other hand, Richardson et al. (1995) found an
association between an increase in SO42− deposition
(0.25–1.25 g S/m2/year) through acid rain deposition
with an increase in Hg levels in fish from seepage
lakes. It is imperative to acknowledge that, thus far,
almost all of the relevant literature information has
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx
been obtained in boreal and temporal regions in the
Northern Hemisphere. Very little is known about the
type and magnitude of effects of these climatic
conditions on geochemical behaviors of Hg in Asia.
Furthermore, the effects of acid rain deposition on
mobility and bioavailability of Hg and the binding
mechanisms between Hg and S in its various chemical
forms under tropical and subtropical climatic condi-
tions are still unclear. Current evidence seems to
suggest that, owing to the unique set of climatic and
environmental factors, the region may experience
distinctively high atmospheric deposition of Hg in
soils and sediments to the local environment and
elevated levels of MeHg in the food chain. Much
scientific information is needed to provide a framework
to evaluate the influences of some prevalent climatic
and environmental factors on environmental Hg
contamination and its associated environmental and
health effects.
3.3. Demographic vulnerability of Asia
Asia, as a region, houses 6 of the 10 most populated
countries in the world: China, India, Indonesia, Paki-
stan, Bangladesh and Japan (Table 1). These six
countries collectively have a population of 3052 billion,
effectively representing half of the world's population
(UNFPA, 2004). Environmental Hg contamination
beyond the threshold limits could easily inflict both
chronic and acute toxic effects on the population of a
pandemic proportion due to the high population density.
Excessive releases of Hg over time can lead to
bioaccumulation and biomagnification of Hg in the
local food chain, provoking a serious concern over food
safety and human health. Within the diet, fish and
shellfish generally contain the highest concentrations of
Hg. The general population in Asia is particularly
Table 1
Ten most populated countries in the world in 2004
Ranking Country Population (in million)
1 China 1313.3
2 India 1081.2
3 USA 297.0
4 Indonesia 222.6
5 Brazil 180.7
6 Pakistan 157.3
7 Bangladesh 149.7
8 Russian Federation 142.4
9 Japan 127.8
10 Nigeria 127.1
Data source: UNFPA (2004).
11
vulnerable since a relatively high portion of the Asian
diet consists of fish, shellfish, and other types of seafood
(Mahaffey et al., 2004). This has been supported in
several studies where elevated human hair Hg concen-
trations were found to be link to frequent fish
consumption in some areas in Asia, such as those in
Japan and Hong Kong (Airey, 1983; Choy et al., 2002;
Ip et al., 2004). Excessive consumption of Hg-
contaminated fish can potentially devastate local
communities in some developing Asian countries,
where a principal portion of affordable food comes
from indigenous sources. Anomalous accumulation of
Hg in fish and other food stuff, coupled with the heavy
reliance on local food sources, could greatly jeopardize
food safety and disrupt the supply of affordable food
sources, increasing the burden on the communities. In
some parts of Asia, this issue could be compromised
further and develop into a socioeconomic predicament
when complicated by poor hygiene, inadequate envi-
ronmental and health awareness, and even limited
access to effective medical treatments.
4. Discussion
Mercury is highly volatile and mobile. Atmospheric
transport is the most important transport pathway for Hg
as it is predominantly present in gaseous and vapour
phases with a long atmospheric residence time in the
order of 1/2–2 years (Schroeder and Munthe, 1998;
Schuster et al., 2002). Hence, excessive Hg emissions in
any given region can influence the global Hg deposition.
It is imperative to recognize the significant contribution
of anthropogenic Hg emissions in Asia and its influence
on the global Hg cycle. Asia is one of the fastest
growing regions. To sustain the development at such a
rapid pace, a supply of fuels (e.g. coal) and raw
materials (e.g. steel) must be increased accordingly to
meet the demand for energy and production of
commodities. Coal combustion, steel production, gold
mining and manufacture, and disposal of Hg-containing
EE devices are only a few of important anthropogenic
Hg sources identified in this paper, but they are, by no
means, inclusive. These four sources play crucial role in
regional and global Hg emissions, as Hg emissions from
them alone can be staggering, if growth in these
industries materializes as anticipated without significant
progress in Hg reduction in the region. Even if Hg
emission control measures are to be improved relative to
today's regional standard, incidental Hg emissions from
these industries may not subside greatly, explicable in
the light of historical and projected industrial develop-
ment in the region. Given the dominance of Asia in
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
12 C.S.C. Wong et al. / Science of the Total Environment xx (2005) xxx–xxx
these industries, Asia will play an even more dominating
role in global Hg emissions in the foreseeable future
compared to a decade ago.
In general, disproportion in anthropogenic Hg
emissions exists between developed and developing
countries due to their disparities in technical capabil-
ity, environmental awareness and socioeconomic
structures. In many countries, stringent implementation
and enforcement of strict environmental regulations
are already in place to ensure long-term protection of
environmental quality and human health. In others,
effective control measures to curb environmental Hg
contamination have been formulated or are under
vigorous discussion. However, Asia seems to lag
behind other regions. Although several studies (i.e.,
Pirrone et al., 1996; Hylander, 2001; Schuster et al.,
2002) have predicted a decline in global Hg
emissions, others (i.e., Friedli et al., 2004; Jaffe et
al., 2005; Renner, 2005) seem to suggest that this may
not be the case. It is not clear at this point whether the
efforts to curb environmental Hg releases already
implemented in North America and Europe would be
offset by the increasing anthropogenic Hg emissions
in Asia. Nonetheless, it is plausible that anthropogenic
Hg contribution from Asia may have been under-
estimated and will likely accelerate markedly given
the projected development in the region. Environmen-
tal quality in Asia with respect to Hg contamination
remains unclear due to a paucity of scientific
information pertaining to the region. The effects of
other macro-environmental and socioeconomic factors
on biogeochemical properties of Hg are also rarely
studied in Asia, resulting in a great deal of
uncertainties in the understanding of its associated
health implications. Current evidence suggests that the
combination of excessive Hg emissions, subtropical
and tropical climatic conditions and acid rain deposi-
tion may cause profound and worrying ramifications
by enhancing mobility, bioavailability, and biomethy-
lation of Hg in ecosystems. Amid these findings, it is
vital to conduct detailed studies in the region in terms
of Hg emission rates from major sources, distribution
and biogeochemical properties of Hg and its com-
pounds in various ecosystems and biota so as to
evaluate its potential long-term environmental and
health effects.
Acknowledgements
The work presented in this paper was supported by
Dr. Stephen S. F. Hui Trust Fund and University
Development Fund of the University of Hong Kong, and
Group Research, Central Allocation of the Research
Grants Council of the Government of Hong Kong (RGC
HKBU 1/03C).
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