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Definitions Media Evolution Learning Environments Blended Learning Model Elasticity Implications
Note: This definition represents a general construct in that it is applicable to any learning environment that combines more than one media to deliver content.
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Traditional Classroom
Online
Consequently, from an educational perspective, blended learning is primarily focused on integrating two separate paradigmsthe traditional classroom [synchronous] environment and the asynchronous online environment.
Note: In some institutions, hybrid learning is used when entire courses [in a curriculum] are delivered online
* Source: Laster, S., G. Otte, A. G. Picciano and S. Sorg. Redefining blended learning. Presented at the 2005 Sloan-C Workshop on Blended Learning, Chicago, IL, April 18, 2005.
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
More specifically To combine or mix modes of web-based technology (e.g., live virtual classroom, self-paced instruction, collaborative learning, streaming video, audio, and text) to accomplish an educational goal To combine various pedagogical approaches (e.g., constructivism, behaviorism, cognitivism) to produce an optimal learning outcome with or with out instructional technology To combine any form of instructional technology (e.g., videotape, CDROM, web-based training, film) with face-to-face instructor-led training To mix or combine instructional technology with actual job tasks in order to create a harmonious effect of learning and working
Source: Margaret Driscoll, n.d, retrieved Jan 5, 2007 from: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Blended_learning
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Synchronous and asynchronous media. For clarification, blended learning is also applied to a mix of online and face-to-face training, and more generally to approaches to course design and delivery that combine different modalities (e.g., self-paced Web-based training, followed by classroom instruction, accompanied by printed job aids, and supplemented by virtual classroom follow-up sessions).
Source: e-Learning Guild Handbook on Synchronous e-Learning (2007)
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
In the beginning, there was only correspondence courses, and the concept of blending wasnt born yet.
Correspondence
(1883-present)
Technology-enabled
(circa 1950s-1990s
(circa 1995-present)
As the country grew and evolved from an agrarian society to an industrialized nation, the demand for education increased significantly. With the ensuing emergence of radio and TV, the education community quickly realized the potential of these new media and adopted them to distribute education programs to a geographically dispersed workforce. Next
Electronic-assisted Learning
Then, as the technology evolved, more delivery tools emerged to where the instructional designer now has a plethora of choices that can be used singularly or integrated to create a blended learning solution.
Definitions Media Evolution Learning Environments Blended Learning Model Elasticity Implications
Correspondence
(1883-present)
Technology-enabled
(circa 1950s-1990s
audio tape audio graphics audio conferencing
Note: In the early 90s, a migration began from a mainframe-centric environment to a more of a stand-alone distributed computer environment that allowed for more local hosting of computer-based training (CBT).
e-learning
(circa 1995-present)
Electronic-assisted Learning
(circa 1990-present)
Next
Computer-mediated Learning
(circa 1970-present)
Satellite e-learning/ITV
Video Conferencing
Electronic whiteboards
With the introduction of the computer, learning communities quickly realized the potential of this powerful new technology and adopted it as another delivery tool. As the computer continued to evolve, a new generation of the computer-mediated instruction arrived, and with the emergence of the internet, new collaborative tools and delivery media also appeared.
Blended Learning Model Elasticity Implications
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Extending the Family Distance learning will evolve from Tree of Instructional Correspondence basic enrollment in computer and webwebbased courses to virtual learning Media environments that support online Technology-enabled to Tomorrow
(1883-present)
(circa 1950s-1990s
Change is inevitable, and tomorrow will bring newer and better technologies, accompanied by a new set of challenges, but the goal is the same: Optimize the technology without sacrificing instructional quality. In the end, incorporating sound instructional design Electronic-assisted a solid foundation to ensure principles will provide for learning outcomes are attained. Learning
(circa 1990-present)
PDAs
Virtual
Definitions
In this global, networked world, Video several technologies including searchConferencing blogs, podcasts, engines, Web 2.0 applications and virtual worlds such as Second Life will be used for learning. Video tape/DVD/
Ed Hoff, CLO IBM, Learning in the 21st Century: A Brave New ipods World, CLO Magazine, April, 2008
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
The Basics
The Learning Environment: Two Dimensions
Synchronous Same time/same place
(traditional instructor-led classroom) Same time/different place (virtual instructor-led classroom)
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Synchronous
Blended Learning
Asynchronous
Therefore, to attain the most optimum blend, one must consider the vehicle(s) that deliver the content, the [learning environment] in which the learning occurs, and the instructional objective(s) [which drive the development of the content and instructional strategies]. Consequently, blended learning can include any combination of media that supports instruction, regardless of the mix of synchronous or asynchronous media. Courses will combine live, virtual and constructive formats even while being distributed to increase training effectiveness and as well as shift to more cost-effective methods.
