ABC of Automotive Industry

ABC of Automotive Industry
PDF generated using the open source mwlib toolkit. See http://code.pediapress.com/ for more information. PDF generated at: Wed, 02 Nov 2011 10:29:44 UTC
Contents
Articles
Automotive industry 1 10 10 21 25 31 35 37 46 53
Types of vehicles
Automobile Sedan (automobile) Minivan Crossover (automobile) Commercial vehicle Bus Truck Tractor
References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 73 76
Article Licenses
License 79
Automotive industry
Automotive industry
The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells motor vehicles, and is one of the world's most important economic sectors by revenue. The term automotive industry usually does not include industries dedicated to automobiles after delivery to the customer, such as repair shops and motor fuel filling stations.
History
The first practical automobile with a petrol engine was built by Karl Benz in 1885 in Mannheim, Germany. Benz was granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886, and began the first production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved with the first long-distance trip in August 1888 (from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back) that the horseless coach was absolutely suitable for daily use. Since 2008 a Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event. Soon after, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart in 1889 designed a vehicle from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited as inventors of the first motorcycle, the Daimler Reitwagen, in 1885, but Italy's Enrico Bernardi, of the University of Padua, in 1882, patented a 0.024 horsepower (17.9W) 122cc (7.4cuin) one-cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son's tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first automobile, and first motorcycle;.[1] :p.26 Bernardi enlarged the tricycle in 1892 to carry two adults.[1] :p.26 Until 2005, the U.S.A. was leading the world in total automobile production. In 1929 before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, and the US automobile industry produced over 90% of the automobiles in the world, ie 28,551,500. And over one half the cars in foreign lands were of U.S. make. At that time the U.S. had one car per 4.87 persons. [2] In 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U.S. in production and held this rank until 2008. In 2009, China took the top spot with 13.78 million units produced. With 18.3 million units produced 2010, China produced nearly twice the amount of second place Japan (9.6 million units), the U.S. trailed in place 3 with 7.8 million units. [3]
Economy
About 250 million vehicles are in use in the United States. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 260 billion US gallons ( m3) of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly.[4] The automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, one-third of world demand will be in the four BRIC markets (Brazil, Russia, India and China). Other potentially powerful automotive markets are Iran and Indonesia.[5] Emerging auto markets already buy more cars than established markets. According to a J.D. Power study, emerging markets accounted for 51 percent of the global light-vehicle sales in 2010. The study expects this trend to accelerate.[6] [7]
Automotive industry
World motor vehicle production

By year Global production of motorvehicles
(cars and commercial vehicles)
Year Production Change Source 1997 54,434,000 1998 52,987,000 1999 56,258,892 2000 58,374,162 2001 56,304,925 2002 58,994,318 2003 60,663,225 2004 64,496,220 2005 66,482,439 2006 69,222,975 2007 73,266,061 2008 70,520,493 [8] -2.7% [8] 6.2% [9] 3.8% [10] -3.5% [11] 4.8% [12] 2.8% [13] 6.3% [14] 3.1% [15] 4.1% [16] 5.8% [17] -3.7% [18]
2009 61,791,868 -12.4% [19] 2010 77,857,705 26.0% [20]
Company relationships
It is common for automobile manufacturers to hold stakes in other automobile manufacturers. These ownerships can be explored under the detail for the individual companies. Notable current relationships include: Daimler AG holds a 20% stake in Eicher Motors, a 10.0% stake in KAMAZ, a 10% stake in Tesla Motors, a 6.75% stake in Tata Motors and a 3.1% in the Renault-Nissan Motors alliance. They are in the process of selling back their 40% stake (11% remaining) in McLaren Group. This process will be finalized in 2011. Dongfeng Motor Corporation is involved in joint ventures with several companies around the world, including: Honda (Japan), Hyundai (South Korea), Nissan (Japan), Nissan Diesel (Sweden), and PSA Peugeot Citroen (France). Fiat holds a 90% stake in Ferrari and a 53.5% stake in Chrysler. Ford Motor Company holds a 3% stake in Mazda and an 8.3% share in Aston Martin. Geely Automobile holds a 23% stake in Manganese Bronze Holdings. General Motors and Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (SAIC) have two joint ventures in Shanghai General Motors and SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile. Hyundai Kia Automotive Group holds a 38.67% stake in Kia Motors, down from the 51% that it acquired in 1998.
Automotive industry MAN SE holds a 17.01% voting stake in Scania. Porsche Automobil Holding SE has a 50.74% stake in Volkswagen Group. Due to liquidity problems, Volkswagen Group is now in the process of acquiring Porsche. Renault and Nissan Motors have an alliance involving two global companies linked by cross-shareholding, with Renault holding 44.3% of Nissan shares, and Nissan holding 15% of (non-voting) Renault shares. The alliance holds a 3.1% share in Daimler AG. Renault holds a 25% stake in AvtoVAZ and 20.5% of the voting stakes in Volvo Group. Toyota holds a 51% stake in Daihatsu, and 16.5% in Fuji Heavy Industries, parent company of Subaru. Volkswagen Group holds a 37.73% stake in Scania (68.6% voting rights), and a 53.7% stake in MAN SE (55.9% voting rights). Volkswagen is integrating Scania, MAN and its own truck division into one division. Volkswagen Group has a 49.9% stake in Porsche AG. Volkswagen is in the process of acquiring Porsche, which will be completed in late 2011. Volkswagen Group has a 19.9% stake in Suzuki, and Suzuki has a 5% stake in Volkswagen.
Top vehicle manufacturing groups (by volume)

The table below shows the world's largest motor vehicle manufacturing groups, along with the marques produced by each one. The table is ranked by 2010 end of year production figures from the International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers (OICA)[21] for the parent group, and then alphabetically by marque. Joint ventures are not reflected in this table. Production figures of joint ventures are typically included in OICA rankings, which can become a source of controversy.[22] [23]
Marque 1. Toyota Motor Corporation ( Daihatsu Hino Lexus Scion Toyota 2. General Motors Company ( Buick Cadillac Chevrolet GMC Holden Opel Vauxhall 3. Volkswagen Group AG ( Audi Bentley Bugatti Lamborghini Scania
Germany)
Country of origin
Japan)
Ownership
Markets
Subsidiary Subsidiary Division Division Division

United States)
Global, except North America and Australia Asia Pacific, North America and South America Global North America Global
Division Division Division Division Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary
North America, China, Israel, Taiwan North America, Europe, Asia, Middle East, Africa Global, except Australia, New Zealand North America, Middle East Australia, New Zealand Global, except North America, United Kingdom United Kingdom
Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary
Global Global Global Global Global
Automotive industry
4
Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary
South Korea)
SEAT koda Volkswagen Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles 4. Hyundai Motor Group ( Hyundai Kia 5. Ford Motor Company ( Ford Lincoln 6. Nissan ( Infiniti Nissan 7. Honda Motor Company ( Acura Honda 8. PSA Peugeot Citron S.A. ( Citron Peugeot 9. Suzuki Motor Corporation ( Maruti Suzuki Suzuki 10. Renault ( Dacia Renault Renault Samsung 11. Fiat S.p.A. ( Abarth Alfa Romeo Ferrari Fiat Fiat Professional Lancia Maserati 12. Daimler AG ( Freightliner Master Maybach Mercedes-Benz
Germany) Italy) France) Japan) France) Japan) Japan) United States)
Europe, South America, North Africa, Middle East Global, except North America, Japan and South Africa Global Global
Division Division
Global Global, except Mexico
Division Division
Global North America, Middle East, Japan, South Korea
Division Division
Global, except Japan, South America and Africa Global
Division Division
North America, China Global
Subsidiary Subsidiary
Global, except North America, South Asia Global, except North America, South Asia
Subsidiary Division
India, Middle East, South America Global
Subsidiary Division Subsidiary
Europe, Latin America, Africa, Asia, except Japan Global, except North America, South Korea South America, Asia, except Japan and China
Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary
Global Global, except North America Global Global Global, except North America and Japan Europe and Japan (except UK and Republic of Ireland) Global
