Modern Building Materials and Technology

Bibhuti Bhushan Bhardwaj , Azaz Ahmed

Email:
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Department of Civil Engg., School of Engineering, Tezpur University, Napaam 784028, Tezpur, Assam, India
bibhuti_cib09@agnee.tezu.ernet.in, b azaz_cib09@agnee.tezu.ernet.in

Abstract
The appearance, component materials, energy efficiency and environmental impact of habitable structures have changed dramatically over recent years due in large part to the successful standardization of new materials, processes and technologies. Modern building materials are gaining great importance in the construction technologies in different field. From the construction of small houses to large skyscrapers it is gathering unbelievable universal acceptance. A multinational corporation called Dow Corning headquartered in Midland, Michigan, USA specializes in silicon and silicone based technology offering more than 7,000 products and services. Fireproofing, soundproofing technologies are being used in modern buildings in developed as well as in developing countries widely. Also since the 1990s, ASTM (American Society for testing Materials) has been playing a significant role in the production of modern building materials by taking test and grading the standard and quality of the materials. Keywords: Skyscraper, Dow Corning, ASTM, Framework, Quonset hut, Prefabrication, Vortex shedding, Damper, Winslow effect.

Introduction
In order to compose a civil structure today, it takes more than just meeting the needs of functionality and load carrying capacity under static loads. There is an increasing demand for slender, wide spanned structures with high adaptability to changes in use. Yet another aim is the reduction of structural mass for economic reasons. Aesthetically beautiful buildings require both a mixture of beauty and workability. Appealing structures of the modern world such as the Sydney Opera house, the Burj-Al-Arab in Dubai, the Taipei 101, infinity tower etc have set up new landmarks in the Construction industry. Many of the old building materials and orthodox techniques failed to comply with the standards setup for such revolutionary structures. Standards bolster advances in construction technologies. The appearance, component materials, energy efficiency and environmental impact of habitable structures has changed dramatically over recent years due in large part to the successful standardization of new materials, processes and technologies. As expected, as the new structures are soaring towards the sky, more and more challenges are confronted with. Factors such as earthquake resistance, resistance to vortex

shedding, firm foundations, quality of soil, fire proofing, cost effectiveness etc are given more priority than never before.

Types
They are the materials which have the capability to respond to changes in their condition or the environment to which they are exposed, in a useful and usually repetitive manner. They are called by other names such asIntelligent materials, adoptive materials or active materials. The devices that are made using smart materials are called Smart Devices. Similarly the systems and structures that have incorporated smart materials are called Smart Systems and Smart Structures. In other words the complexity increases from smart materials to smart structures. A smart material or an active material gives a unique output for a well defined input. The input may be in the form of mechanical stress / strain, electrical / magnetic field or changes in temperature. Based on input and output, the smart materials are classified as follows.

1. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)

The term shape memory refers to the ability of certain alloys (Ni Ti, Cu Al Zn etc.) to undergo large strains, while recovering their initial configuration at the end of the deformation process spontaneously or by heating without any residual deformation .The particular properties of SMAs are strictly associated to a solid-solid phase transformation which can be thermal or stress induced. Currently, SMAs are mainly applied in medical sciences, electrical, aerospace and mechanical engineering and also can open new applications in civil engineering specifically in seismic protection of buildings. Shape memory alloys have great potential to enhance civil engineering structures. Pre-existing and new applications in the fields of damping, active vibration control and pre-stressing or posttensioning of structures with fibres and tendons are being reviewed with regard to civil engineering. Properties such as repeated absorption of large amounts of strain energy under loading without permanent deformation, possibility to obtain a wide range of cyclic behaviour from supplemental and fully re-entering to highly dissipating-by simply varying the number and/or the characteristics of SMA components, usable strain range of 70%, extraordinary fatigue resistance under large strain cycles enable them for civil engineering applications. In the fig. 1 SMAs are being shown [1].