Air Force White Paper,. On Learning: The Future of Air Force Education and Training (2008) Definitions Media Evolution Learning Environments Blended Learning Model Elasticity Implications
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Learning environment component: Evaluates the learning environment (synchronous/asynchronous) that supports the instructional objectives
Instructional Component
Media component: Used to evaluate the most appropriate media to delivery the content
Media Component
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Click on any of the model component links for detailed information for that specific component.
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Collaborative Tools
Instructional Component
Media Component
Synchronicity Symmetry
Asynchronous Instructional Media Asymmetrical Media Symmetrical Media Synchronous Instructional Media
Multimedia (aural/visual)
Interactivity
Asynchronous
Synchronous
Collaboration (P2P)
Didactic
Collaboration (P2P)
Dialectic
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Learning Environment
Instructional
Media
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Media With that said, any combination of instructional delivery medium, including the traditional classroom, can result in a blended learning solution, but the instructional efficacy of the solution is most dependent upon the instructional and learning environment components.
Click here for another view of the blend
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
The traditional classroom is still the primary delivery media (56%) but synchronous & asynchronous e-learning is increasing (24%), along with the use of m-learning (6%)
* Source: Chief Learning Officer Magazine. (July, 2007). Blended Learning: Mixing Modalities. Available at: http://www.clomedia.com
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
The greatest change in the delivery mix will continue to come via the increased adoption of e-learning and the increased use of portable technologies.
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
"It is likely not the blendedness that makes the difference, but rather the fundamental re-consideration of the content in light of new instructional and media choices.
Richard Voos, Blended Learning-What is it and where might it take us? Sloan-C View, Volume 2, Issue 1 Feb, 2003. Available at: http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/view/v2n1/coverv2n1.htm
Theres an important point that is easy to miss in the frenzy of change. Web 2.0 is not about technology, and neither is e-Learning 2.0. The human element is what makes the new Web work. Without user-generated content, the new Web would be an empty shell of fancy technologies. e-Learning Guild, What is e-Learning 2.0? , Aug, 2008
Definitions
Media Evolution
Learning Environments
Elasticity
Implications
Training/education is the process Learning is the outcome The technology is the means
Sender (Instructor)
Receiver (Learner)
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Distance Learning
Synchronous
Traditional Classroom
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Asynchronous
Disadvantages
Limited to same time Required dedicated instructor Does not provide for self-pacing May be limited to same place (albeit at a distance) High cognitive load
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Different/Same Place
Disadvantages No live interaction
Longer completion times Just-in-time = do-it-on-your own-time Higher non-completion rates pacing not optimized
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Media Component
Some instructional media may be more appropriate than others in supporting either a synchronous or asynchronous learning environment, but no single medium is inherently better or worse than another. Although the delivery medium does not affect the content, the selection of certain media may affect how you design the content based on the attributes of that specific medium. Regardless, when the most appropriate media are selected based on the ISD process, then learning outcomes will not be affected. Media are vehicles that simply deliver their contents. When developing a blended learning solution, the selection of the most appropriate media is not based solely on the attributes of the media, but the potential impact it may have on the design of the instructional components and corresponding physical learning environment. Click here for more on media mapped to the distance learning environment.
Wikis, blogs, discussion boards
Synchronicity
Portability
Media Component
Taxonomy
Portability
Synchronous Media
Asynchronous Media
Correspondence (print) Recorded Video Collaboration software/virtual technologies (wikis, blogs, discussion boards, etc.)
Audio Conferencing Instructional Television Satellite e-Learning Video Teleconferencing Web Conferencing (synchronous learning systems) Audiographics
Recorded Audio Recorded Video Computer Based Instruction Asynchronous Web Based Instruction (online training) Instructional Television
Click here for note on use of Wikis & Blogs as collaborative tools
* Source: Distance Learning Magazine, Vol 3, Number 2, 2006, Instructional Media Selection for Distance Learning: A Learning Environment Approach
Media Component
Taxonomy
Portability
Synchronous Media
Video Conferencing Audio Conferencing Audio Graphics Web Conferencing/SLS Webinars
Asynchronous Media
Online (Web-Based Training)
Computer-based Training Video Tape/DVD Audio Tape Podcast/vodcast
Satellite e-learning
Traditional Classroom
Back to Main Page Media Component Taxonomy Portability
Audiographics
Satellite e-learning
When evaluating media components, wikis, blogs, and discussion boards are primarily collaborative tools and not considered stand-alone instructional media delivery options. However, they can be integrated into a course/learning module in developing a social learning structure that supports active learning and knowledge construction through peer-to-peer interaction.
