Chapter 12

I. Organization of Nervous System

A. Structural Classification 1. Central Nervous System a. Brain b. Spinal cord 2. Peripheral Nervous System a. Includes: i. Somatic N.S ii. Autonomic N.S. iii. Enteric N.S. b. Spinal Nerves c. Cranial nerves B. Functional Classification (P.N.S. ^ only) 1. Sensory (afferent) Division a. Convey sensory impulses to the C.N.S. from sensory receptors i. Somatic Sensory (afferent) fibers deliver impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints. ii. Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers deliver impulses from viscera (organs). 2. Motor (efferent) division a. Carry impulses from C.N.S. to effector organs, the muscles, and glands. i. Somatic Nervous System allows us to consciously (voluntarily) control skeletal muscles. Involuntary response from skeletal muscle reflexes uses same fibers. ii. Autonomic Nervous System regulates involuntary (automatic) events as in smooth and cardiac muscle activities 2 parts: y Sympathetic y Parasympathetic II. Nervous Tissue: Structure & Function 2 Types of Cells A. Supporting Cells 1. IN CNS (neuroglia or glia) support, insulate, and protect neurons: cannot conduct electrical impulses, but can divide and multiply easily; several different types, each having a specific function: a. Astrocytes most abundant; make up 50% of supporting cells. Star-shaped cells; anchors neurons to blood capillaries thus helping to control what enters the cell; control chemical environment of brain by picking up ions and recapturing released neurotransmitters. b. Microglia spider-like phagocytes that clean up debris (including dead brain cells and bacteria) c. Ependymal cells line cavities of brain and spinal cord beating their cilia to help circulate cerebrospinal fluid. d. Oligodendrocytes wrap their flat extensions around nerve fibers, producing fatty insulating coverings (myelin sheaths). 2. Supporting cells of PNS a. Schwann cells form myelin sheaths around peripheral nerves b. Satellite cells protective, cushioning cells. B. Neurons highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses from one part of body to another) 1. Anatomy: a. Cell body metabolic center of a neuron. b. Processes (fibers); microscopic to 4 long; 2 types: i. Dendrites convey impulse toward cell body ii. Axons convey impulses away from cell body

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A neuron may have many dendrites, but only one axon. Axons branch a lot at their terminal end forming thousands of axonal terminals (release neurotransmitters). Each axonal terminal is separated from next neuron by a synaptic cleft (synapse). Neurons never actually touch each other. c. Myelin fatty whitish covering around long nerve cells (sheaths); insulates, protects, and speeds up nerve transmission. Produced by oligondendrocytes in CNS and may wrap around many fibers Produced by Schwann cells in PNS; wrap around a single fiber. y This type (in PNS) has neurilemma, which allows for nerve regeneration. y CNS type has no neurilemma and can t regenerate. **SIDE NOTED: In CNS, clusters of nerve cell bodies are called nuclei and bundles of nerve fibers are called tracts. In the PNS, small collections of nerve cell bodies are called ganglia and bundles of nerve fibers are called nerves. Classifications: a. Functional Classification groups neurons according to the direction the nerve impulse travels relative to CNS. i. Sensory (afferent) neurons carry impulses from sensory receptors (in internal organs or skin) to the CNS; cell bodies always found in ganglion outside CNS. Special sense organs Cutaneous sense organs touch, temperature, & pain. Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons; detect stretch or tension in skeletal muscles; advises brain of our movements; maintains balance and posture. ii. Motor (efferent) neurons carry impulses from CNS to viscera and/or muscles and glands; cell bodies away found in CNS. iii. Association neurons (interneurons) connect sensory and motor neurons in neural pathways; cell bodies always found in CNS b. Structural Classification based on # of processes extending from a cell body i. Multipolar neurons several processes ii. Bipolar neurons 2 processes iii. Unipolar neurons 1 process Physiology a. Nerve impulses neurons have 2 major functions: i. Irritability ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse) Plasma membrane of a resting neuron is polarized. Less positive ions (K+) inside cell than positive ions (Na+) outside in interstitial fluid (inside of cell more negative than outside). Neuron is excited by neurotransmitter released by other neurons. This causes cell membrane to become permeable to Na+, and Na+ diffuses into cell, changing polarity of cell membrane (depolarization); inside now more positive than outside). This now causes neuron to initiate and transmit an action potential (aka nerve impulse). y All or none principle Repolarization immediately after Na+ rushes into cell, membrane permeability changes again to allow K+ to diffuse out of cell into surrounding tissue fluid y Restores electrical conditions at the membrane to the polarized (resting) state.