Division Subsidiary Division Division
North America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand Pakistan Global Global
Automotive industry
5
Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Division Subsidiary Subsidiary
United States)
Mitsubishi Fuso Orion Setra Smart Thomas Built Western Star 13. Chrysler Group, LLC ( Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram 14. BMW AG ( BMW MINI Rolls-Royce 15. Mazda Motor Corporation ( Mazda 16. Mitsubishi Motors Corporation ( Mitsubishi 17. Chana Automobile Company, Ltd ( Chana 18. Tata Motors, Ltd ( Hispano Jaguar Land Rover Tata Tata Daewoo 19. First Automotive Group Corporation ( Besturn Freewind Haima Hongqi Jiaxing Vita Xiali 20. Geely Automobile ( Geely Maple Volvo (Cars)
India) Japan) Germany)
Global North America Europe North America, Europe, Japan, South East Asia, South Africa North America North America, Australia, New Zealand
Division Division Division Division
Global, UK and Republic of Ireland, except Europe Global, except Europe Global North America
Division Division Subsidiary
Global Global Global
Division
Japan)
Global
Division
Global
People's Republic of China)
Division
China, South Africa, Europe
Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Division Subsidiary
Europe Global Global Global, except North America South Korea
Division Subsidiary Subsidiary Division Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary

China China China China China China China
Division Division Subsidiary
China, Russia, North Africa China Global
Automotive industry
6
21. Chery Automobile Company, Ltd ( Chery Riich Rely 22. Fuji Heavy Industries, Ltd ( Subaru 23. Dongfeng Motor Corporation ( Dongfeng
Japan)
Division Division Division
China, Africa, South East Asia, Russia China China
Division
Global
Division
China
24. Beijing Automotive Industry Holding Corporation, Ltd ( BAW Foton 25. OAO AvtoVAZ ( Lada VAZ 26. BYD Auto ( BYD 27. Isuzu Motors, Ltd ( Isuzu
Japan) People's Republic of China) Russia)
Division Subsidiary
China China
Division Division
Global, except North America and Portugal Russia
Division
China, Russia
Division
Global, except North America
28. Anhui Jianghuai Automobile Company, Ltd ( JAC
Division
China
29. Brilliance China Automotive Holding, Ltd ( Brilliance Jinbei 30. Great Wall Motor Company, Ltd ( Great Wall Litex Motors
Division Subsidiary
China, North Africa China
Division Subsidiary
China, South Africa, Russia, North Africa, Australia Europe
31. Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation ( MG Motor Roewe Soyat Yuejin 32. Mahindra & Mahindra, Ltd ( Mahindra SsangYong** 33. Hafei Motor ( Hafei 34. AB Volvo ( Mack Nissan Diesel
Sweden) China) India)
Subsidiary Division Division Division
China, United Kingdom, Chile, Argentina China China China
Division Subsidiary
India, South East Asia, Europe, North Africa, North America Global
Subsidiary
China
Subsidiary Subsidiary
Global Global
Automotive industry
7
Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Division
China)
NovaBus Prevost Renault (trucks) Volvo (trucks) 35. Jiangxi Changhe Automobile ( Changhe 36. Qingling Motors Company Ltd. ( Qingling 37. Proton Holdings, Bhd ( Proton Lotus 38. Hunan Jiangnan Automobile ( Jiangnan 39. MAN SE ( MAN SE
Germany) Malaysia)
North America North America Global, except Japan Global
Division
China)
China
Division
China
Division Subsidiary
Asia Pacific (except Japan and South Africa), United Kingdom, Middle East Global
Division
China
Division
Europe
40. Chongqing Lifan Automobile Company, Ltd ( Lifan 41. Fujian Motor Industry Group Company ( Soueast 42. Kuozui Motors, Ltd ( Kuozui 43. Shandong Kaima ( Kaima Jubao Aofeng 44. Porsche ( Porsche
Germany) China) Taiwan)
Division
China
Division
China
Subsidiary
Taiwan
Division Division Division
China China China
Subsidiary
Global
45. Chenzhou Gonow Nanyan Chifeng Vehicle ( Gonow 46. Ziyang Nanjun Automobile Co., Ltd. ( Nanjun 47. Rongcheng Huatai Motor ( Huatai 48. Aston Martin ( Aston Martin
UK)
Division
China
Division
China
Division
China
Subsidiary
UK
Automotive industry
Notes
* Porsche Automobil Holding SE has a 50.7 percent share in the Volkswagen Group.[24] However, Volkswagen Group will acquire Porsche AG, the automotive manufacturer under a new "Integrated Automotive Group". This merger/acquisition is expected to be fully completed in mid-2011.[25] [26] ** SsangYong Motor Company was acquired by India's Mahindra & Mahindra Limited in February 2011.[27]
Minor automotive manufacturers

There are many automobile manufacturers other than the major global companies. They are mostly regional or operating in niche markets.
References
[1] Georgano, G. N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 18861930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985) [2] "U.S. Makes Ninety Percent of World's Automobiles" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FSgDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA84& dq=popular+ science+ 1930& hl=en& ei=VGmeTrjzHMfhsQLNr5H1CQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CEAQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage& q=popular science 1930& f=true) Popular Science Monthly, November 1929, p. 84. [3] "Production Statistics" (http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ ). OICA. . Retrieved 9 Seitember 2011. [4] "Automobile Industry Introduction" (http:/ / www. plunkettresearch. com/ Industries/ AutomobilesTrucks/ AutomobileTrends/ tabid/ 89/ Default. aspx). Plunkett Research. 2008. . Retrieved 2010-09-09. [5] Paul A. Eisenstein Building BRIC's: 4 Markets Could Soon Dominate the Auto World (http:/ / www. thedetroitbureau. com/ 2010/ 01/ building-brics-the-four-markets-that-could-soon-dominate-the-automotive-world/ ) at TheDetroitBureau.com [6] Bertel Schmitt (15 February 2011). "Auto industry sets new world record" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars. com/ 2011/ 02/ auto-industry-sets-new-world-record-in-2010-will-do-it-again-in-2011). The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved 7 August 2011. [7] "Global Automotive Outlook for 2011 Appears Positive as Mature Auto Markets Recover, Emerging Markets Continue to Expand" (http:/ / businesscenter. jdpower. com/ news/ pressrelease. aspx?ID=2011018). J.D. Power and Associates. 15 February 2011. . Retrieved 7 August 2011. [8] http:/ / oica. net/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2007/ 06/ cl98type. pdf [9] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 1999-statistics/ [10] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2000-statistics/ [11] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2001-statistics/ [12] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2002-statistics/ [13] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2003-statistics/ [14] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2004-statistics/ [15] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2005-statistics/ [16] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2006-statistics/ [17] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2007-statistics/ [18] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2008-statistics/ [19] http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ 2009-statistics [20] http:/ / www. oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ [21] "World Motor Vehicle Production: World Ranking of Manufacturers Year 2010" (http:/ / oica. net/ wp-content/ uploads/ ranking-2010. pdf) (PDF). OICA. . Retrieved 2011-08-12. [22] "GM Slips to Number Two Worldwide, Ford to Fourth" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars. com/ gm-slips-to-number-two-worldwide-ford-to-fourth/ ). The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [23] "TTAC Announces World's Top Ten Automakers" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars. com/ ttac-announces-worlds-top-ten-automakers/ ). The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved 2010-06-12. [24] "Volkswagen Group - Shareholder Structure" (http:/ / www. volkswagenag. com/ vwag/ vwcorp/ content/ en/ investor_relations/ share/ Shareholder_Structure. html). Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft. VolkswagenAG.com. . Retrieved 22 December 2009. [25] "Porsche Supervisory Board agrees on the contracts of implementation" (http:/ / www. porsche-se. com/ pho/ en/ news/ ?pool=pho& id=2009-11-20) (Press release). Porsche Automobil Holding SE, Stuttgart. 20 November 2009. . Retrieved 22 November 2009. [26] "Volkswagen Supervisory Board approves Comprehensive Agreement for an Integrated Automotive Group with Porsche" (http:/ / www. volkswagenag. com/ vwag/ vwcorp/ info_center/ en/ news/ 2009/ 08/ Volkswagen_Aufsichtsrat_stimmt_Grundlagenvereinbarung_fuer. html) (Press release). Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft. 13 August 2009. . Retrieved 22 November 2009. [27] Nandini Sen Gupta, TNN, Feb 16, 2011, 12.56am IST (2011-02-16). "M&M seals $470m Ssangyong deal - The Times of India" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ business/ india-business/ MM-seals-470m-Ssangyong-deal/ articleshow/ 7505113. cms). Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-25.