In a research study investigating the interplay of synchronous and asynchronous communication used in online courses, students seemed more satisfied with face-to-face courses that used asynchronous discussion boards as alternative communication media than courses that were entirely asynchronous based. Significant data were found to indicate the effect of synchronous media in a mostly asynchronous discussion forum. The ability of synchronous media to foster social presence is not shown or disproved by the research
Source: A Field Study of Use of Synchronous Chat in Online Courses (2002), Retrieved from: http://www.hicss.hawaii.edu/HICSS36/HICSSpapers/CLTSL03.pdf
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Correspondence (print)
Portability
Refers to how portable (mobile) a specific media may be, e.g., cell
phones, ipods/Blackberrys, personal DVD players, other similar wireless devices. When evaluating portability, consider symmetry, per se, the amount of information [digital bits] that flows to/from the sender and receiver in either direction. For example:
Asymmetrical interaction is when the flow of information is predominantly in a single direction such as in a didactic lecture or asynchronous learning module with no interaction between the student and instructor. Conversely, in a conferencing or collaborative learning environment, the information flow is symmetrical, per se, the information flow is evenly distributed between learners and instructors and equal amounts of digital information is flowing both directions.
Symmetry
y Print y Pre-recorded audio/ video (Tape/DVD) y ipods/vpods/personal communication devices y CBT/WBT
Low
High Interactivity
Back to Main Page Media Component Taxonomy Portability
Content
Complexity
Instructional Strategies
When developing a blended learning solution, maintaining instructional quality is paramount. Consequently, learning objectives are never compromised when developing a blended learning solution.
Synchronous
Interactivity
(strategies supporting specific media)
Asynchronous
Instructional strategies are the products of learning objectives and serve to ensure the learning objectives and facilitate the transfer of learning.
Collaboration (P2P)
#
Didactic#
Collaboration (P2P)
Dialectic*
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Types of Objectives
Instructional objectives are developed from a taxonomy known as the domain of learning objectives and includes three overlapping domains: Psychomotor Affective Cognitive Demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual skills: comprehending information, organizing ideas, analyzing and synthesizing data, applying knowledge, choosing among alternatives in problem solving, and evaluating ideas or actions
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Doing
Higher
Knowing
Lower
The first level of learning is knowledge. Knowledge can be characterized as awareness of specifics and of the ways and means of dealing with specifics. The knowledge level focuses on memory or recall where the learner recognizes information, ideas, principles in the approximate form in which they were learned. Comprehension is the next level of learning and encompasses understanding. Has the knowledge been internalized or understood? The student should be able to translate, comprehend, or interpret information based on the knowledge. Application is the use of knowledge. Can the student use the knowledge in a new situation? It can also be the application of theory to solve a real world problem. The student selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to complete a problem or task. Analysis involves taking apart a piece of knowledge, and investigates parts of a concept. It can only occur if the student has obtained knowledge of and comprehends a concept. The student examines, classifies, hypothesizes, collects data, and draws conclusions. Synthesis is the creative act. Its the taking of knowledge and the creation of something new. It is an inductive processone of building rather than one of breaking down. The student originates, integrates, and combines ideas into something new to him/her. Evaluation is judgment or decision-making where the student appraises, assesses or criticizes on a basis of specific standards/criteria.