Fig. 1: Shape Memory Alloys (Source http://thefutureofthings.com/news/18/adaptive-aerodynamics-using-smartmaterials.html)

2. Magnetostrictive Materials
Magnetostriction is the changing of a material's physical dimensions in response to changing its magnetization. In other words, a magnetostrictive material will change shape when it is subjected to a magnetic field. Most ferromagnetic materials exhibit some measurable magnetostriction. The highest room temperature magnetostriction of a pure element is that of Cobalt (Co) which saturates at 60 micro strain. Fortunately, by alloying elements one can achieve "giant" magnetostriction under relatively small fields. The highest known magnetostriction are those of cubic laves phase iron alloys containing the rare earth elements Dysprosium (Dy), or Terbium (Tb); DyFe2, and TbFe2. However, these materials have tremendous magnetic anisotropy which necessitates a very large magnetic field to drive the magnetostriction. Other examples include Terfenol-D, (an alloy of Iron and Terbium) [2].

3. Piezoelectric Materials
Simply stated, piezoelectric materials produce a voltage in response to an applied force, usually a uniaxial compressive force. Similarly, a change in dimensions can be induced by the application of a voltage to a piezoelectric material. In fig. 2 examples of piezoelectric materials are being shown [3].

Fig. 2: Piezoelectric Material (source: http://webdocs.cs.ualberta.ca/~database/MEMS/sma_mems/smrt.html)

4. Electro Rheological Fluids

Electro Rheological (ER) fluids are suspensions of extremely fine non-conducting particles (up to 50 micrometres diameter) in an electrically insulating fluid. The apparent viscosity of these fluids changes reversibly by an order of up to 100,000 in response to an electric field. For example, a typical ER fluid can go from the consistency of a liquid to that of a gel, and back, with response times on the order of milliseconds. The effect is sometimes called the Winslow effect, after its discoverer the American inventor Willis Winslow, who obtained a US patent on the effect in 1947 [1].

5. Carbon Fibre Reinforced Concrete (CFRC)

Its ability to conduct electricity and most importantly, capacity to change its conductivity with mechanical stress makes a promising material for smart structures. It is evolved as a part of DRC technology (Densified Reinforced Composites).The high density coupled with a choice of fibres ranging from stainless steel to chopped carbon and Kevlar, applied under high pressure gives the product with outstanding qualities as per DRC technology. This technology makes it possible to produce surfaces with strength and durability superior to metals and plastics [4].

6. Smart Concrete
Smart concrete was developed Dr. Deborah D.L. Chung from State University of New York at Buffalo. Smart concrete is reinforced by carbon fibre as much as 0.2% to 0.5% of volume to increase its sense ability to strain or stress while still has good mechanical properties. By adding small amount of short carbon fibre into concrete with a conventional concrete mixer, the electrical resistance of concrete can be increased in response to strain or stress. As the concrete is deformed or stressed, the contact between the fibre and cement matrix is affected, thereby affecting the volume electrical resistivity of the concrete. Strain is detected through measurement

of the electrical resistance. So, the smart concrete has the ability to sense tiny structural flaws before they become significant, which could be used in monitoring the internal condition of structures and following an earthquake. In addition, the presence of the carbon fibres also controls the cracking so that the cracks do not propagate catastrophically, as in the case of conventional concrete [4].

7. Metal
Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal structural building materials. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or treated lasts a long time. Corrosion is metal's prime enemy when it comes to longevity. The lower density and better corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin sometimes overcome their greater cost. Brass was more common in the past, but is usually restricted to specific uses or specialty items today. Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut, and can be seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labour to produce metal, especially in the large amounts needed for the building industries. Other metals used include titanium, chrome, gold, silver. Titanium can be used for structural purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as decoration, because these materials are expensive and lack structural qualities such as tensile strength or hardness [5].

8. Glass
In modern structures, glass is also used as a construction material for outer beauty of the structure. Using clear windows in houses has been known from the days glass since glass was invented but now glass is used to cover the whole faade of a building as a curtain wall to cover open roof known as space frames for big halls and lobbies. Glass needs some sort of holding mechanism and suspensions to stay longer as glass itself is very delicate and easy to be broken material. Other than all the above mentioned materials, materials like Ice are use to construct Eskimos in ice lands. Natural materials are still considered best in some regions for the purpose of construction. Fabric is used to construct tents and tent houses. Plastic and foam is also used in construction for different purposes [5].

9. Plastic

The term plastic covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be moulded or extruded into objects or films or fibres. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today [5].

10. Foam
More recently synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used in combination with structural materials, such as concrete. It is light weight, easily shaped and an excellent insulator. It is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between wood and cement or insulated concrete forms where concrete is sandwiched between two layers of foam [5].