Automotive industry
External links
Market Share Auto (http://www.utelio.it/market-share-auto.php) Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers (http://www.autoalliance.org) All vehicle manufacturers in the world (in Dutch with English etc. translation) (http://www.deautogids.nl/auto/ landenlijst.asp) Car makes of the world, 1894present (http://members.chello.nl/j.baartse/cars/) Automaker Rankings 2007: The Environmental Performance of Car Companies (http://www.ucsusa.org/ clean_vehicles/vehicles_health/automaker-rankings-2007.html)
10
Types of vehicles
Automobile
Automobile
Benz "Velo" model (1894) entered into an early automobile race as a motocycle Classification Industry Application Fuel Source Powered Self-Propelled Wheels Axles Inventor Vehicle Various Conveyance Gasoline, Diesel, Electric Yes Yes 34 02 Ferdinand Verbiest
[1] [2]
An automobile, autocar, motor car or car is a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor. Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles are designed to run primarily on roads, to have seating for one to eight people, to typically have four wheels, and to be constructed principally for the transport of people rather than goods.[3]
Passenger cars in 2000
The term motorcar has also been used in the context of electrified rail systems to denote a car which functions as a small locomotive but also provides space for passengers and baggage. These locomotive cars were often used on suburban routes by both interurban and intercity railroad systems.[4]
Automobile
11
There are approximately 600 million passenger cars worldwide (roughly one car per eleven people).[5] [6] Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; the engines of these burn over a billion cubic meters (260 billion US gallons) of petrol/gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India.[7]
World map of passenger cars per 1000 people
Etymology
The word automobile comes, via the French automobile, from the Ancient Greek word (auts, "self") and the Latin mobilis ("movable"); meaning a vehicle that moves itself. The alternative name car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum ("wheeled vehicle"), or the Middle English word carre ("cart") (from Old North French), in turn these are said to have originated from the Gaulish word karros (a Gallic Chariot).[8] [9]
History
The first working steam-powered vehicle was probably designed by Ferdinand Verbiest, a Flemish member of a Jesuit mission in China around 1672. It was a 65cm-long scale-model toy for the Chinese Emperor, that was unable to carry a driver or a passenger.[10] [11] [12] It is not known if Verbiest's model was ever built.[11] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is widely credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in about 1769; he created a steam-powered tricycle.[13] He also constructed two steam tractors for the French Army, one of which is preserved in the French National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts.[14] His inventions were however handicapped by problems with water supply and maintaining steam pressure.[14] In 1801, Richard Trevithick built and demonstrated his Puffing Devil road locomotive, believed by many to be the first demonstration of a steam-powered road vehicle. It was unable to maintain sufficient steam pressure for long periods, and was of little practical use. In 1807 Nicphore Nipce and his brother Claude probably created the world's first internal combustion engine which they called a Pyrolophore, but they chose to install it in a boat on the river Saone in France.[15] Coincidentally, in 1807 the Swiss inventor Franois Isaac de Rivaz designed his own 'de Rivaz internal combustion engine' and used it to develop the world's first vehicle, to be powered by such an engine. The Nipces' Pyrolophore was fuelled by a mixture of Lycopodium powder (dried Lycopodium moss), finely crushed coal dust and resin that were mixed with oil, whereas de Rivaz used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.[15] Neither design was very successful, as was the case with others, such as Samuel Brown, Samuel Morey, and Etienne Lenoir with his hippomobile, who each produced vehicles (usually adapted carriages or carts) powered by clumsy internal combustion engines.[16] In November 1881, French inventor Gustave Trouv demonstrated a working three-wheeled automobile powered by electricity at the International Exposition of Electricity, Paris.[17]
Automobile
12 Although several other German engineers (including Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach, and Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about the same time, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged as the inventor of the modern automobile.[16] An automobile powered by his own four-stroke cycle gasoline engine was built in Mannheim, Germany by Karl Benz in 1885, and granted a patent in January of the following year under the auspices of his major company, Benz & Cie., which was founded in 1883. It was an integral design, without the adaptation of other existing components, and included several new technological elements to create a new concept. He began to sell his production vehicles in 1888.
Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern automobile
In 1879, Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which had been designed in 1878. Many of his other inventions made the use of the internal combustion engine feasible for powering a vehicle. His first Motorwagen was built in 1885, and he was awarded the patent for its invention as of his application on January 29, 1886. Benz began promotion of the vehicle on July 3, 1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were sold between 1888 and 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model intended for affordability. They also were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz automobile to his line of products. Because France was more open to the early automobiles, initially more were built and sold in France through Roger than Benz sold in Germany.
A photograph of the original Benz Patent-Motorwagen, first built in 1885 and awarded the patent for the concept
In August 1888 Bertha Benz, the wife of Karl Benz, undertook the first road trip by car, to prove the road-worthiness of her husband's invention. In 1896, Benz designed and patented the first internal-combustion flat engine, called boxermotor. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899 and, because of its size, Benz & Cie., became a joint-stock company. Daimler and Maybach founded Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Cannstatt in 1890, and sold their first automobile in 1892 under the brand name, Daimler. It was a horse-drawn stagecoach built by another manufacturer, that they retrofitted with an engine of their design. By 1895 about 30 vehicles had been built by Daimler and Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Bertha Benz, the first long distance Hermann, where they set up shop after disputes with their backers. Benz, automobile driver in the world Maybach and the Daimler team seem to have been unaware of each others' early work. They never worked together; by the time of the merger of the two companies, Daimler and Maybach were no longer part of DMG. Daimler died in 1900 and later that year, Maybach designed an engine named Daimler-Mercedes, that was placed in a specially ordered model built to specifications set by Emil Jellinek. This was a production of a small number of
Automobile vehicles for Jellinek to race and market in his country. Two years later, in 1902, a new model DMG automobile was produced and the model was named Mercedes after the Maybach engine which generated 35hp. Maybach quit DMG shortly thereafter and opened a business of his own. Rights to the Daimler brand name were sold to other manufacturers. Karl Benz proposed co-operation between DMG and Benz & Cie. when economic conditions began to deteriorate in Germany following the First World War, but the directors of DMG refused to consider it initially. Negotiations between the two companies resumed several years later when these conditions worsened and, in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest, valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, and sales and they advertised or marketed their automobile models jointly, although keeping their respective brands. On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its automobiles Mercedes Benz, as a brand honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the Maybach design later referred to as the 1902 Mercedes-35hp, along with the Benz name. Karl Benz remained a member of the board of directors of Daimler-Benz until his death in 1929, and at times, his two sons participated in the management of the company as well. In 1890, mile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the automobile industry in France. The first design for an American automobile with a gasoline internal combustion engine was made in 1877 by George Selden of Rochester, New York. Selden applied for a patent for an automobile in 1879, but the patent application expired because the vehicle was never built. After a delay of sixteen years and a series of attachments to his application, on November 5, 1895, Selden was granted a United States patent (U.S. Patent 549160 [18]) for a two-stroke automobile engine, which hindered, more than encouraged, development of automobiles in the United States. His patent was challenged by Henry Ford and others, and overturned in 1911. In 1893, the first running, gasoline-powered American car was built and road-tested by the Duryea brothers of Springfield, Massachusetts. The first public run of the Duryea Motor Wagon took place on September 21, 1893, on Taylor Street in Metro Center Springfield.[19] [20] To construct the Duryea Motor Wagon, the brothers had purchased a used horse-drawn buggy for $70 and then installed a 4 HP, single cylinder gasoline engine.[19] The car had a friction transmission, spray carburetor, and low tension ignition. It was road-tested again on November 10, when the The Springfield Republican newspaper made the announcement.[19] This particular car was put into storage in 1894 and stayed there until 1920 when it was rescued by Inglis M. Uppercu and presented to the United States National Museum.[19] In Britain, there had been several attempts to build steam cars with varying degrees of success, with Thomas Rickett even attempting a production run in 1860.[21] Santler from Malvern is recognized by the Veteran Car Club of Great Britain as having made the first petrol-powered car in the country in 1894[22] followed by Frederick William Lanchester in 1895, but these were both one-offs.[22] The first production vehicles in Great Britain came from the Daimler Motor Company, a company founded by Harry J. Lawson in 1896, after purchasing the right to use the name of the engines. Lawson's company made its first automobiles in 1897, and they bore the name Daimler.[22] In 1892, German engineer Rudolf Diesel was granted a patent for a "New Rational Combustion Engine". In 1897, he built the first Diesel Engine.[16] Steam-, electric-, and gasoline-powered vehicles competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. Although various pistonless rotary engine designs have attempted to compete with the conventional piston and crankshaft design, only Mazda's version of the Wankel engine has had more than very limited success.