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y After repolarization, sodium-potassium pump (using ATP) restores normal concentration of Na+ inside cell and K+ outside cell. y Until repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot conduct another impulse. **SIDE NOTE: events just described explain propagation of a nerve impulse over an unmyelinated fiber. Fibers w/ myelin sheaths conduct impulses much faster because the impulse jumps from node to node along fiber (salutatory conduction). ii. Conductivity ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands. Action potential reaches axonal endings vesicles of neurotransmitters fuse w/ axonal membrane rupture & release neurotransmitter diffuses across synapse binds to receptors on membrane of next neuron initiates the generation of nerve impulse in neuron beyond the synapse. Reflexes rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli that occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs. a. 2 classes of reflexes i. Autonomic reflex regulate activity of smooth muscle, heart, glands, saliva secretion, and size of pupils. Regulate the following body functions: y Digestion, elimination, blood pressure, and sweating. ii. Somatic Reflexes stimulates skeletal muscles. iii. All reflex arcs have at least 5 elements: Sensory receptor (reacts to stimulation) Effector organ (muscle or gland) Afferent neuron Efferent neuron CNS intergration center (synapse between efferent and afferent neurons.) y A 3 neuron reflex arc would have an association neuron as an element y More synapses a reflex has, the slower it is. y Many spinal reflexes don t involve the brain - some reflexes involve the brain (pupillary reflex).

III. Central Nervous System

A. Functional Anatomy of Brain 1. 4 Main Regions a. Cerebral Hemispheres i. Most superior part of brain ii. Surface exhibits elevated ridges called gyri, separated by shallow grooves called succi iii. Deeper grooves called fissures separate large regions of brain Longitudinal figures separate 2 hemispheres y Smaller fissure & succi divide each hemisphere into lobes iv. Functional areas of Cerebral Hemispheres Somatic Sensory Area located in parietal lobe. y Gathers impulses from body s sensory organs (except special senses) y Pain, coldness, light, touch y crossed pathways (Right Sensory receptor Left Hemisphere) Occipital Lobe visual area Temporal Lobe Auditory & Olfactory areas

Frontal Lobe Primary motor area (allows us to move skeletal muscles) y Axons from these motor neurons form the pyramidal (corticospinal) tract, which descends the cord. y Crossed pathways Broga s Area Ability to speak y Only in one hemisphere, usually in left y Damage causes inability to say words properly Areas of Higher Intellectual Reasoning in anterior frontal lobe. Speech Area At junction of temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes Bodies of neurons involved in cerebral hemisphere functions are found in the Bodies of neurons involved in cerebral hemisphere functions are found in the grey matter of cerebrum, the cerebral cortex Cerebral White Matter carries bundles of nerve fibers (fiber tracts) to or from the cortex y Corpus Callosum large fiber tract connecting 2 cerebral hemispheres b. Diencephalon (interbrain) 3 major structures i. Thalamus relay station for sensory impulses ii. Hypothalamus helps regulate body temperature, water balance, and metabolism Houses thirst, appetite, sex, pain, and pleasure centers Regulates pituitary gland iii. Epithalamus has 2 important structures: Pineal body part of endocrine system Choroid plexus produces cerebrospinal fluid c. Brain Stem major structures: i. Midbrain 2 fiber tracts that convey ascending and descending impulses called cerebral peduncles Houses cerebral aqueduct and corpora quadrigemina. (Reflex centers for vision & hearing) ii. Pons has nuclei involved in breathing control iii. Medulla Oblongata has centers that control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting. iv. Reticular Formation mass of gray matter that extends length of bran stem Neurons involved in motor control of visceral organs Reticular Activating System (RAS) y Special neurons involved in the sleep/wake cycle - Damage causes permanent unconsciousness d. Cerebellum controls, balance, and equilibrium i. Allows for smooth, coordinated movements ii. Outer cortex is grey matter, inner region is white matter iii. Fibers from inner ear, eye, the Proprioceptors of skeletal muscles and tendons B. Protection of CNS 1. Meninges 3 connective tissue layer membrane covering CNS structures a. Dura Mater (Tough Mother) outermost layer (2 membranes) i. Attaches to inner layer of skull forming the periosteum (periosteal layer) ii. Meningeal layer forms outermost covering of brain b. Arachnoid Mater Middle layer i. Thread-like extensions span subarachnoid space and attach it to inner layer ii. Subarachnoid space filled w/ cerebrospinal fluid c. Pia Mater (soft mother) inner layer attached directly to brain and spinal cord. 2. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) a. Continually formed from blood by the choroid plexuses hanging from roof of each of brain s ventricles