Some Modern Technologies

Soundproofing
Specialty Vinyl for Soundproofing and Other Noise Stopping Materials Frequently called Mass Loaded Vinyl (MLV), these materials certainly have their place and can be used in many different ways to stop the transfer of noise. Sometimes this is described as a panacea (cure all solve all) and it is not. Always it has to be remembered the principle of mass: if it does not weigh much it will not stop much. Also people should realize that adding together several high mass layers does not help either. Insulation or How to Fill the Wall Cavities Stuffing the walls with insulation is bad. People are taking out the air that is helpful in insulating and stopping noise. Using the pink stuff is easiest and economical. It works okay. Most insulation does very little to help noise reduction [6]. Lead Lined Sheetrock Uses about a 1/8 inch sheet of lead glued to one side of the sheetrock and installed with the lead facing the studs. This is an excellent noise reducer, but can cost ` 6250-12500 per piece of sheetrock [6].

Fireproofing

Fireproofing, a passive fire protection measure, refers to the act of making materials or structures more resistant to fire, or to those materials themselves, or the act of applying such materials. Applying a certification listed fireproofing system to certain structures allows these to have a fire-resistance rating. The term fireproof does not necessarily mean that an item cannot ever burn: It relates to measured performance under specific conditions of testing and evaluation. Fireproofing does not allow treated items to be entirely unaffected by any fire, as conventional materials are not immune to the effects of fire at a sufficient intensity and/or duration. Asbestos was one material historically used for fireproofing, either on its own, or together with binders such as cement, either in sprayed form or in pressed sheets, or as additives to a variety of materials and products, including fabrics for protective clothing and building materials. Because the material has proven to cause cancer in the long run, a large removal and replacement business has been established. Endothermic materials have also been used to a large extent and are still in use today, such as gypsum, concrete and other cementitious products. More highly evolved versions of these are used in aerodynamics, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and re-entry vehicles, such as the space shuttles. Among the conventional materials, purpose-designed spray fireproofing plasters have become abundantly available the world over. The inorganic methods include:

Gypsum plasters Cementious plasters Fibrous plasters

The industry considers gypsum-based plasters to be "cementious", even though these contain no Portland cement, or calcium alumina cement. Cementious plasters that contain Portland cement have been traditionally lightened by the use of inorganic lightweight aggregates, such as vermiculite and perlite. Gypsum plasters have been lightened by using chemical additives to create bubbles that displace solids, thus reducing the bulk density. Also, lightweight polystyrene beads have been mixed into the plasters at the factory in an effort to reduce the density, which generally results in a more effective insulation at a lower cost. The resulting plaster has qualified to the A2 combustibility rating as per DIN4102. Fibrous plasters, containing either mineral-wool or ceramic fibres tend to simply entrain more air, thus displacing the heavy fibres. On-site cost reduction efforts, at times purposely contravening the requirements of the certification listing, can further enhance such displacement of solids. This has resulted in architects' specifying the use of on-site testing of proper densities to ensure the products installed meet the certification listings employed for each installed configuration, because excessively light inorganic fireproofing does not provide adequate protection and are thus in violation of the listings.

New materials based on organic chemistry are gaining in popularity for a variety of reasons. In land-based construction, thin-film intumescents have become more widely used. Unlike their inorganic competitors, thin-film intumescents are installed like paint, except that the purpose is to achieve a certain thickness, not just to apply a different colour, and do not require the concealment of structural steel elements such as I-beams and columns. Care must be taken to ensure that such products are protected from atmospheric moisture and operational heat, which can adversely affect these organic, covalently bound products. The use of DIBt approved products, which mandates testing of the effects of ageing, is prudent. Thicker intumescent and endothermic resin systems tend to use an oil basis (usually epoxy), which, when exposed to fire, creates so much smoke, that even though these products provide enough heat flow retardation towards the substrate, they tend to be banned from use inside of buildings because of the smoke they develop when subjected to fire, and are used mainly in exterior construction, such as LPG vessels, vessel skirts and pipe bridges in oil refineries, chemical plants and offshore oil and gas platforms. Proprietary boards and sheets, made of gypsum, calcium silicate, vermiculite, perlite, mechanically bonded composite boards made of punched sheet-metal and cellulose reinforced concrete (Dura Steel) have all been used to clad items for increased fire-resistance. Cladding is traditionally much more popular and organised in Europe than in North America. Fringe methods have also included intumescent tapes and sheets, as well as endothermically treated ceramic fibre sheets and roll materials. The latter work well but are not particularly popular due to cost reasons. Ordinary ceramic fibre, typically encased in thin aluminium foil is often used to protect pressurisation ductwork and grease ducts in North America. Such mineral wool (rock wool) wraps have been used in Europe for decades more than in North America. European construction sites tend to use much less expensive mineral wool wraps for duct fireproofing. All are qualified to the same test regime: ISO6944, with the exception that systems qualified for the North America market also undergo a hose-stream test immediately following the fire exposure in order to validate the fire stop portion of the system [7].

