Chapter 40

Introduction to Quantum Physics

Need for Quantum Physics

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Problems remained from classical mechanics that relativity didnt explain Attempts to apply the laws of classical physics to explain the behavior of matter on the atomic scale were consistently unsuccessful Problems included:
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Blackbody radiation l The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a heated object Photoelectric effect l Emission of electrons by an illuminated metal

Quantum Mechanics Revolution

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Between 1900 and 1930, another revolution took place in physics A new theory called quantum mechanics was successful in explaining the behavior of particles of microscopic size The first explanation using quantum theory was introduced by Max Planck
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Many other physicists were involved in other subsequent developments

Blackbody Radiation
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An object at any temperature is known to emit thermal radiation

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Characteristics depend on the temperature and surface properties The thermal radiation consists of a continuous distribution of wavelengths from all portions of the em spectrum

Blackbody Radiation, cont.

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At room temperature, the wavelengths of the thermal radiation are mainly in the infrared region As the surface temperature increases, the wavelength changes
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It will glow red and eventually white

The basic problem was in understanding the observed distribution in the radiation emitted by a black body
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Classical physics didnt adequately describe the observed distribution

Blackbody Radiation, final

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A black body is an ideal system that absorbs all radiation incident on it The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body is called blackbody radiation

Blackbody Approximation
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A good approximation of a black body is a small hole leading to the inside of a hollow object The hole acts as a perfect absorber The nature of the radiation leaving the cavity through the hole depends only on the temperature of the cavity

Blackbody Experiment Results

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The total power of the emitted radiation increases with temperature

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Stefans law (from Chapter 20): = sAeT4

The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to shorter wavelengths as the temperature increases
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Wiens displacement law lmaxT = 2.898 x 10-3 m.K

Intensity of Blackbody Radiation, Summary

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The intensity increases with increasing temperature The amount of radiation emitted increases with increasing temperature
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The area under the curve

The peak wavelength decreases with increasing temperature

Active Figure 40.3

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Use the active figure to adjust the temperature of the blackbody Study the emitted radiation

PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE

Rayleigh-Jeans Law
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An early classical attempt to explain blackbody radiation was the Rayleigh-Jeans law
2ck 2ck BT I ( ,T ) = 4

At long wavelengths, the law matched experimental results fairly well

Rayleigh-Jeans Law, cont.

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At short wavelengths, there was a major disagreement between the RayleighJeans law and experiment This mismatch became known as the ultraviolet catastrophe
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You would have infinite energy as the wavelength approaches zero

Max Planck
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1858 1847 German physicist Introduced the concept of quantum of action In 1918 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the quantized nature of energy

Plancks Theory of Blackbody Radiation

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In 1900 Planck developed a theory of blackbody radiation that leads to an equation for the intensity of the radiation This equation is in complete agreement with experimental observations He assumed the cavity radiation came from atomic oscillations in the cavity walls Planck made two assumptions about the nature of the oscillators in the cavity walls

Plancks Assumption, 1
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The energy of an oscillator can have only certain discrete values En

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En = nh
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n is a positive integer called the quantum number is the frequency of oscillation h is Plancks constant

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This says the energy is quantized Each discrete energy value corresponds to a different quantum state

Plancks Assumption, 2
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The oscillators emit or absorb energy when making a transition from one quantum state to another
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The entire energy difference between the initial and final states in the transition is emitted or absorbed as a single quantum of radiation An oscillator emits or absorbs energy only when it changes quantum states The energy carried by the quantum of radiation is E=h

Energy-Level Diagram
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An energy-level diagram shows the quantized energy levels and allowed transitions Energy is on the vertical axis Horizontal lines represent the allowed energy levels The double-headed arrows indicate allowed transitions

More About Plancks Model

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The average energy of a wave is the average energy difference between levels of the oscillator, weighted according to the probability of the wave being emitted This weighting is described by the Boltzmann distribution law and gives the probability of a state being occupied as being proportional to e -E kBT where E is the energy of the state

Plancks Model, Graph

Active Figure 40.7

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Use the active figure to investigate the energy levels Observe the emission of radiation of different wavelengths

PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE

Plancks Wavelength Distribution Function

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Planck generated a theoretical expression for the wavelength distribution

2hc 2 I ( ,T ) = 5 hc k T B (e - 1)
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h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s h is a fundamental constant of nature

Plancks Wavelength Distribution Function, cont.