b. Forms watery cushion Blood-Brain barrier separates neurons of the brain from blood bourne substances. a. Composed of least permeable capillaries in body b. Only water, glucose, and essential amino acids can pass through easily. c. Keeps out bad stuff (wastes, drugs, etc.) C. Spinal Cord approximately 17 long; glistening white extension of brain stem; major reflex center (spinal reflexes completed at this level) 1. Gray Matter of Spinal Cord a. Shaped like the letter H b. 2 Posterior (Dorsal) horns i. Dorsal Route Ganglion house cell bodies of sensory neurons whose fibers enter the cord via the dorsal (posterior horn) route. ii. Damage causes loss of sensation from the body area served. iii. Anterior (ventral) horns c. 2 anterior (ventral) horns i. Consists of cell bodies of motor neurons of the somatic (voluntary) nervous system, which send their axons out the ventral (anterior horn) pathway. **Side Note: The dorsal and ventral routes fuse to form the spinal nerve. 2. White Matter of Spinal Cord a. Composed of myelinated fiber tracts b. 2 regions: i. Posterior column all ascending tracts carrying sensory input to brain ii. Anterolateral column Ascending and descending motor tracts IV. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Consists of nerves and ganglia (groups of neuronal cell bodies scattered outside CNS) A. Structure of a Nerve Bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS and wrapped in protective connective tissue coverings 1. Endoneurium wraps around each single fiber 2. Perineurium Binds (wraps) around groups of fibers forming fiber bundles or fascicles. 3. Epineurium Binds fascicles together to form the nerve. B. Classifications of Nerves based on direction of impulses 1. Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor fibers 2. Afferent (sensory) nerves carry impulses toward CNS 3. Efferent (Motor) Nerves carry impulses away from CNS C. Cranial Nerves - 12 pairs; primarily serve head and neck 1. Olfactory 2. Optic 3. Oculomotor 4. Trochlear 5. Trigeminal 6. Abducens 7. Facial 8. Vestibularcochlear 9. Glossopharyngeal 10. Vagus 11. Accessory 12. Hypoglossal *See Table 14.4 on page 533 D. Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses 31 pairs of spinal nerves; named according to spinal region 1. Formed by fusion of dorsal and ventral routes of spinal cord. 2. Almost immediately after being formed, each spinal nerve splits into a dorsal rami and a ventral rami a. Spinal nerve is only about .5 long b. Contain both sensory and motor neurons i. Damage causes loss of sensation and flaccid paralysis of area of body served. 3.

Dorsal Rami serves skin and muscles of posterior body trunk. Ventral Rami T1 T12 form intercostal nerves a. Serve muscles between ribs and the skin and muscles of anterior body trunk. b. Others form complex networks of nerves called plexuses 5. Plexuses serve sensory and motor needs of the limbs a. Cervical plexus C1-C5 b. Brachial plexus C5 C8 + T1 c. Lumbar plexus L1 L4 d. Sacral plexus L5 S4 E. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) AKA Involuntary nervous System 1. Motor subdivision of PNS that controls body activities automatically. 2. Composed of specialized neurons that control cardiac muscle, smooth (visceral) muscle, and glands. 3. Signals constantly flood from visceral organs to the CNS and the autonomic nerves make adjustments as needed to best support the body s activities a. Ex. Heart rate, breathing rate, stomach secretions, BP, etc. F. Somatic & Autonomic Nervous Systems Compared 1. Different pattern of efferent pathways a. Somatic - cell bodies of motor neurons inside CNS & their axons extend all the way to the skeletal muscle. b. Autonomic has a chain of 2 motor neurons i. Preganglionic axon motor neuron in brain or spinal cord Its axon leaves CNS to synapse w/ 2nd motor neuron in ganglion. ii. Postganglionic axon axon extends to organ it serves 2 Divisions (arms) both serve same organ, but have opposite effects y Sympathetic mobilizes body during extreme conditions (fear, exercise, rage) - Flight of Fight response - Located in brain nuclei of CN III, VII, IX, and X (head and neck organs) & in the S2 S4 level of spinal cord (form pelvic nerves) y Parasympathetic allows us to unwind and conserve energy G. Anatomy of Parasympathetic Division chiefly concerned with promoting normal digestion and elimination of feces and urine and w/ conserving body energy. 1. Synapse w/ 2nd motor neuron in terminal ganglion (on or near organ it serves) and the 2nd motor neuron s axon extends to the organ it serves. H. Anatomy of Sympathetic Division 1. Preganglionic axons leave cord via the ventral route pass through ramus communicans enters sympathetic chain ganglion synapses w/ a 2nd neuron in sympathetic chain at same or different level. (The postganglionic axon then re-enters the spinal nerve to travel to skin). a. Sympathetic chain lies alongside vertebral column. 2. If axon passes through ganglion w/o synapsing, it forms part of the splanchnic nerves and travels to viscera to synapse w/ 2nd neuron found in a collateral ganglion. a. 2 major collateral ganglions: i. Celiac ganglion & superior and interior mesenteric ganglia Supply abdominal and pelvic organs I. Autonomic Functioning 1. Most body organs supplied by autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions a. Causes antagonistic effects. i. Due to postganglionic axons releasing different neurotransmitters. Parasympathetic fibers (cholinergic) release acetylcholine. Sympathetic fibers (adrenergic) release norepinephrine ii. Preganglionic fibers of both divisions release acetylcholine. 3. 4.

V. Develepmental Aspects of the Nervous System

A. Formed during the 1st month of embryonic development

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First system formed!