Natural Fibre Reinforcement of Large-Scale Composite Polymer Panels

Recently, natural fibres (NF) have been investigated as filler materials capable of serving as localized tensile reinforcement and volume fillers within several types of polymer matrices. A number of natural fibres have been under continued investigation for use in natural fibre reinforced polymer composites (NFRC); including wood fibre, jute, sisal, kenaf, flax, wheat straw and bamboo. These fibres have been coupled in a matrix primarily composed of two commodity plastic matrix materials: polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS). While specific

mechanical properties of natural fibres vary according to the particular fibre, the overall performance of natural fibres lies within a relatively tight range as a result of similar molecular composition. An increasing amount of interest has developed over the past few years for NFRCs because of their ease of production, subsequent increase in productivity, cost reduction, lower density and weight and use of renewable resources. The automobile industry has begun to apply NFRCs in a variety of exterior and interior panel applications. The significant weight savings and the ease and low cost of the raw constituent materials have made NFRCs an attractive alternative material to glass and carbon fibre reinforced polymer composites. However, further research needs to address significant material and production obstacles before commercially available NFRCs are widely used in architectural and civil works [8].

Earthquake Resistant Building Technology

Ground shaking from earthquakes can collapse buildings and bridges; disrupt gas, electric, and phone services; and sometimes trigger landslides, avalanches, flash floods, fires, and huge, destructive ocean waves (tsunamis). Buildings with foundations resting on unconsolidated landfill and other unstable soil, and trailers and homes not tied to their foundations are at risk because they can be shaken off their mountings during an earthquake. When an earthquake occurs in a populated area, it may cause deaths and injuries and extensive property damage. It is for this reason that it is often said, Earthquake dont kill people, buildings do. Earthquake resistant building design philosophy a) Under minor but frequent shaking, the main members of the buildings that carry vertical and horizontal forces should not be damaged; however buildings parts that do not carry load may sustain repairable damage. b) Under moderate but occasional shaking, the main members may sustain repairable damage, while the other parts that do not carry load may sustain repairable damage. c) Under strong but rare shaking, the main members may sustain severe damage, but the building should not collapse. Protection from Earthquakes There are various new techniques which help in reducing the impact of earthquake forces on buildings. Most of these techniques are expensive to implement. Here is a list of Earthquake Resistant Techniques: 1. Base Isolation for Earthquake Resistance The concept of base isolation is explained through an example building resting on frictionless rollers. When the ground shakes, the rollers freely roll, but the building above does not move.

Thus, no force is transferred to the building due to the shaking of the ground; simply, the building does not experience the earthquake. Now, if the same building is rested on the flexible pads that offer resistance against lateral movements, then some effect of the ground shaking will be transferred to the building above. If the flexible pads are properly chosen, the forces induced by ground shaking can be a few times smaller than that experienced by the building built directly on ground, namely a fixed base building. The flexible pads are called base-isolators, whereas the structures protected by means of these devices are called base-isolated buildings. 2. Energy Dissipation Devices for Earthquake Resistance Another approach for controlling seismic damage in buildings and improving their seismic performance is by installing Seismic Dampers in place of structural elements, such as diagonal braces. These dampers act like the hydraulic shock absorbers in cars as much of the sudden jerks are absorbed in the hydraulic fluids and only little is transmitted above to the chassis of the car. When seismic energy is transmitted through them, dampers absorb part of it, and thus damp the motion of the building. 3. Active Control Devices for Earthquake Resistance The system consists of three basic elements: a. Sensors to measure external excitation and/or structural response. b. Computer hardware and software to compute control forces on the basis of observed excitation and/or structural response. c. Actuators to provide the necessary control forces. Thus in active system has to necessarily have an external energy input to drive the actuators. On the other hand passive systems do not required external energy and their efficiency depends on tunings of system to expected excitation and structural behaviour. As a result, the passive systems are effective only for the modes of the vibrations for which these are tuned. Thus the advantage of an active system lies in its much wider range of applicability since the control forces are worked out on the basis of actual excitation and structural behaviour. In the active system when only external excitation is measured system is said to be in open-looped. However when the structural response is used as input, the system is in closed loop control. These techniques have been successfully employed in many projects across the world. They are most widely used in Japan. These techniques are also being used in earthquake prone areas of California, Indonesia and other such places [9].