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At long wavelengths, Plancks equation reduces to the Rayleigh-Jeans expression At short wavelengths, it predicts an exponential decrease in intensity with decreasing wavelength
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This is in agreement with experimental results

Photoelectric Effect
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The photoelectric effect occurs when light incident on certain metallic surfaces causes electrons to be emitted from those surfaces
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The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons

Photoelectric Effect Apparatus

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When the tube is kept in the dark, the ammeter reads zero When plate E is illuminated by light having an appropriate wavelength, a current is detected by the ammeter The current arises from photoelectrons emitted from the negative plate and collected at the positive plate

Active Figure 40.9

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Use the active figure to vary frequency or place voltage Observe the motion of the electrons

PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE

Photoelectric Effect, Results

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At large values of DV, the current reaches a maximum value l All the electrons emitted at E are collected at C The maximum current increases as the intensity of the incident light increases When DV is negative, the current drops When DV is equal to or more negative than DVs, the current is zero

Active Figure 40.10

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Use the active figure to change the voltage range Observe the current curve for different intensities of radiation

Photoelectric Effect Feature 1

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Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity

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Classical Prediction l Electrons should absorb energy continually from the electromagnetic waves l As the light intensity incident on the metal is increased, the electrons should be ejected with more kinetic energy Experimental Result l The maximum kinetic energy is independent of light intensity l The maximum kinetic energy is proportional to the stopping potential (DVs)

Photoelectric Effect Feature 2

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Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons

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Classical Prediction l At low light intensities, a measurable time interval should pass between the instant the light is turned on and the time an electron is ejected from the metal l This time interval is required for the electron to absorb the incident radiation before it acquires enough energy to escape from the metal Experimental Result l Electrons are emitted almost instantaneously, even at very low light intensities

Photoelectric Effect Feature 3

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Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency

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Classical Prediction l Electrons should be ejected at any frequency as long as the light intensity is high enough Experimental Result l No electrons are emitted if the incident light falls below some cutoff frequency, c l The cutoff frequency is characteristic of the material being illuminated l No electrons are ejected below the cutoff frequency regardless of intensity

Photoelectric Effect Feature 4

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Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light frequency

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Classical Prediction
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There should be no relationship between the frequency of the light and the electric kinetic energy The kinetic energy should be related to the intensity of the light The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases with increasing light frequency

Experimental Result
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Photoelectric Effect Features, Summary

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The experimental results contradict all four classical predictions Einstein extended Plancks concept of quantization to electromagnetic waves All electromagnetic radiation can be considered a stream of quanta, now called photons A photon of incident light gives all its energy h to a single electron in the metal

Photoelectric Effect, Work Function

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Electrons ejected from the surface of the metal and not making collisions with other metal atoms before escaping possess the maximum kinetic energy Kmax Kmax = h
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is called the work function The work function represents the minimum energy with which an electron is bound in the metal

Some Work Function Values

Photon Model Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect

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Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity

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Kmax is independent of light intensity K depends on the light frequency and the work function

Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of the photoelectron

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Each photon can have enough energy to eject an electron immediately

Photon Model Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect, cont.

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Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency

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There is a failure to observe photoelectric effect below a certain cutoff frequency, which indicates the photon must have more energy than the work function in order to eject an electron Without enough energy, an electron cannot be ejected, regardless of the light intensity

Photon Model Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect, final

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Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light frequency

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Since Kmax = h As the frequency increases, the kinetic energy will increase
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Once the energy of the work function is exceeded

There is a linear relationship between the kinetic energy and the frequency

Cutoff Frequency
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The lines show the linear relationship between K and The slope of each line is h The x-intercept is the cutoff frequency
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This is the frequency below which no photoelectrons are emitted

Cutoff Frequency and Wavelength

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The cutoff frequency is related to the work function through c = / h The cutoff frequency corresponds to a cutoff wavelength
c hc c = = c

Wavelengths greater than lc incident on a material having a work function do not result in the emission of photoelectrons

Arthur Holly Compton

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1892 1962 American physicist Director of the lab at the University of Chicago Discovered the Compton Effect Shared the Nobel Prize in 1927

The Compton Effect, Introduction

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Compton and Debye extended with Einsteins idea of photon momentum The two groups of experimenters accumulated evidence of the inadequacy of the classical wave theory The classical wave theory of light failed to explain the scattering of x-rays from electrons

Compton Effect, Classical Predictions

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According to the classical theory, em waves incident on electrons should:

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Have radiation pressure that should cause the electrons to accelerate Set the electrons oscillating
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There should be a range of frequencies for the scattered electrons

Compton Effect, Observations

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Comptons experiments showed that, at any given angle, only one frequency of radiation is observed

Compton Effect, Explanation

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The results could be explained by treating the photons as point-like particles having energy h Assume the energy and momentum of the isolated system of the colliding photonelectron are conserved This scattering phenomena is known as the Compton effect

Compton Shift Equation

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The graphs show the scattered x-ray for various angles The shifted peak, is caused by the scattering of free electrons

h ' - o = (1- cos ) mec

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This is called the Compton shift equation

Compton Wavelength
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The factor h/mec in the equation is called the Compton wavelength and is
h C = = 0.002 43 nm mec

The unshifted wavelength, o, is caused by xrays scattered from the electrons that are tightly bound to the target atoms

Photons and Waves Revisited

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Some experiments are best explained by the photon model Some are best explained by the wave model We must accept both models and admit that the true nature of light is not describable in terms of any single classical model Also, the particle model and the wave model of light complement each other