13
Automobile
14
Mass production
The large-scale, production-line manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by Ransom Olds at his Oldsmobile factory in 1902 based on the assembly line techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills, England in 1802. The assembly line style of mass production and interchangeable parts had been pioneered in the U.S. by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts.[23] This concept was greatly expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in 1914. As a result, Ford's cars came off the line in fifteen minute intervals, Ransom E. Olds much faster than previous methods, increasing productivity eightfold (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.[24] It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only Japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. This is the source of Ford's apocryphal remark, "any color as long as it's black".[24] In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.[24] Ford's complex safety proceduresespecially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam aboutdramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism," and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the economic rise of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods. In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide seeing the founding of Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt the production method. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke; by 1930, 250 companies which did not, had disappeared.[24]
Portrait of Henry Ford (ca. 1919)
Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric ignition and the electric self-starter (both by Charles Kettering, for the Cadillac Motor Company in 19101911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes. Since the 1920s, nearly all cars have been mass-produced to meet market needs, so marketing plans often have heavily influenced automobile design. It was Alfred P. Sloan who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one company, so buyers could "move up" as their fortunes improved. Reflecting the rapid pace of change, makes shared parts with one another so larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1930s, LaSalles, sold by Cadillac, used cheaper mechanical parts made by Oldsmobile; in the 1950s, Chevrolet shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with Pontiac; by the 1990s, corporate powertrains and shared platforms (with interchangeable brakes, suspension, and other parts) were common. Even
Ford Model T, 1927, regarded as the first affordable American automobile
Automobile so, only major makers could afford high costs, and even companies with decades of production, such as Apperson, Cole, Dorris, Haynes, or Premier, could not manage: of some two hundred American car makers in existence in 1920, only 43 survived in 1930, and with the Great Depression, by 1940, only 17 of those were left.[24] In Europe much the same would happen. Morris set up its production line at Cowley in 1924, and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in 1923 to follow Ford's practise of vertical integration, buying Hotchkiss (engines), Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators), for instance, as well as competitors, such as Wolseley: in 1925, Morris had 41% of total British car production. Most British small-car assemblers, from Abbey to Xtra had gone under. Citroen did the same in France, coming to cars in 1919; between them and other cheap cars in reply such as Renault's 10CV and Peugeot's 5CV, they produced 550,000 cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu, and others could not compete.[24] Germany's first mass-manufactured car, the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line at Russelsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top car builder in Germany, with 37.5% of the market.[24]
15
Weight
The weight of a car influences fuel consumption and performance, with more weight resulting in increased fuel consumption and decreased performance. According to a research conducted by Julian Allwood of the University of Cambridge, global energy use could be heavily reduced by using lighter cars, and an average weight of 500kg has been said to be well achievable.[25] In some competitions such as the Shell Eco Marathon, average car weights of 45kg have also been achieved.[26] [27] These cars are only single-seaters (still falling within the definition of a car, although 4-seater cars are more common), but it nevertheless demonstrates the huge degree in which car weights can still be reduced, and the forthfluing lower fuel use (i.e. up to a fuel use of 2560km/l.[28]
Seating
Most cars are 4-seaters built using a 2 by 2 arrangement, also known as "mainstream". Other setups 2-seaters built using a 1 by 1 arrangement and single-seater cars. In the beginning, 4-seaters have been the most popular type of car, mostly due to the fact that the setup was similar to that of carriages. They have remained the most popular setup for cars upto today.
Fuel and propulsion technologies

Most automobiles in use today are propelled by a internal combustion engine, fueled by deflagration of gasoline (also known as petrol) or diesel. Both fuels are known to cause air pollution and are also blamed for contributing to climate change and global warming.[29] Rapidly increasing oil prices, concerns about oil dependence, tightening environmental laws and restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions are propelling work on alternative power systems for automobiles. Efforts The Nissan Leaf is an all-electric car launched in December 2010 to improve or replace existing technologies include the development of hybrid vehicles, plug-in electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries.
Automobile
16
Safety
While road traffic injuries represent the leading cause in worldwide injury-related deaths,[30] their popularity undermines this statistic. Mary Ward became one of the first documented automobile fatalities in 1869 in Parsonstown, Ireland[31] and Henry Bliss one of the United States' first pedestrian automobile casualties in 1899 in New York.[32] There are now standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the EuroNCAP and the US NCAP tests,[33] and insurance industry-backed tests by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS).[34]
Result of a serious automobile accident
Costs and benefits

Further information: Automotive industry The costs of automobile usage, which may include the cost of: acquiring the vehicle, repairs, maintenance, fuel, depreciation, injury, driving time, parking fees, tire replacement, taxes, and insurance,[35] are weighed against the cost of the alternatives, and the value of the benefits perceived and real of vehicle usage. The benefits may include on-demand transportation, mobility, independence and convenience.[12] Similarly the costs to society of encompassing automobile use, which may include those of: maintaining roads, land use, pollution, public health, health care, and of disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life, can be balanced against the value of the benefits to society that automobile use generates. The societal benefits may include: economy benefits, such as job and wealth creation, of automobile production and maintenance, transportation provision, society wellbeing derived from leisure and travel opportunities, and revenue generation from the tax opportunities. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far reaching implications for the nature of societies.[36]
Criticism
Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution in most industrialised nations. According to the American Surface Transportation Policy Project nearly half of all Americans are breathing unhealthy air. Their study showed air quality in dozens of metropolitan areas has worsened over the last decade.[37] In the United States the average passenger car emits 11450 pounds (5190kg) of the greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide annually, along with smaller amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen.[38] Animals and plants are often negatively impacted by automobiles via habitat destruction and pollution. Over the lifetime of the average automobile the "loss of habitat potential" may be over 50000 square meters ( sqft) based on primary production correlations.[39] Fuel taxes may act as an incentive for the production of more efficient, hence less polluting, car designs (e.g. hybrid vehicles) and the development of alternative fuels. High fuel taxes may provide a strong incentive for consumers to purchase lighter, smaller, more fuel-efficient cars, or to not drive. On average, today's automobiles are about 75 percent recyclable, and using recycled steel helps reduce energy use and pollution.[40] In the United States Congress, federally mandated fuel efficiency standards have been debated regularly, passenger car standards have not risen above the 27.5miles per US gallon (8.55L/100km; 33.0mpg-imp) standard set in 1985. Light truck standards have changed more frequently, and were set at 22.2miles per US gallon (10.6L/100km; 26.7mpg-imp) in 2007.[41] Alternative fuel vehicles are another option that is less polluting than conventional petroleum powered vehicles. Residents of low-density, residential-only sprawling communities are also more likely to die in car collisions which kill 1.2 million people worldwide each year, and injure about forty times this number.[30] Sprawl is more broadly a factor in inactivity and obesity, which in turn can lead to increased risk of a variety of diseases.[42]
Automobile Millions of animals are also killed every year on roads by automobilesso-called Roadkill.