Comprehension Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Strategies
The dissemination of content through the use of instructional media is only as effective as the design of the instruction
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Modeling
Brainstorming
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
- Narration/Description (Lecture) - Demonstrations - Simulations - Illustrations - Drill and Practice - Narration/Description - Case Studies - Role Playing - Demonstration - Narration/Description - Drill and Practice - Case Studies - Narration - Narration/Description (Lecture) - Narration/Description (Lecture) - Case Studies - Illustrations
- Tutorials - Case Studies - Modeling - Role Playing - Illustrations - Simulation - Drill and Practice - Tutorials
Correspondence (print) Recorded Audio (Tape and digital broadcast/RSS) Recorded Video (Tape and digital broadcast)
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Audio Conferencing
- Narration/Description (Lecture) - Guided Discussion - Brainstorming - Narration/Description (Lecture) - Guided Discussion - Brainstorming - Illustrations - Narration/Description (Lecture) - Discussion - Simulation - Narration/Description (Lecture) - Guided Discussion - Brainstorming - Case Studies - Role Playing - Narration/Description (Lecture - Guided Discussion - Brainstorming - Case Studies - Role Playing
Instructional Objectives
- Case Studies - Demonstration - Illustrations - Panel Discussion - Simulation - Demonstration - Drill and Practice - Panel Discussion - Simulation - Demonstration - Drill and Practice
Instructional Component
Instructional Strategies
Media Component
Symmetry
Synchronicity
Asymmetrical Media
Symmetrical Media
Portability
Synchronous
Instructional Component
Media Component
Instructional Component
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Objectives
Content
Media Component
Complexity Rapidity of Change
Asynchronous
Synchronous
Collaboration (P2P)
Didactic
Collaboration (P2P)
Dialectic
Asynchronous media may be more appropriate for the lower cognitive levels whereas synchronous media may be more appropriate for the higher cognitive levels. Variables to consider: Level of interactivity Spontaneity Collaboration Peer-to-peer Instructor-student (didactic) Instructor-student-instructor (dialectic) Cognitive load Reinforcement of ideas/thoughts (immediate/delayed) Rapidity of content change Complexity of content Level of cognitive objectives (click here for a brief over of Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives)
Video Teleconferencing
Narration (Lecture) Guided Discussion/Panel Discussion/ Group Discussion Idea Generation (Brainstorming) Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling Demonstration Case Studies Simulations Role Playing
Web Conferencing
Narration (Lecture) Guided Discussion/Panel Discussion Idea Generation (Brainstorming) Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling Case Studies Simulations
Audio Conferencing
Narration (Lecture) Guided Discussion/Panel Discussion Idea Generation (Brainstorming) Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
Audio Graphics
Narration (Lecture) Guided Discussion/Panel Discussion Idea Generation (Brainstorming)
ComputerComputer-based Instruction
Narration (Lecture) Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling Demonstration Case Studies Simulations Role Playing Drill & Practice
Correspondence
Narration (Lecture) Case Studies Drill & Practice
Blended learning allows companies to mix scheduled and unscheduled training modules and structured and unstructured learning experiences, as well as provide self-paced material to keep todays learners engaged.
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* Source: On demand learning: blended learning for todays evolving workforce, IBM Learning Solutions, September 2005, Available at: http://www-935.ibm.com/services/us/imc/pdf/gw510-6396-on-demand-learning.pdf
* Source: Allison Rossett and Rebecca Vaughan Frazee, Blended Learning Opportunities, American Management Association Special Report, 2006
group centric (classroom environment) primarily synchronous dialectic & collaborative constrained by time & place Supporting Media Satellite e-learning Video Conferencing Audio Conferencing Audio Graphics individual centric (office environment) synchronous & asynchronous capability mostly didactic but can support interaction constrained by time not place Supporting Media Web conferencing tools
Virtual Classroom
Virtual Learner
Individual centric (portable to any location) primarily asynchronous primarily didactic with little/no interaction not constrained by time & place Supporting Media Mobile devices
In a group centric distance learning classroom, the most appropriate media are those that can provide for a dialectic and collaborative environment but maybe constrained by time and place. However, portable media best supports the individual learner anytime/anyplace but with limited peer support and interaction.
Virtual Classroom
Virtual Learner
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Individual centric (portable to any location) primarily asynchronous primarily didactic with little/no interaction not constrained by time & place Supporting Media Mobile devices
Glossary
Asynchronous learning environment is when communication between the instructor and the student is not real-time. Asynchronous media is a type of delivery medium that only supports communication between the sender and receive one-way, and does not occur in real time. Behavorialism (behavioral learning theory) is mostly concerned with observable output and does not place any emphasis on the social context of learning. In a behavioral model of instruction the mind is viewed as a black box in the sense that response to stimuli can be observed and anything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured and where conditioning refers to the strengthening of [desired] behavior which results from reinforcement. Through the use of reinforcement in a predominantly individualized system of instruction, behaviorists seek to increase the number or strength of correct student responses. Under most circumstances, behaviorism is an excellent approach for assessing a learners knowledge and comprehension of a particular subject. Cognitive Levels. In 1956, Benjamin Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of intellectual behavior important in learning. Bloom identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the highest order which is classified as evaluation. The six levels are: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Cognitivism (cognitive learning theory) comes from the perspective that students actively process information and that learning takes place through the efforts of the student as they organize, store, and then find relationships between information, linking old to new