Memory y An active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form,

and organizes it as it stores it away, then retrieves the information from storage Memory Processes: y Encoding-set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain s storage systems y Storage-holding on to information for some period of time y Retrieval-getting the information in storage into a form that can be used Models of Memory y Information-Processing Model o Focuses on the way information is processed or handled through different stages of memory. o Most comprehensive and perhaps the most influential over the last several decades o Assumes that how long a memory will be remembered depends on the stage of memory in which it is stored y Levels-of-processing model o How long a memory will be retained depends on the depth to which the information is processed o (Thinking about the meaning of something) o Deeper level of processing and results in longer retention of the word y Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model o Memory is seen as a simultaneous process, with the creation and storage of memories taking place across a series of mental networks stretched across the brain o Base their view point on the way neural processing actually takes place in the brain: neural connections appear to be organized in a parallel manner as well as in sequential o Brain performs several different processes all rinning at the same time instead of processing in a series of steps o Model for constructing AI o Connectionism- a movement to use artificial neural networks to explain the mental abilities Information-Processing Model: Three Stages of memory (Sensory, Short-term, Long-term) y Sensory Memory o First stage where information enters nervous system through sensory systems o Encoded in sensory memory as neural messages o Two kinds: (Iconic and Echoic)  Iconic Sensory Memory-visual sensory memory y Sperling-developed partial report method (tone to read letters in grid) y Capacity: Anything that Can be seen at one time y Masking-process wherein iconic memory is pushed out y Duration: Quarter of a second y Function: allows enough time for brain stem to decide if the info is important enough to be brought into consciousness, continous vision despite eye movement y Eidetic Imagery or photographic memory-ability to access a visual memory over a long period of time  Echoic Sensory Memory-brief memory of something heard y Capacity:limited to what can be heard at the moment y Duration: 4 seconds y Function: allows person to remember what one just said long enough to process meaning of phrase, allows enough time for brain to process which sounds are important for it to be brought to conciousness y Short Term and Working Memory o Where information is held for brief periods of time while being used o Selective attention  process where Information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory (STM)  ablility to fouces on only one stimulus among many sensory input  responsible for cocktail party effect o tends to be encoded in auditory form o working memory  active system that processes the information in short term memory  thought to consist of three interrelated systems: y central executive-controls the two other systems y visual sketch pad y auditory recorder o Where see and hear this is in STM, the process that coordinates information is working me o Capacity: tested by Miller through digit-span test. The result: 7+or - 2 o Chunking-process of recoding and organizing information o Duration:12-30 seconds without rehearsal o Maintenance Rehearsal=practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one s head to maintain it in STM

Long Term Memory o System into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently o Capacity: unlimited o Duration: there is a physical change in the brain itself when a LTM is formed, so it is relatively permamnent, but does not mean we can always retrieve these memories, available but not accessible o Many encoded as images but generally, LTM is encoded in meaningful form o Elaborative Rehearsal-a method of transferring information from STM to LTM by making information meaningful in some way o Craik and Lockhart-theorized that information that is more deeply processed will be remmebered more effieciently and longer o Types of Long Term Information:Procedural (Non Declarative) LTM and Declarative LTM  Procedural LTM y Includes memory for skills< procedures, habits and conditioned responses y Not conscious but implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior y Anterograde amneisa-loss of memory from point of injury forward, or inability to form new long term memories y Implicit Memory-memory that is not easily brought into concious awareness  Declarative LTM y Type of LTM containing information that is conscious and known o Semantic Memory-type of D-LTM containing general knowledge, such as language and information learned in formal education o Episodic Memory-type of D-LTM containing personal information not readily available to others such as daily activities or events y Explicit Memory-memory that is consciously known o Semantic Network Model-assumes that information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion

Long Term Memory Retrieval y Retrieval Cues-a stimulus for remembering o Encoding Specificity  connection between surroundings and remembered information  the tendency of memory of info to be improved if related info (such as surroundings) available when the memory is first formed is also available when memory is being retrieved o State Dependent Learning-memories are more easily remembered when in a physiological state y Kinds of Retrieval of Memories: Recall and Recognition, Automatic Encoding o Recall-information to be retrieved must be pulled from memory with very few external cues  Retrieval failure-tip of the tongue experience  Serial Position Effect-tendency of info at the beginning and end of a body of info to be remembered more accurately than info in the middle of the body  Primacy Effect=tendency to remember info at the beginning of a body of info better than the info that follows  Recency effect-tendency to remember information at the end of a body of information o Recognition-ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact  False Positives-error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory. Father Pagano Case o Automatic Encoding-tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding o Flashbulb Memories-type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has a strong emotional associations for the person remembering it Reconstructive Nature of LTM Retrieval y Constructive Processing-referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised or influenced by newer information o Hindsight Bias-the tendency to falsely believe through revision of older memories to include newer information, that the one could have correctly predicted the event y Misinformation Effect-tendency of misleading information presented after an event to alter the memories of the event itself o Loftus-demonstrated that memory is a constantly changing process y False Memory Syndrome-creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often when person is in hypnosis o Dr. Bowman-findings of pseudo memories associated with hypnosis  Hypnosis found to increase the confidence of people have in their memories regardless of whether those memories are real or false  Kathy Pezdek-resistance of children to creation of implausible false memories o Two Steps that must occur before people will be likely to interpret thoughts or fantasies as true memories  Event must be made to seem plausible  Individuals are given info that helps them believe that the event could have happened to them personally Forgetting y Herman Ebbinghaus o Curve of forgetting