17
Driverless cars
Fully autonomous vehicles, also known as robotic cars, or driverless cars, already exist in prototype, and are expected to be commercially available around 2020. According to urban designer and futurist Michael E. Arth, driverless electric vehiclesin conjunction with the increased use of virtual reality for work, travel, and pleasurecould reduce the world's 800 million vehicles to a fraction of that number within a few decades.[43] This would be possible if almost all private cars requiring drivers, which are not in use and parked 90% of the time, would be traded for public self-driving taxis that would be in near A robotic Volkswagen Passat shown at Stanford constant use. This would also allow for getting the appropriate vehicle University is a driverless car for the particular needa bus could come for a group of people, a limousine could come for a special night out, and a Segway could come for a short trip down the street for one person. Children could be chauffeured in supervised safety, DUIs would no longer exist, and 41,000 lives could be saved each year in the US alone.[44] [45]
Future car technologies

Automobile propulsion technology under development include gasoline/electric and plug-in hybrids, battery electric vehicles, hydrogen cars, biofuels, and various alternative fuels. Research into future alternative forms of power include the development of fuel cells, Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI), stirling engines,[46] and even using the stored energy of compressed air or liquid nitrogen. New materials which may replace steel car bodies include duraluminum, fiberglass, carbon fiber, and carbon nanotubes. Telematics technology is allowing more and more people to share cars, on a pay-as-you-go basis, through such schemes as City Car Club in the UK, Mobility in mainland Europe, and Zipcar in the US. Communication is also evolving due to connected car systems.
Open source development

There have been several projects aiming to develop a car on the principles of open design. The projects include OScar, Riversimple (through 40fires.org)[47] and c,mm,n.[48] None of the projects have reached significant success in terms of developing a car as a whole both from hardware and software perspective and no mass production ready open-source based design have been introduced as of late 2009. Some car hacking through on-board diagnostics (OBD) has been done so far.[49]
Alternatives to the automobile

Established alternatives for some aspects of automobile use include public transit such as buses, trolleybuses, trains, subways, tramways light rail, cycling, and walking. Car-share arrangements and carpooling are also increasingly popularthe US market leader in car-sharing has experienced double-digit growth in revenue and membership growth between 2006 and 2007, offering a service that enables urban residents to "share" a vehicle rather than own a car in already congested neighborhoods.[50] Bike-share systems have been tried in some European cities, including Copenhagen and Amsterdam. Similar programs have been experimented with in a number of US Cities.[51]
Automobile Additional individual modes of transport, such as personal rapid transit could serve as an alternative to automobiles if they prove to be socially accepted.[52]
18
Industry
The automotive industry designs, develops, manufactures, markets, and sells the world's motor vehicles. In 2008, more than 70 million motor vehicles, including cars and commercial vehicles were produced worldwide.[53] In 2007, a total of 71.9 million new automobiles were sold worldwide: 22.9 million in Europe, 21.4 million in Asia-Pacific, 19.4 million in USA and Canada, 4.4 million in Latin America, 2.4 million in the Middle East and 1.4 million in Africa.[54] The markets in North America and Japan were stagnant, while those in South America and other parts of Asia grew strongly. Of the major markets, China, Russia, Brazil and India saw the most rapid growth. About 250 million vehicles are in use in the United States. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007; they burn over 260 billion US gallons ( m3) of gasoline and diesel fuel yearly. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China and India.[7] In the opinion of some, urban transport systems based around the car have proved unsustainable, consuming excessive energy, affecting the health of populations, and delivering a declining level of service despite increasing investments. Many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[55] [56] [57] The sustainable transport movement focuses on solutions to these problems. In 2008, with rapidly rising oil prices, industries such as the automotive industry, are experiencing a combination of pricing pressures from raw material costs and changes in consumer buying habits. The industry is also facing increasing external competition from the public transport sector, as consumers re-evaluate their private vehicle usage.[58] Roughly half of the US's fifty-one light vehicle plants are projected to permanently close in the coming years, with the loss of another 200,000 jobs in the sector, on top of the 560,000 jobs lost this decade.[59] Combined with robust growth in China, in 2009, this resulted in China becoming the largest automobile producer and market in the world. China 2009 sales had increased to 13.6 million, a significant increase from one million of domestic car sales in 2000.[60]
Market
The automotive market is formed by the demand and the industry. This article is about the general, major trends in the automotive market, mainly from the demand side. The European automotive market has always boasted a higher number of smaller cars than the United States. With the high fuel prices and the world petroleum crisis, the United States may see its automotive market become more like the European market with fewer large vehicles on the road and more small cars.[61] For luxurious cars, with the current volatility in oil prices, going for smaller cars is not only smart, but also trendy. And because fashion is of high importance with the upper classes, the little green cars with luxury trimmings become quite plausible.[62]
Automobile
19
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] The Motocycle / Automobile (magazine), November Vol 1, No. 2, 1895, pp. 16-45 The Mercedes-Benz book by Victor Boesen, Doubleday 1981, p. 22, ISBN 0385125542 compiled by F.G. Fowler and H.W. Fowler. (1976). Pocket Oxford Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-861113-7. "atchison_177" (http:/ / www. laparks. org/ grifmet/ tt/ htmgallery/ gallery_urbans/ atchison177. htm). Laparks.org. . Retrieved 2011-02-13. "WorldMapper passenger cars" (http:/ / www. sasi. group. shef. ac. uk/ worldmapper/ display. php?selected=31). . "Cars produced in the world" (http:/ / www. worldometers. info/ cars/ ). Worldometers.info. 2007-12-19. . Retrieved 2010-07-11. Plunkett Research, "Automobile Industry Introduction" (2008) (http:/ / www. plunkettresearch. com/ Industries/ AutomobilesTrucks/ AutomobileTrends/ tabid/ 89/ Default. aspx) [8] "Car" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=car). (etymology). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved 2008-06-02. [9] 'Car' derived from 'carrus' (http:/ / www. lib. wayne. edu/ resources/ special_collections/ local/ cfai/ index. php) [10] "1679-1681R P Verbiest's Steam Chariot" (http:/ / translate. google. com/ translate?hl=en& sl=fr& u=http:/ / users. skynet. be/ tintinpassion/ VOIRSAVOIR/ Auto/ Pages_auto/ Auto_001. html& sa=X& oi=translate). History of the Automobile: origin to 1900. Herg. . Retrieved 2009-05-08. [11] "A brief note on Ferdinand Verbiest" (http:/ / curiousexpeditions. org/ ?p=52). Curious Expeditions. 