Construction and materials used in Skyscrapers

Reinforced concrete is one important component of skyscrapers. It consists of concrete (a mixture of water, cement powder, and aggregate consisting of gravel or sand) poured around a grid work of steel rods (called rebar) that will strengthen the dried concrete against bending motion caused by the wind. Concrete is inherently strong under compressive forces; however, the enormous projected weight of the PETRONAS Towers led designers to specify a new type of concrete that was more than twice as strong as usual. This high-strength material was achieved by adding very fine particles to the usual concrete ingredients; the increased surface area of these tiny particles produced a stronger bond. The other primary raw material for skyscraper construction is steel, which is an alloy of iron and carbon. Nearby buildings often limit the amount of space available for construction activity and supply storage, so steel beams of specified sizes and shapes are delivered to the site just as they are needed for placement. Before delivery, the beams are coated with a mixture of plaster and vermiculite (mica that has been heat-expanded to form sponge-like particles) to protect them from corrosion and heat. After each beam is welded into place, the fresh joints are sprayed with the same coating material. An additional layer of insulation, such as fibreglass batting covered with aluminium foil, may then be wrapped around the beams. To maximize the best qualities of concrete and steel, they are often used together in skyscraper construction. For example, a support column may be formed by pouring concrete around a steel beam. A variety of materials are used to cover the skyscraper's frame. Known as "cladding," the sheets that form the exterior walls may consist of glass, metals, such as aluminium or stainless steel, or masonry materials, such as granite, marble, or limestone [10].

Case Studies
To have a an idea about how and where the modern building materials are being used in the construction of different modern buildings, we have given the examples of following modern buildings and materials as well as technologies involved.

1. Burj Khalifa
The building Burj Khalifa, also known formerly as Burj Dubai, located in Dubai, United Arab Emirates is presently holding the title of tallest building in the world. Its construction started in the year of 2004 and was finished in 2010. The height of its roof is 828 metre, top floor being at a height of 621.3 metre from ground. With a budget for this project exceeding ` 7500 crores, the final height of the spectacular Burj Khalifa skyscraper soars to 828m above ground level, holding the record for being the worlds tallest building and also for the highest installation of an aluminium and glass facade

 This iconic project has overcome the greatest of challenges and technical difficulties, not least of which are the wind forces dominating the structural design of the tower, the logistics of moving men and materials at extreme heights and construction of the building envelope A total of 103,000 square metres of glass was used in the cladding panels which are incorporated into a total facade area of 132,190 square metres These advanced cladding panels maximise resistance against heat transmission from the sun and save energy through the use of sophisticated engineering techniques which include high performance reflective glazing Managing the internal pressure foreseen within the insulating glass units due to the high altitude culminated in the specification of Dow Corning 3362 Silicone Insulating Glass Sealant Dow Corning 993 Silicone Structural Glazing Sealant was specified to bring additional security to the insulating glass units which were mechanically fixed to the superstructure Dow Corning 798 Cold and Clean room Silicone Sealant was specified for sealing the exclusive bathrooms within the prestigious apartments. In fig. 3 the building Burj Khalifa is shown [11].

Fig.3: Burj Khalifa (source: http://yeinjee.com/2010/burj-khalifa-dubai-factsfigures/) As with any construction in the Middle East, Dow Cornings technical experts were confronted with testing and specifying products that are able to withstand the rigours of high temperature, ultra-violet light, seismic activity and inclement weather conditions including sandstorms and high winds. Special mixes of concrete are made to withstand the extreme pressures of the massive building weight; as is typical with reinforced concrete construction, each batch of concrete used was tested to ensure it could withstand certain pressures. The consistency of the concrete used in the project was essential. It was difficult to create a concrete that could withstand both the thousands of tonnes bearing down on it and Persian Gulf temperatures that can reach 50 C. To combat this problem, the concrete was not poured during the day. Instead,

during the summer months ice was added to the mixture and it was poured at night when the air is cooler and the humidity is higher. A cooler concrete mixture cures evenly throughout and is therefore less likely to set too quickly and crack.

