Heba Abd El Fattah Biology SL

May 2011 Cells

2.1 Cell Theory

Cell Theory: 1. 2. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells Cells are the smallest unit of life All living organisms are formed of cells and their components

Functions of unicellular organisms: Growth: in size and number Homeostasis: maintaining the internal environment Metabolism: respiration and excretion Reproduction: sexual or asexual Nutrition: food Response: sensitivity

Multicellular organisms: Emergent properties: when the whole is more than the sum of its parts. This usually happens with multicellular organisms such that their cells interact, cooperate and communicate to perform tasks that each cell cant do alone. Brain: can think, a neuron: [what the brain is made of] cant think on its own. Differentiation: all cells contain all the genes needed to carry out all the tasks done by the body. However, only a small portion of the genes is activated according to the cells place and the chemical gradient. Toes carry the genes that give the eye color, but they are deactivated. Activated genes are wrapped up in euchromatin and inactivated ones are wrapped up in heterochromatin. Stem cells: undifferentiated and unspecialized cells that can replicate quickly for a long period of time. They are either: 1. 2. 3. Totipotent: can be differentiated into any cell, found in the embryo cells Pluripotent: can be differentiated into some tissue, found in the zygote cells Multipotent: can be differentiated into some cells, found in the umbilical cord cells

Theyre also found in liver cells, skin cells, brain cells and bone marrow. Stem cells can be used in cell therapy [where cells that do not work are replaced with healthy functioning ones]. Bone marrow transplant is used to treat leukemia and new skin used to treat burned skin. Cell therapy is also used to grow new corneas.

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Heba Abd El Fattah Biology SL

May 2011 Cells

2.2 Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells: cells that have NO organelles [bacteria] Components of Prokaryotic Cells: 1.Cell wall: made of protein sugars in animal cells and made of cellulose in plants. a)protects the cell, b)prevents it from bursting, c)gives it its shape, d)holds the pili and flagella 2.Plasma membrane: its a selectively permeable membrane that controls which materials enter and leave the cell by active or passive transport. 3.Nucleoid region: a) contains the genetic information (DNA) b) controls Prokaryotic Cell the cell. 4.Ribosomes: consists of RNA and protein. They are less dense in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes, i.e. 70S. Theyre responsible for protein synthesis. 5.Pili: thin protein tubes found on the outside of the plasma membrane. They are either: a. Attachment pili/fimbriae: which are sticky at the end to allow E.colli to stick to other surfaces [other cells]. There are many of them. b. Conjugation/sex pili: long and they build a bridge between different cytoplasms transferring plasmid. 6.Flagella: looks like threads and made of proteins. Found on the surface of the cell, allowing bacterium to move in a fluid environment. 7.Cytoplasm: fluid containing organelles and enzymes. It controls the metabolic reactions of the cell. Binary fission: the way by which prokaryotes divide. Steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. DNA replication Separation of two circular strands of DNA Cytokinesis: when the cell splits into two, each cell receiving the cytoplasm Growth and each cell will become of full size

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Heba Abd El Fattah Biology SL

May 2011 Cells

2.3 Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain organelles They are made of: 1.Plasma membrane 2.Plasmodesmata: narrow channels through the cell wall, connect cytoplasm and exchange materials 3.Lysozyme: contains hydrolytic enzymes that digest and break down substances in the cell. It can burst causing autolysis. 4.Ribosomes: made of protein and RNA. They are more dense in eukaryotes than prokaryotes (80S) a) responsible for protein synthesis b) makes proteins that are used inside the cell 5.RER (rough endoplasmic reticulum): doesnt have a membrane. a) Holds Eukaryotic Cell ribosomes b)synthesizes proteins c)makes proteins that are exported during exocytosis, i.e. used for intracellular transport. 6.Golgi apparatus: are membrane bound sacs forming an extensive network in the cell. a)used for intracellular transport b)used for packing proteins. 7.Mitochondria: a) stores ATP b) releases energy c) used for cellular respiration d) involved in the cytokrebcycle. 8.Nucleus: the largest organelle a)contains all genetic information b)controls the cell Extracellular component: a substance outside the cell containing glycoproteins, water and collagen. It is a non living secretion found in animal cells; bone and cartridge, and in plant cells; cellulose]: 1. 2. 3. 4. Supports the cell giving it mechanical strength and shape Prevents bursting A barrier from pathogens Stores carbohydrates

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Heba Abd El Fattah Biology SL

May 2011 Cells

Comparisons
Pro and Eukaryotic cells:
Feature Similarities Differences Prokaryotic Eukaryotic -Naked -Enclosed in a nuclear envelope -Circular -Linear -In cytoplasm -With proteins -DNA found in chromosomes -DNA found in loops called plasmids 70S 80S Plasma membrane Mitochondria No internal membranes Areas with different functions

Genetic Material Protein Synthesis Respiration Ultra structure

DNA present Ribosome responsible -

Plant and Animal cells

Feature Cell Wall Chloroplast Vacuole Shape Reserve Food Stored as Plant Cell Made of cellulose Present in photosynthetic cells Large, permanent, filled with cell sap Fixed shape Starch and plant oils Animal Cell

Absent
Small, temporary ones may be present Usually circular, but able to change Glycogen and some animal fat