2 July 2007. . Retrieved 2008-03-18. Note that the vehicle pictured is the 20th century diecast model made by Brumm, of a later vehicle, not a model based on Verbiest's plans. [12] Setright, L. J. K. (2004). Drive On!: A Social History of the Motor Car. Granta Books. ISBN1-86207-698-7. [13] Encyclopaedia Britannica "Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 145966/ Nicolas-Joseph-Cugnot). . [14] Encyclopaedia Britannica [15] speos.fr. "Niepce Museum, Other Inventions" (http:/ / niepce. house. museum/ pagus/ pagus-other. html). Niepce.house.museum. . Retrieved 2010-08-26. [16] Ralph Stein (1967). The Automobile Book. Paul Hamlyn Ltd. [17] Wakefield, Ernest H. (1994). History of the Electric Automobile. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.. pp.23. ISBN1-56091-299-5. [18] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=549160 [19] "The First Car - A History of the Automobile" (http:/ / www. ausbcomp. com/ ~bbott/ cars/ carhist. htm). Ausbcomp.com. . Retrieved 2011-07-17. [20] "The Duryea Brothers - Automobile History" (http:/ / inventors. about. com/ od/ dstartinventors/ a/ DuryeaBrothers. htm). Inventors.about.com. 2010-09-16. . Retrieved 2011-07-17. [21] Burgess Wise, D. (1970). Veteran and Vintage Cars. London: Hamlyn. ISBN0-600-00283-7. [22] Georgano, N. (2000). Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile. London: HMSO. ISBN1-57958-293-1. [23] "Industrialization of American Society" (http:/ / www. engr. sjsu. edu/ pabacker/ industrial. htm). Engr.sjsu.edu. . Retrieved 2011-07-17. [24] Georgano, G. N. (2000). Vintage Cars 1886 to 1930. Sweden: AB Nordbok. ISBN1-85501-926-4. [25] "Possible global energy reducstion" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn20037-efficiency-could-cut-world-energy-use-over-70-per-cent. html). Newscientist.com. . Retrieved 2011-07-17. [26] "45 kg as average car weight in Shell Eco-Marathon" (http:/ / wn. com/ Eco-Marathon). Wn.com. . Retrieved 2011-07-17. [27] Shell Eco-Marathon car weight (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ . . . / 110418-pictures-shell-ecomarathon-2011/ ) [28] mindfully.org. "Andy Green's 8000 mile/gallon car" (http:/ / www. mindfully. org/ Energy/ 2006/ Andy-Green-TeamGreen13may06. htm). Mindfully.org. . Retrieved 2011-07-17. [29] "Global Climate Change" (http:/ / www. fueleconomy. gov/ feg/ climate. shtml). U.S. Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2007-03-03. [30] Peden M, Scurfield R, Sleet D et al. (eds.) (2004). World report on road traffic injury prevention (http:/ / who. int/ violence_injury_prevention/ publications/ road_traffic/ world_report/ en/ ). World Health Organization. ISBN92-4-156260-9. . Retrieved 2008-06-24. [31] "Mary Ward 18271869" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080311122721/ http:/ / www. universityscience. ie/ pages/ scientists/ sci_mary_ward. php). Universityscience.ie. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. universityscience. ie/ pages/ scientists/ sci_mary_ward. php) on 2008-03-11. . Retrieved 2008-10-27. [32] "CityStreets Bliss plaque" (http:/ / www. citystreets. org/ plaque. html). . [33] "SaferCar.gov NHTSA" (http:/ / www. nhtsa. dot. gov/ cars/ testing/ ncap/ ). . [34] "Insurance Institute for Highway Safety" (http:/ / www. hwysafety. org/ ). . [35] "Car Operating Costs" (http:/ / www. racv. com. au/ wps/ wcm/ connect/ racv/ Internet/ Primary/ my+ car/ advice+ _+ information/ vehicle+ operating+ costs/ ). my car. RACV. . Retrieved 2009-12-22. [36] John A. Jakle, Keith A. Sculle. (2004). Lots of Parking: Land Use in a Car Culture. Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press. ISBN0813922666. [37] "Clearing the Air" (http:/ / www. transact. org/ report. asp?id=227). The Surface Transportation Policy Project. 2003-08-19. . Retrieved 2007-04-26. [38] "Emission Facts" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ otaq/ consumer/ f00013. htm). United States Environmental Protection Agency. May 2000. . Retrieved 2011-01-10. [39] Ball, Jeffrey (2009-03-09). "Six Products, Six Carbon Footprints" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB122304950601802565. html). Wall Street Journal. . Retrieved 2011-01-10.
Automobile
[40] "Automobiles and the Environment" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080214145812/ http:/ / www. greenercars. com/ autoenviron. html). Greenercars.com. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. greenercars. com/ autoenviron. html) on 2008-02-14. . [41] "CAFE Overview Frequently Asked Questions" (http:/ / www. nhtsa. dot. gov/ cars/ rules/ cafe/ overview. htm). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. . [42] "Our Ailing Communities" (http:/ / www. metropolismag. com/ cda/ story. php?artid=2353). Metropolis Magazine. . [43] Oliver, Rachel (2007-09-16). "Rachel Oliver "All About: hydrid transportation"" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2007/ BUSINESS/ 09/ 14/ allabout. hybrid/ ). CNN. . Retrieved 2009-03-05. [44] Arth, Michael (Spring 2008). "New Pedestrianism: A Bridge to the Future" (http:/ / www. carbusters. org/ magazine/ 33/ feature3. html). Carbusters Magazine. . Retrieved 2009-03-06. [45] Birch, Alex (2008-05-23). "Most Cars Can be Eliminated in 20 Years says Urban Designer Michael E. Arth" (http:/ / www. corrupt. org/ news/ most_cars_can_be_eliminated_in_20_years_says_urban_designer_michael_e_arth). Corrupt.org. . Retrieved 2009-03-06. [46] Paul Werbos. "Who Killed the Electric car? My review" (http:/ / www. werbos. com/ E/ WhoKilledElecPJW. htm). . Retrieved 2007-04-10. [47] "FortyFires: Main" (http:/ / 40fires. org/ ). 40fires.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-11. [48] "open source mobility: home" (http:/ / www. cmmn. org/ nc/ en/ home. html). c,mm,n. . Retrieved 2010-07-11. [49] "Geek My Ride presentation at linux.conf.au 2009" (http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=-6306814203245314335). Video.google.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-11. [50] "Flexcar Expands to Philadelphia" (http:/ / www. greencarcongress. com/ 2007/ 04/ flexcar_expands. html). Green Car Congress. 2007-04-02. . [51] "About Bike Share Programs" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071220235050/ http:/ / web. mit. edu/ dzshen/ www/ about. shtml). Tech Bikes MIT. Archived from the original (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ dzshen/ www/ about. shtml) on 2007-12-20. . [52] Jane Holtz Kay (1998). Asphalt Nation: how the automobile took over America, and how we can take it back. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. ISBN0520216202. [53] "World Motor Vehicle Production by Country: 20072008" (http:/ / oica. net/ category/ production-statistics/ ). OICA. . [54] "2008 Global Market Data Book", Automotive News, p.5 [55] Kenworthy, J R (2004). "Transport Energy Use and Greenhouse Emissions in Urban Passenger Transport Systems" (http:/ / cst. uwinnipeg. ca/ documents/ Transport_Greenhouse. pdf) (PDF). Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy. . Retrieved 2008-07-22. [56] World Health Organisation, Europe. "Health effects of transport" (http:/ / www. euro. who. int/ transport/ hia/ 20021009_2). . Retrieved 2008-08-29. [57] Social Exclusion Unit, Office of the Prime Minister (UK). "The Connections final report on transport and social exclusion" (http:/ / www. carplus. org. uk/ Resources/ pdf/ Making_the_Connections_Final_Report_on_Transport_and_Social_Exclusion. pdf). . Retrieved 2003-02-01. [58] IBISWorld Newsletter, June 2008, GLOBAL TRENDS Oil The Crude Reality of Current trends (http:/ / www. ibisworld. com/ newsletter/ issues/ us/ 08jun/ news. htm:), IBISWorld [59] Jeff Rubin (2009-03-02). "Wrong Turn" (http:/ / research. cibcwm. com/ economic_public/ download/ sfeb09. pdf) (PDF). CIBC World Markets. . [60] "Indonesia: Towards a one trillion dollar economy" (http:/ / www. thejakartapost. com/ news/ 2011/ 05/ 09/ indonesia-towards-a-one-trillion-dollar-economy. html). The Jakarta Post. . Retrieved 2011-07-17. [61] Article Detail (http:/ / www. sema. org/ Main/ ArticleDetail. aspx?fc_c=1123885x2468667x66059664& contentID=59806) [62] "Rendered Speculation: Audi EV" (http:/ / www. worldcarfans. com/ 9080923. 006/ rendered-speculation-audi-ev). Worldcarfans. . Retrieved 2009-07-25.