2. Burj-Al-Arab
Burj-Al-Arab situated in Dubai, UAE is currently holding the tallest hotel in the world. The tallest sea-based hotel in the world at a height of 321 metres, the Burj Al Arab Hotel is a landmark icon on the Dubai skyline. An artificial island was created to support this architectural and technical marvel. Inspired by the wind filled sails of an Arab trading ship, the sail facade features a unique double-skinned Teflon-coated woven glass fibre screen. The Dow Corning product range was chosen to provide the reliable solutions such a unique construction project required, especially under these particular weather conditions. The facade was sealed with Dow Corning 993, Dow Corning 984 and Dow Corning Q3-3793 silicone sealants. The very large aquarium in the foyer was sealed with Dow Corning 795, while Firestop 400 was used internally. In fig. 4 Burj-Al-Arab is shown. The Dow Corning product range was once again chosen to provide the reliable solutions such a unique construction project required, especially under these particular weather conditions. The facade was sealed with Dow Corning 993, Dow Corning 984 and Dow Corning Q3-3793 silicone sealants. The very large aquarium in the foyer was sealed with Dow Corning 795. Firestop 400 was used internally. Additionally, the completion of the project required Dow Cornings co-operation with companies in the UK, US, Japan and Dubai. Dow Corning successfully met the challenge of delivering solid solutions for imaginative construction projects when operating on an global basis. Combining the latest technological trends and working globally, Dow Corning has sealed what is considered as a symbol of Arabian hospitality. The Burj-Al-Arab Hotel symbolises the very essence of Dubai, embracing the best of the new alongside traditions of the past [12].

Fig. 4: Burj-Al-Arab (source: http://ainkpisan.blogdetik.com/2009/08/19/17/burjal-arab/)

3. Taipei-101
Taipei-101 situated in Taipei, Taiwan having a total height of 508 metre used to be the tallest building in the world before Burj Khalifa was constructed. It costs around ` 350 crores. Its construction started in June, 1998 and finished in 2004. The reason behind its name is that it has 101 floors. Skyscrapers must be flexible in strong winds yet remain rigid enough to prevent large sideways movement (lateral drift). Flexibility prevents structural damage while resistance ensures comfort for the occupants and protection of glass, curtain walls and other features. Most designs achieve the necessary strength by enlarging critical structural elements such as bracing. The extraordinary height of Taipei 101 combined with the demands of its environment called for additional innovations. The design achieves both strength and flexibility for the tower through the use of high-performance steel construction. Thirty-six columns support Taipei 101, including eight "mega-columns" packed with 10,000-psi concrete. Every eight floors, outrigger trusses connect the columns in the building's core to those on the exterior. These features combine with the solidity of its foundation to make Taipei 101 one of the most stable buildings ever constructed. The foundation is reinforced by 380 piles driven 80 m into the ground, extending as far as 30 m into the bedrock. Each pile is 1.5 m in diameter and can bear a load of 1,000 metric tons - 1,320 metric tons. The stability of the design became evident during construction when, on March 31, 2002, a 6.8-magnitude earthquake rocked Taipei. The tremor was strong enough to topple two construction cranes from the 56th floor, then the highest. Five people died in the accident, but an inspection showed no structural damage to the building, and construction soon resumed. In fig. 5 Taipei 101 is shown. The structural systems used in Taipei 101 draw a lot from other buildings in the Taipei region. They can generally be classified into 2 types a) Hysteretic Dampers - Triangular Added stiffness and damping damper (TADAS) - Reinforced ADAS damper (RADAS) - Buckling Restrained Braces (BRB) - Low Yield Steel Shear Panel (LYSSP)

Fig. 5: Taipei 101 (source: http://www.travelodestination.com/the-worlds-tallestskyscraper-taipei-101/) b) Velocity Dampers - Visco - Elastic dampers (VE) - Viscous Dampers (VD) - Viscous Damping Walls (VDW) Currently, there have been more applications using viscous dampers than other velocity type dampers. This may be due to the facts that the design procedure for implementing the viscous damper is relatively simpler and the analytical model is available in the popular computational tools such as SAP2000 and ETABS [13].