knowledge. Cognitive theorists believe that much learning occurs with associations through contiguity and repetition and acknowledges the importance of reinforcement. Cognitive theorists believe that human beings need to acquire and reorganize information into cognitive structures that are understandable. Note: Circa 1960, psychologists began to realize there were many aspects of learning that behavioral theorists could not account for in explaining some of the inconsistencies in learning, so cognitive theory was thrust into the forefront. However, the beginning of cognitive theory can be traced as far back as the 1920s. Constructivism is a view that emphasizes the active role of the learner in building understanding and making sense of information. Constructivist approaches to learning assume that subjectivity is critical because learners take in information and process it in unique ways that reflect their needs, dispositions, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings. The basic idea of constructivism is that knowledge must be constructed by the learner, it cannot be supplied by the teacher. Dialectic. Discussion and reasoning by dialogue as a method of intellectual investigation; in a learning environment, the inquiry method by which the instructor and student engage in question and answering. Didactic. Designed or intended to teach; intended to convey instruction and information. In a learning environment, the transfer of information is primarily one-way from the instructor to the student as in a lecture. Distance Learning. The acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction; also, structured learning that takes place without the physical presence of the instructor. Distance Education. Institutionally based formal education where the learning group is separated and where interactive communications systems are used to connect instructors, learners, and resources. Distributed Learning: Structured learning mediated with technology that does not require the physical presence of the instructor. Distributed learning models can be used in combination with other forms of instruction or it can be used to create wholly virtual classrooms (source: DODI 1322.26, June 16, 2006). e-Learning. The delivery of content via the Internet, intranet-extranet, audio and videotape, satellite broadcast, interactive TV, and CD-ROM; also, the educational content, learning services, and delivery solutions that support and enable network-based learning that is either asynchronous or synchronous; instructional content or learning experiences delivered or enabled by electronic technology. Instructional media includes all means of delivering instruction via various delivery mediums including printed material (correspondence courses) and electronic devices such as computers, cable TV, satellite, electronic whiteboards, audio/video tapes, audio and videoconferencing systems, ipods, PDAs, cell phones, etc., using either wireless or wireline technologies. Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning. Educational Technology a more broader term but used synonymously with IT. Pedagogy. The activities of educating or instructing or teaching; activities that impart knowledge or skill. Click to go back Synchronous learning environment supports live (real time), two-way oral and/or visual communications between the instructor and the student. Synchronous media is any type of delivery medium that supports real time communication both ways between the sender and receive.
Note: Wikis & blogs are primarily collaborative tools and not instructional media used to deliver content
Definitions*
Web 2.0: The stage of the WWW where the Internet has become a platform for users to create, upload, and share content with others, versus simply downloading and consuming content. e-Learning 2.0: The idea of learning through digital connections and peer collaboration enhanced by technologies driving Web 2.0. Users/learners are empowered to search, create, and collaborate in order to fulfill intrinsic needs to learn new information.
*Source: e-Learning Guild Research Report on e-Learning 2.0Learning in a Web 2.0 World, Sep 2008
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Virtual worlds are online, computer-generated simulations of simulated environments where users guide their "avatar," or digital representation of their physical selves, to accomplish various goals. Typical virtual world activities include meeting and socializing with other avatars, buying and selling virtual items, playing games, etc. Virtual worlds combine both synchronous capabilities (audio, text chat, whiteboards), as well as asynchronous capabilities (static text, embedded learning modules, learning objects, etc.). Within the context of the evolution of the Internet from Web 1.0 to Web 3.0, Virtual worlds--especially the 3D kinds--are classified under the Web 3.0 category because of their profound ability to integrate multiple types of content, information sources, and feeds into one highly engaging and interactive format.
For information on virtual worlds used in the Federal Government: Federal Consortium on Virtual Worlds. Hosted by National Defense University (NDU), Information Resources Management College (IRMC): http://www.ndu.edu/IRMC/fedconsortium.html
Doing
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Knowing
The first level of learning is knowledge. Knowledge can be characterized as awareness of specifics and of the ways and means of dealing with specifics. The knowledge level focuses on memory or recall where the learner recognizes information, ideas, principles in the approximate form in which they were learned. Comprehension is the next level of learning and encompasses understanding. Has the knowledge been internalized or understood? The student should be able to translate, comprehend, or interpret information based on the knowledge. Application is the use of knowledge. Can the student use the knowledge in a new situation? It can also be the application of theory to solve a real world problem. The student selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to complete a problem or task. Analysis involves taking apart a piece of knowledge, and investigates parts of a concept. It can only occur if the student has obtained knowledge of and comprehends a concept. The student examines, classifies, hypothesizes, collects data, and draws conclusions. Synthesis is the creative act. Its the taking of knowledge and the creation of something new. It is an inductive processone of building rather than one of breaking down. The student originates, integrates, and combines ideas into something new to him/her. Evaluation is judgment or decision-making where the student appraises, assesses or criticizes on a basis of specific standards/criteria.
`
Synthesis Evaluation
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`
Lower
Knowledge Comprehension