Louis de Broglie
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1892 1987 French physicist Originally studied history Was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1929 for his prediction of the wave nature of electrons

Wave Properties of Particles

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Louis de Broglie postulated that because photons have both wave and particle characteristics, perhaps all forms of matter have both properties The de Broglie wavelength of a particle is

h h = = p mu

Frequency of a Particle
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In an analogy with photons, de Broglie postulated that a particle would also have a frequency associated with it

E = h
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These equations present the dual nature of matter

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Particle nature, p and E Wave nature, and

Davisson-Germer Experiment
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If particles have a wave nature, then under the correct conditions, they should exhibit diffraction effects Davisson and Germer measured the wavelength of electrons This provided experimental confirmation of the matter waves proposed by de Broglie

Complementarity
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The principle of complementarity states that the wave and particle models of either matter or radiation complement each other Neither model can be used exclusively to describe matter or radiation adequately

Electron Microscope
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The electron microscope relies on the wave characteristics of electrons The electron microscope has a high resolving power because it has a very short wavelength Typically, the wavelengths of the electrons are about 100 times shorter than that of visible light

Quantum Particle
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The quantum particle is a new model that is a result of the recognition of the dual nature Entities have both particle and wave characteristics We must choose one appropriate behavior in order to understand a particular phenomenon

Ideal Particle vs. Ideal Wave

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An ideal particle has zero size

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Therefore, it is localized in space

An ideal wave has a single frequency and is infinitely long

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Therefore,it is unlocalized in space

A localized entity can be built from infinitely long waves

Particle as a Wave Packet

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Multiple waves are superimposed so that one of its crests is at x = 0 The result is that all the waves add constructively at x=0 There is destructive interference at every point except x = 0 The small region of constructive interference is called a wave packet
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The wave packet can be identified as a particle

Active Figure 40.19

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Use the active figure to choose the number of waves to add together Observe the resulting wave packet The wave packet represents a particle
PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE

Wave Envelope

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The blue line represents the envelope function This envelope can travel through space with a different speed than the individual waves

Active Figure 40.20

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Use the active figure to observe the movement of the waves and of the wave envelope

PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE

Speeds Associated with Wave Packet

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The phase speed of a wave in a wave packet is given by

v phase =
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This is the rate of advance of a crest on a single wave

The group speed is given by

v g = d
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dk

This is the speed of the wave packet itself

Speeds, cont.
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The group speed can also be expressed in terms of energy and momentum

dE d p 2 1 vg = = ( 2p ) = u = dp dp 2m 2m
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This indicates that the group speed of the wave packet is identical to the speed of the particle that it is modeled to represent

Electron Diffraction, Set-Up

Electron Diffraction, Experiment

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Parallel beams of mono-energetic electrons that are incident on a double slit The slit widths are small compared to the electron wavelength An electron detector is positioned far from the slits at a distance much greater than the slit separation

Electron Diffraction, cont.

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If the detector collects electrons for a long enough time, a typical wave interference pattern is produced This is distinct evidence that electrons are interfering, a wave-like behavior The interference pattern becomes clearer as the number of electrons reaching the screen increases

Active Figure 40.22

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Use the active figure to observe the development of the interference pattern Observe the destruction of the pattern when you keep track of which slit an electron goes through
Please replace with active figure 40.22 PLAY ACTIVE FIGURE

Electron Diffraction, Equations

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A maximum occurs when d sin = m

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This is the same equation that was used for light The electrons are detected as particles at a localized spot at some instant of time The probability of arrival at that spot is determined by finding the intensity of two interfering waves

This shows the dual nature of the electron

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Electron Diffraction Explained

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An electron interacts with both slits simultaneously If an attempt is made to determine experimentally which slit the electron goes through, the act of measuring destroys the interference pattern
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It is impossible to determine which slit the electron goes through The wave components of the electron are present at both slits at the same time

In effect, the electron goes through both slits

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Werner Heisenberg
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1901 1976 German physicist Developed matrix mechanics Many contributions include:
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Uncertainty principle l Recd Nobel Prize in 1932 Prediction of two forms of molecular hydrogen Theoretical models of the nucleus

The Uncertainty Principle, Introduction

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In classical mechanics, it is possible, in principle, to make measurements with arbitrarily small uncertainty Quantum theory predicts that it is fundamentally impossible to make simultaneous measurements of a particles position and momentum with infinite accuracy

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, Statement

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The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states: if a measurement of the position of a particle is made with uncertainty Dx and a simultaneous measurement of its x component of momentum is made with uncertainty Dpx, the product of the two uncertainties can never be smaller than /2 h D x D px 2

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, Explained

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It is physically impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and exact momentum of a particle The inescapable uncertainties do not arise from imperfections in practical measuring instruments The uncertainties arise from the quantum structure of matter

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, Another Form

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Another form of the uncertainty principle can be expressed in terms of energy and time

h DE D t 2
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This suggests that energy conservation can appear to be violated by an amount DE as long as it is only for a short time interval Dt