4. Dubai Infinity Tower

Dubai Infinity Tower, situated in Dubai, UAE is the first building on earth having twists of full 90 degrees from its base to its crown .It has a total height of 306.9 metres with total no. of 73 floors. It will contain studio, 1, 2, 3, and 4 bedroom apartments, along with 11 loft floors and 3 penthouse floors. Amenities at Infinity Tower include a landscaped podium, retail outlets, children's nursery, gymnasium, outdoor swimming pools, built-in wardrobes, high-speed Internet, and outdoor tennis court [14]. The architects proposed the twisting geometry of the Tower as a means to maximize the views at different elevations. The Tower is founded upon a 3 meter thick reinforced concrete mat

foundation which is supported by ninety-nine 1.2 meter diameter bored, cast-in-place reinforced concrete piles extending approximately 30 meters below the mat foundation.

Fig. 6: Dubai Infinity Tower (source: http://gizmodo.com/356895/infinity-towerto-twist-by-90-over-dubai-marina) The lateral load resisting system for the Tower consists of a combination of a moment-resisting perimeter tube frame and a circular central core wall, connected by the two-way spanning reinforced concrete flat plate slabs at each level acting as rigid diaphragms. This system maximizes the effective structural footprint of the Tower by utilizing a significant amount of the vertical reinforced concrete for lateral load resistance. The design philosophy for the Tower is based upon the exterior form of the building as a direct expression of the structural framework. The engineers studied a series of options for the perimeter frame in order to create the unique twisting geometry of the Tower. Ultimately it was determined that there were distinct advantages to stacking the columns. Each column slopes in one direction, and is offset over the column below, in order to generate the twisting building form. As the perimeter columns ascend from story to story, they lean in or out, in a direction perpendicular to the slab edge. At every level, the columns shift in position along the spandrel beams so that each column maintains a consistent position at each floor relative to the tower envelope. The corner columns and the six (6) interior columns twist as they ascend. Due to the unique twisting geometry of the Tower, the structure has a natural tendency to undergo additional horizontal twist movement under gravity loads, a significant portion of which results from the self-weight of the cast-in-place structure. Additional movement is expected during construction and over the life of the structure due to creep and shrinkage effects of the cast-in-place concrete. In order to understand the potential movement of the structure, a

detailed analysis was performed taking into account the anticipated construction sequence, and time dependent variables; such as creep, shrinkage, and variation in concrete material properties [14].

Advantages of Modern Building Materials

The main advantage of modern building materials is that they are very strong and reliable in comparison to the common and older building materials. For example, steel is more reliable as well as strong than ordinary bamboo or such type of things. Moreover steel should not be replaced by the same after certain interval of time as in case of other materials like bamboo or wood this should be done periodically; as it is affected by moisture etc. Moreover the traditional building materials such as bamboo, wood etc. are enhancing deforestation while they modern building materials are not. Lets take an example to see how modern building materials are far better than the ordinary common materials. It is known that ceiling in common houses is are made up of ply wood or other wooden things .But when it comes to modern technology, it can be seen how other materials are being used to replace ordinary wood etc.

Aluminium Ceiling
Aluminium ceilings are installed like all other drop ceilings as the panels are fitted to the previously built framework. Those ceilings are very endurable and look attractive even after long time. As aluminium ceilings consist also from different panels it is not hard to install further lights or ventilation to the ceiling. To build those aluminium ceilings an aluminium alloy has been created to especially suit to manufacture those beautiful art metal ceiling panels. Aluminium is a corrosion resistant, very durable product that does not rust, unlike steel, which is used by some manufactures of pressed tin. The ceiling panels are still widely known as pressed tin even though they are not made from tin, but from long- lasting aluminium. When special aluminium alloy is pressed into different ceiling panels it holds its shape permanently and hardens substantially. Aluminium ceiling is longer- lasting than a plaster ceiling. These ceilings will not rust or crack and the material that they are made from are non- porous, therefore it resists moisture and odour very well. Decorated aluminium ceiling panels add more value to your home than it costs to have them installed or install them yourself. They can be painted in a lot of different ways creating works of art on your ceiling to your flavour [15].