20
Further reading
Halberstam, David, The Reckoning, New York, Morrow, 1986. ISBN 0688048382 Kay, Jane Holtz, Asphalt nation : how the automobile took over America, and how we can take it back, New York, Crown, 1997. ISBN 0517587025 Heathcote Williams, Autogeddon, New York, Arcade, 1991. ISBN 1559701765 Wolfgang Sachs: For love of the automobile: looking back into the history of our desires, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992, ISBN 0520068785
Automobile
21
External links
Fdration Internationale de l'Automobile (http://www.fia.com/) Forum for the Automobile and Society (http://www.autoandsociety.com/)
Sedan (automobile)
A sedan (American English, Canadian English; /sdn/) or saloon car (British English, Irish English, New Zealand English) is a passenger car in a three-box configuration with A, B & C-pillars and principal volumes articulated in separate compartments for engine, passenger and cargo.[1] The passenger compartment features two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the rear compartment for adult passengers. The cargo compartment is typically in the rear, with the exception of some rear-engined models, such as the Renault Dauphine, Tatra T613, Volkswagen Type 3 and Chevrolet Corvair. It is one of the most common car body styles.
Types of sedans
Several versions of the body style exist, including four-door, two-door, and fastback variants of both. A sedan seats four or more people and has a fixed roof that is full-height up to the rear window. The roof structure will typically have a fixed B-pillar on sedan models. Most commonly it is a four-door; two-door models are rare, but they do occur (more so historically). In the U.S., the term sedan has been used to denote a car with fixed window frames, as opposed to the hardtop style without a "B" pillar and where the sash, if any, winds down with the glass. However, true hardtops have become increasingly rare. Four-door sedans can have either two or three side windows: One in each door (vent windows not counted), and the possible third integrated in the "C"-pillar.
Typical pillar configurations of a sedan (three box), station wagon (two box) and hatchback (two box) from the same model range.
Diagram of a sedan (three box) over a station wagon (two box) from the same model range.
Notchback sedans
A notchback sedan is a three-box sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle (when seen from the side). The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the rear window at a sharp angle to the roof, and the trunk lid is also parallel to the ground.
1962 Chevrolet Impala, a typical notchback sedan
Sedan (automobile)
22
Fastback sedans
A fastback sedan is a two-box sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid, but excludes the hatchback feature. Marketing terminology is often misleading in this area - for example, Daimler AG calls the Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class sedan a four-door coup because its semi-fastback design tries to give the impression of a coup. Certain sedans are edging close to being one-box vehicles, where the windshield is steeply raked from the hood/bonnet and the rear window slopes toward almost the end of the car, leaving just a short rear deck that is part of the trunk lid - the 2006 4-door JDM 1941 Plymouth fastback sedan Honda Civic is an example of this. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck. Their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their rear ends are tall sometimes in a Kammback style - to increase trunk space. Typically this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages. Automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form.
Two-door sedans
The Society of Automotive Engineers defines such a vehicle as any two-door model with rear accommodation greater than or equal to 33 cubic feet (930L) in volume (a calculation made by adding the legroom, shoulder room, and headroom). By this standard, the Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Ferrari 612 Scaglietti, and Mercedes-Benz CL-Class coups are all two-door sedans. Only a few sources, however (including the magazine Car and Driver), use the two-door sedan label in this manner. In the popular vernacular, a two-door sedan is defined by appearance Opel Kadett B two-door sedan and not by volume; vehicles with a B-pillar between the front and rear windows are generally called two-door sedans, while hardtops (without the pillar, and often incorporating a sloping backlight) are called coups. The Mazda RX-8 meets the volume requirement to be called a sedan, but it has vestigial rear-hinged rear doors, so some call it 2+2-door sedan. Another term for a coup endowed with rear-hinged doors is a "quad coup." However, this may simply be vernacular, based on a possible copyright by General Motors, for its Saturn Ion Quad-Coupe.
Hardtop sedans
In historic terminology a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, while the hardtop has frameless door glass. A true hardtop sedan design also has no "B" pillar (the roof support behind the front doors). This body style has an open feel, but requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately (i.e., a vehicle can be simply called a four-door hardtop), or it can be called a hardtop sedan. During the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by American
1958 AMC Ambassador hardtop sedan
Sedan (automobile) manufacturers and were among the top selling body styles. During the 1980s, automakers in the U.S. focused on removing weight and increasing strength, and their new four-door sedans with B-pillars were called pillared hardtops or pillared sedans. The sport sedan term has since been appropriated for other uses. In Japan, and among Japanese manufacturers worldwide, the hardtop design was popular among luxury sedans throughout the 1990s.
23
Hatchback sedans
Hatchback (a.k.a. liftback) sedans typically have the fastback profile, but instead of a trunk lid, the entire back of the vehicle lifts up (using a liftgate or hatch). A vehicle with four passenger doors and a liftgate at the rear can be called a four-door hatchback, four-door hatchback sedan, or five-door sedan. An example of such is the Chevrolet Malibu Maxx and Audi A5 Sportback. There can also be two-door hatchback sedans (three-door sedans), by the same technical explanation for two-door sedans. Examples of this design are the Volkswagen Golf, and Chevrolet Chevette.
Chevy Malibu Maxx hatchback sedan
Chauffeured sedans
Strictly speaking limousine sedans have a separate compartment for the driver and the passenger compartment is long enough to contain at least two comfortable, forward-facing bench seats. Vehicles used for these means are usually Lincoln Town Car, Cadillac, Mercedes, or Rolls-Royce or Maybach for the more wealthy. The term limousine can refer to a large sedan, especially if hired from a service. Chauffeured limousines are primarily used by individuals for weddings, businesses for meetings, as well as for airport and sightseeing transportation. The Lincoln Town Car is often used as a chauffeured car in the U.S. Chauffeurs are professional drivers, usually with experience in the transportation industry or tourism industry. Chauffeured sedans are owned either by private owners, livery services, or corporations. Large corporations as well as governments commonly provide luxury sedans to top executives, as well as VIP guests. Chauffeured sedans, such as the Lincoln Town Car, may also be stretched into limousines that are capable of seating up to twenty people.
Terminology
Origin
The word sedan is possibly derived from a southern Italian dialect derivative of Italian sedia "chair" (the first sedan was said to have been introduced from Naples). However, Portuguese and Spanish navigators and colonists encountered litters of various sorts in India, Japan, Mexico, and Peru. They were imported into Spain in the late sixteenth century. Soon the fashion spread into France and then England. All the names for these derived from the root "sed-" from the Latin "sella" the traditional name for a carried chair.[2]
Sedan chair carried by two people
Sedan (automobile) The first automobile to use the configuration was the 1899 Renault Voiturette Type B. The first closed car, for at least 4 persons, which used the word sedan was the 1911 Speedwell sedan, which was manufactured by the Speedwell Motor Co in Dayton, Ohio.[3] But even before that time completely closed cars were called saloons or limousines, like the 1905 Rational 4-door limousine[4] or the 1907 Renault 4-door limousine[5] or the 1910 Stella 2-door saloon.[6] The words saloon or limousine do not exclusively mean a fully closed car.[7] Cars which are called sedans are always fully closed. The derivation from the town of Sedan, Ardennes in France, where it was said to have been made or first used, lacks historical evidence, according to Oxford English Dictionary.
24
International terminology
In American English and American Spanish, the term sedan is used (accented as "sedn" is in Spanish). The engine compartment, at the front, is covered by the hood; the cargo compartment at the rear is called the trunk. In British English, a car of this configuration is called a saloon. The engine compartment cover is the bonnet, the cargo-compartment boot is at the rear. Hatchback sedans are known simply as hatchbacks (not hatchback saloons); long-wheelbase luxury saloons may be referred to as limousines. The British English term saloon is sometimes used by British car manufacturers in the United States. For example, the Rolls-Royce Park Ward was sold as a saloon in the United States, while the smaller Silver Seraph was called a sedan. In Australia the American term sedan is used, albeit with the British terms boot and bonnet being retained. In New Zealand the British terms are used, but the American terms are understood by most of the population. In other languages, sedans are known as berline (French), berlina (European Spanish, European Portuguese, Romanian, and Italian); although these terms also may include hatchbacks. These terms, besides sedan, derive from types of horse-drawn carriages. In German, the term limousine is used for sedans, as well as for limousines.