y y y

o Nonsense syllables Disturbed Practice-spacing study of material to be remembered by including breaks in between study periods Memory trace-physical change of the brain when a memory is formed Reasons for Forgetting o Encoding failure-failure to process information into memory o Decay or Disuse-information that is not accessed decays from the storage system over time o Interference  Proactive interference-older information already in memory intereres with retrieval of newer information  Retroactive interference-newer information interfere with the retrieval of older information

Physical Changes in Memory formation y Engram-physical change that takes place when memory is formed o There is also change in synapse of receptor sites called long term potentation and changes in dendrites and neurons o Procedural memories-cerebellum o Frontal and temporal lobes-declarative memories y Consolidation-changes that take place as engram is forming Organic Amnesia y Retrograde Amnesia-loss of memory from point of injury backward y Anterograde Amnesia-loss- loss of memory from point of injury onwards Infantile Amnesia y Inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3 y The memory for events and facts related to one s personal life story

Thinking or Cognition-mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others Mental Images-mental representations that stand for objects or events and have a picture like quality Concepts-ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events or activities y Superordinate Concept-most general form of a type of concept (animal or fruit) y Basic Level Type-an example of a type of concept around which other similar concepts are organized (apple) y Subordinate Concept-most specific category of concept (granny smith apple) y Formal concepts-concept that are defined by specific rules or features y Natural concepts-concepts as a result o experiences in real world y Prototype-a concept thatclosely mathces the defining characteristics of the concept Problem Solving and decision making y Problem Sloving-occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways o Trial and Error-problem solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a succesful one is found o Algorithms-very specific, step by step procedures for solving problems o Heuristics-an educated guess based on prior expedriences that helps narrow down possible solutions for a problem  Representative heuristic  Means end analysis-difference between start and end goal and take steps to reduce difference o Insight y Artificial Intelligence-the creation of a machine that can think like human o Term first coined by John McCarthy y Problem Solving Problems o Functional fixedness-a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions o Mental Set-tendency for people to persist in using problems solving patterns that have worked for them in the past o Confirmation bias-tendency to search for evidence that fits one s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that doesn t fit those beliefs o Creativity-process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways y Convergent Thinking-type of thinking in which a problem i seen as having only one answer and all lines of thinking will lead to that answer using previous knowledge and logic y Divergent Thinking-type of thinking in which a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or comes up with many different possibilities based on that point Intelligence-ability to learn from one s experience acquire knowledge and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or patterns y Spearman s g-factor o G-factor-general intelligence, ability to reason and solve problems

o S-factor-specific intelligence, ability to excel in certain areas Gardener s Multiple Intelligence o 9 intelligences:  Verbal/linguistic  musical  Logical/mathematical  movement  interpersonal  intrapersonal  naturalist  existentialist  visual/ spatial Sternbergs s Triarchic Theory o Intelligence is composed of theortical, productive and practical -> analytical, creative and practical  Analytical-ability to break problems in small components for problem solving  Creative intelligence-ability to deal with new and different concepts  Practical- street smarts ability to use information to get along in life

Measuring Intelligence y Binet s Mental Ability Test-key element was child s mental age or average age at which children could successfully anwer a particular level of questions y Stanford-Binet and IQ o Terman mimiced Stern who compared mental age and choronological age (MA/CA X 100) o This number is called IQ y Welscher Tests o First to devise series of tests designed for specific age groups o Verbal and performance tests Reliability and Validity y Reliability-Tendency of a test to produce the same score again and again each time it is given to the same people y Validity-degree to which a test actually measures what it s supposed to measure Developmentally Delayed-condition in which a person s behavioral and cognitive skills exists at an earlier developmental stage than the skills an others of the same choronological age y Based on: o Intellectual and adaptive behavior skills o Psychological and emotional considerations o Physical and Health considerations o Environmental considerations y Possible causes o Familial retardation o Biological  Down sydrome  Fragile x syndrome  Fetal alcohol syndrome