Steel Ceiling
A metal ceiling panel designed and patented at Soundproof Ceilings, the innovative Click panel installs easily onto standard 15/16" suspension system for new construction areas or existing grid for remodelling projects. Featuring a downward design which aids in the ease of installation and allows future access to the area above the suspended ceiling. The Click panel is the answer for

the ceiling mechanic and building maintenance engineer. The unique spring action clips on each panel allows the installer to hear an audible "CLICK" when the panel is properly positioned and prevents the panel from being dislodged or moved. A specially designed removal tool provides authorized personnel with easy access. Design and function harmonize with a host of beautiful metallic and painted finishes, which can be customized to suit your specific design applications. The Click is available with either 1/4" reveal edge detail or a flush bevelled edge for a completely concealed system. Steel or aluminium panels are available and can be used with standard light fixtures and diffusers. Custom acoustical perforated panels are also available [16]. In the present, the main alternative material available is concrete block, which has several advantages stated as: 1. Fast in construction. 2. Give more spaces, whereas bearing wall can be constructed with 200mm thick. 3. A relatively low cost, since cement mortar used is much less than that required for stone. Nowadays, building using concrete block in Yemen cost about ` 75 per square meter. 4. Have good and acceptable bearing strength make it applicable for constructing bearing wall [17].

Disadvantages of Modern Building Materials

The major disadvantage of modern building materials is that, it is costlier than the old traditional materials. Besides the natural building materials can be obtained without any cost. So, the modern building materials seem to be costlier than the other materials due to which people of developing countries cannot afford for modern building materials. Another major disadvantage of modern building materials is associated with their repair and replacement, which is a difficult task as compared to the repair and replacement of old traditional materials. Modern building is fire-proof, but it is not noise-proof. In fact, measurements have shown that it is a good deal noisier than were our traditional designs, where there was a discontinuity of structure, and massive, but poorly conducting, materials. Steel-framed and Ferro-concrete building, cement mortar and plaster, to say nothing of a general ramification of central heating, running water and other piping, have replaced the softer brickwork, lime mortar and plaster, wooden beams, joists and studding, and the localised piping of the older houses. Disadvantages of constructing using concrete block can be stated as
(1) Have poor thermal isolation. (2) Building using concrete block required a relatively regular shape of wall [17].

Conclusions

From the above case studies, we can conclude that the modern building material is raison dtre for the modern buildings. The scientific method implemented in the construction is proving a boon and bliss to development as besides making living easy and comfortable, it also guarantees safety to a certain degree. The techniques such as Fire proofing, Earthquake proofing enhances the longevity of the building in addition to its withstanding the calamity. The chosen four case studies Burj Khalifa, Burj-Al-Arab, Taipei 101 and Dubai Infinity Tower is nothing but the product of mans scientific thoughts down the ages and its implementation through the use of sophisticated instrumentation, engineering and modern building materials. Most importantly, it is a great feat in the history of modern engineering since the application of the advancement of technology through engineering is making it possible to bring them to reality. Undoubtedly there are shortcomings in certain case but the overall impact of all the effects has to be taken into consideration.

References
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Christopher; Reitherman, Robert (1982). Building Configuration & Seismic Design. A WileyInterscience Publication. ISBN 0471861383 [6] Other Soundproofing materials. Retrieved September 15, 2010, from http://www.soundproofing101.com/soundproofing_7.htm [10] Paine Anthony "Mega structure". Architectural Review, The. . FindArticles.com. 15 September 2008. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3575/is_n1201_v201/ai_19498628 & Mir, Ali (2001). Art of the Skyscraper: the Genius of Fazlur Khan. Rizzoli International Publications. ISBN 0847823709. [3] Piezoelectric Materials. (n.d.). In Azomaterials- The A to Z of materials. Retrieved September 15, 2010, from http://www.azom.com/Details.asp?ArticleID=81 [15] Soundproof suspended ceilings. Retrieved September 21, 2010, from http://www.soundproofceilings.com/cat/3840/ [17] SSAA. M. Al_Kahtani and Suhaib Y.K. Al-Darzi, (2007).Old and Modern Construction Materials In Yemen: The Effect In Building Construction In Sanaa. Journal of Social Sciences 3, (pp 137), ISSN 1549-365. 2007 Science Publications. [12] Stack, Megan K. (2005, 13 October). In Dubai, the Sky's No Limit. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 21, 2010 from http://articles.latimes.com/2005/oct/13/world/fg-dubai13 [13] Taipei-101-A case study. Retrieved September 21, 2010, from http://www.archinomy.com/case-studies/671/taipei-101-a-case-study