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2.4 Membranes
The function of membranes is to keep the cell contents separated from the outside so the cell could have a high or low concentration gradient of molecules. Hence, it controls which substances enter and leave the cell. Membranes arrangement is very stable because any change would decrease interactions with other cells. The membranes are made of: 1. Phospholipid bilayer: (a) Two phosphate heads: polar and hydrophilic [love water] as they interact with water (b) Four fatty tails: nonpolar and hydrophobic [they are away from the water and are placed inside the bilayer] Since it has a polar layer from the outside and a nonpolar layer from the inside its very effective in stopping molecules. This is because only a few will manage to pass through both layers 2. Proteins: found between the phospholipid bilayer and help exchanging molecules with the external environment. Types of proteins: I. Integral: they interact with cytoplasm, external molecules and the hydrophilic section since they have narrow channels from which substances can pass. II. Peripheral: found outside the phospholipid bilayer in cytoplasm but interacts with phosphate heads. They do not always exist. III. Glycoproteins: have carbohydrate groups attached to them Functions of proteins: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Target cells for hormones Integral proteins stick to other molecules or ECM Cell to cell communication Passive transport Pumps for active transport

3. Cholesterol: found between fatty tails. It reduces permeability and fluidity. More cholesterol stable and not permeable and less cholesterolfluid and permeable Transport: Passive transport: doesnt require energy and materials are transported down the concentration gradient. Osmosis: the movement of water through a partially permeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a region of high solute concentration Diffusion: the movement of gases or liquids down the concentration gradient [from high to low]. (1) Simple: simply diffusing across the membrane, possible for small hydrophobic molecules (2) Facilitated: for the passage of polar hydrophilic substances and require the use of channel proteins [have hydrophilic pore] or transport proteins [have receptors that bind with sophisticated molecules and carry them into the cell, like glucose, changing the structure of the protein and releasing the substance inside the cell. It then goes back to its original shape and is ready to be used again] Active transport: its not very different from facilitated diffusion. However it requires energy and ATP and its against the concentration gradient [from low to high concentration]. Active transport requires the use of proteins called transport

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Heba Abd El Fattah Biology SL

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proteins [also called carrier proteins or membrane pumps]. Ex. the sodium potassium pump. It often requires the use of vesicles. The structure of the membrane has some flexibility such that some membrane can be added or removed with out tearing the membrane itself. Since the structure of the plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, ER and Golgi apparatus is the same, its possible for them to exchange molecules. Endocytosis: the cell taking up a substance by surrounding it with a membrane. Its used to take highly polar/large substances. There are two types of it, either phagocytosis [called cell eating, takes place when a substance is solid]; white blood cells eating up bacteria or pinocytosis [called cell drinking, takes place when a substance is fluid]. Exocytosis: the opposite of endocytosis where the materials are removed from the cells. Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes RER prepares them for intracellular transport GA packs and modifies them vesicles buds push them towards the membrane the vesicle fuses and binds with the membrane membrane flattens.

The processes how materials can enter a cell: ATP Passive Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Osmosis With Carrier Proteins Endocytosis No No No Yes Yes Concentration gradient Down Down Down Against is possible Against is possible

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Heba Abd El Fattah Biology SL

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2.5 Cell Division

The cell cycles duration differs between different cells, bacteria take 20 mins and beans take hours. The cell division takes place when new cells are needed for growth or repair. 1. Interphase where most of the life cycle takes place and it can be said that when the nucleus is not dividing, the cell is in Interphase. This is the most active period in the cell cycle such that biochemical reactions, translation, DNA transcription and DNA replication occur. The genetic material is in the form of chromatin [long strands of DNA with proteins]. Chemical reactions dont take place except in the presence of the correct enzyme and enzymes are produced by the process of transcription and translation. ii. Stage G1: the period when the cell grows and the number of organelles increase iii. Stage S: when replication and DNA synthesis take place [chromosomes replicate forming 2 chromatids] iv. Stage G2: preparation for mitosis such that the number of mitochondria and chloroplasts increases [although they absorb materials and grow in size all through Interphase]. 2. Mitosis: nuclear division, which is a continuous process. Its purpose is the increase the number of identical cells, i.e. without changing their genetic material. It can occur in haploid, diploid and polyploid cells. 4 stages [PMAT]: Prophase: visible chromosomes, centrioles start to move to opposite poles, spindle fibers are formed, nucleolus and nuclear membrane are invisible, chromosomes made of two identical chromatids held by a centromere Metaphase: chromosomes move to equator, spindle attaches to centromeres Anaphase: chromatids separate and move to opposite poles [each one is now called chromosome] resulting in 2 nuclei, centromeres separate Telophase: chromosomes are at poles, spindle fiber disappears, centrioles replicate, nuclear membrane and nucleolus appear, chromosomes become chromatin Examples of processes involving mitosis are production of muscles, wounds repairing their damage, growing zygote and asexual reproduction. 3. Cytokinesis [the actual physical division]. It can happen before the last phase of mitosis is completely finished. Tumours are cancers. Proto-oncogenes produce proteins that stimulate growth and cell division. If any mutations occur in them, cell division can become uncontrolled resulting in a tumour [which can take place in any organ or tissue]. However, a series of genetic changes occurs in the cell before it becomes a tumour cell. Those genetic changes usually take years to accumulate [making it quite common in the aging generation]. Tumours start because of: 1. 2. 3. 4. Electro magnetic radiation: is mutagenic [increases the rate of mutation] Carcinogenic chemicals: they increase chances of mutation and increase the effect of already present ones. Viruses: that insert their genetic materials into proto-oncogenes Ultraviolet light

Types of tumours: Benign: harmless ones Malignant: ones that spread to other tissues and body parts, theyre then called cancer

Cancer can be treated with:

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Heba Abd El Fattah Biology SL

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1. Surgical removal: the removal of tumour cells before they can grow 2. Radiation therapy: where a nuclear radiation beam is directed to a precise point burning all the cells in the area 3. Chemotherapy: using medication that destroys all rapidly dividing cells. Its side effects include destroying cells responsible for hair growth, cells forming the lining of the gut, as well as sperm producing cells [because all of those divide rapidly]

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