References
[1] "Car Design Glossary - Part 2: One-Box (Monospace or Monovolume)" (http:/ / www. cardesignnews. com/ site/ home/ new_cars/ display/ store4/ item131867/ ). Car Design News. . "The principal volumes of the traditional sedan can be split into separate compartments or boxes: the hood/bonnet is the first box; the passenger compartment the second, and the trunk/boot the third - i.e. it's a 'three-box' car." [2] T. Atkinson Jenkins. "Origin of the Word Sedan", Hispanic Review, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Jul., 1933), pp. 240-242. [3] Georgano, G.N. (1985). Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886-1930. London: Grange-Universal. page 87 [4] Georgano, G. N.: The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present, 2. Ausgabe, E. P. Dutton, New York (1973), page 573, ISBN 0-525-08351-0 [5] Georgano, G. N.: The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present, 2. Ausgabe, E. P. Dutton, New York (1973), page 578, ISBN 0-525-08351-0 [6] Georgano, G. N.: The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present, 2. Ausgabe, E. P. Dutton, New York (1973), page 649, ISBN 0-525-08351-0 [7] There are many photos of half open limousines and saloons in the book "The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present" by Georgano.
Minivan
25
Minivan
Minivan is a type of van designed for personal use. Minivans are typically either two-box or one box designs for maximum interior volume and are taller than a sedan, hatchback, or a station wagon. Worldwide, minivans are also marketed as multi-purpose vehicles (MPVs), people-carriers, people-movers, or multi-utility vehicles (MUVs).
The term
In Europe and India, "multi-purpose vehicle" (MPV) describes the general vehicle type without reference to its size. These are described with a word before the acronym: a "mini MPV" is derived from a supermini, a "compact MPV" is based on a small family car and a "large MPV" has about the same size as a large family car. In Asia, "multi-utility vehicle" (MUV) has more or less the same meaning as MPV. "People-carrier" and "people mover" describe both large MPVs and minibuses, but not smaller models. Other terms are used in other English-speaking countries.
DKW Schnellaster (1949-1962), with front-wheel drive, transverse engine, flat floor, and multi-configurable seating
Characteristics
Overview
Kia Carnival/Sedona 2006, Gen II, a contemporary minivan with front-wheel drive, transverse engine, flat floor, and multi-configurable seating
MPVs are usually between 16001800 millimetres (6371 in) tall, which is around 200mm (8in) taller than a sedan, hatchback, or a station wagon. The engine is mounted very close to the front edge of the van, and its elements are grouped higher than in other vehicle types to minimize front overhang length. The rear overhang may be short as in a hatchback or long like in station wagons, changing the cargo area vs seat balance the first option is more common in smaller minivans and the second in large minivans.
Seating
Seats are located higher than in lower cars with a higher H-point, giving passengers a more upright posture and providing more legroom. Larger MPVs usually feature three seat rows, with two or three seats each: 2-3-2, 2-2-3 or 2-3-3 (front to rear) are the most common seating configurations. According to Consumer Reports, the most common large size configuration for the 2011 model year was 7 passenger seating.[1] Smaller minivans tend to have two seat rows, with a traditional 2-3 configuration. There are some exceptions, like the Honda FR-V, Fiat Multipla, and Mercedes-Benz R-Class which are six seaters (3-3 in the first two cases and 2-2-2 in the latter). On U.S. models, Chrysler copied the short bench, long bench format of their full-size vans for most of their minivan models. Other U.S. manufacturers followed suit. This setup allowed easy access to the rear from the right side (these vans were initially all 3-door models). However, it led to tight seating in the second row. Captain's chairs (the format typically used on U.S. conversion vans) soon began to gain popularity, beginning with top trim models and working its way down. Today, with 4-door models completely replacing 3-doors, the Captain chair setup has become the standard format, with many models no longer offering two bench seats.
Minivan MPVs may have seats, either benches or individual seats, that are designed to be relocated, removed, folded partially (on-floor) or folded completely under-floor allowing variable seating capacity and cargo room.
26
Chassis and drivetrain

In contrast to vans, sport utility vehicles (SUV), and many crossover SUVs, most current MPVs are front-wheel drive. This configuration allows a flat inner floor, due to the absence of the driveshaft hump. With rear seats removed, the cargo area in large minivans can hold a 4x8ft sheet of drywall or plywood flat. Four-wheel drive was also introduced to minivans in North America with the Toyota Van Wagon 4WD and the Volkswagen Vanagon Syncro. Full-time all-wheel drive was introduced to North American minivans in 1990 with the Ford Aerostar's E-4WD option, followed in 1991 by the Toyota Previa All-Trac, and in 1992 on models made by Chrysler. Most modern MPVs feature unibody architecture, which offers superior crashworthiness and a more comfortable ride than a body-on-frame chassis, and is typically lighter. The discontinued Chevrolet Astro / GMC Safari were the last body-on-frame rear-wheel drive minivans. In the United States, in order to be governed by more lenient safety and emissions regulations, minivans are classified as light trucks. Unlike their European counterparts, manual transmissions have disappeared due to lack of demand; 1995 was the last year for a manual transmission in the Ford Aerostar and Chrysler minivans while GM had previously discontinued the manual transmission in the Chevrolet Astro and GMC Safari.
Doors
Door configuration for MPVs are highly variable. Access to the rear interior may be through one or two sliding or out-swing rear side doors. Early minivans featured one rear side sliding door on the passenger's side, similar to full-sized passenger vans in the early 1980s. Many current minivans feature rear sliding doors on both sides; swinging doors are the norm for European and Japanese minivans, while most American models feature sliding doors. Some models featuring power sliding doors.
Segments
MPVs can be roughly classified in three or four segments: large, compact, mini, and micro. Models of all segments are present in Europe, the Americas and parts of Asia. Large MPVs are those above 4600mm (180in) long. Nearly every minivan sold in the United States belongs to this segment, so they are simply called minivans there. The first European MPV also belonged to this segment, and later similar models were named likewise until smaller models appeared; now these models are called "large MPVs". Examples are the Dodge Caravan, Honda Odyssey, Volkswagen Sharan and Eurovan. Compact MPVs have a length of between 42004600 millimetres (170180 in). Such models enjoyed some popularity in the United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s, for example the Mitsubishi Expo and Nissan Axxess. In 1996, the Renault Scnic was released in Europe and its success made mainstream automakers produce them in large quantities, usually based on small family car platforms and with both two and three-row seats. As of 2007, the only compact minivans available in the United States are the Mazda5 and Kia Rondo. Mini MPVs are under 4100mm (160in) long, and were introduced in the early first decade of the 21st century. These models are based on supermini platforms and have different styles depending on markets: Japanese models are more boxy while Europeans have the bonnet and windshield almost parallel. Examples of mini MPVs are the Opel/Vauxhall Meriva, Citron C3 Picasso, Fiat Idea, Toyota bB and Nissan Cube. Tall city cars and kei cars like the Hyundai Atos, Chevrolet Matiz, Chery QQ and Suzuki Wagon R have also been called mini MPVs or "microvans" because of their increased height over traditional hatchbacks. Others believe they are too similar in design with other small cars, so they should be described as the same kind of cars.
Minivan Early minivans models may be smaller than modern models, but still fit into the child subsegment; the first-generation Renault Espace introduced in 1984 would be classified nowadays as a compact MPV, but later generations grew in size and the Espace is now considered a large MPV. Indeed, it is expected that the next-generation Espace will be smaller in size than the current model.
27
History
Antecedents to the contemporary minivan include the Stout Scarab, which in 1936 featured a removable table and second row seats that turn 180 degrees to face the rear a feature that Chrysler marketed as Swivel 'n Go.[2] The DKW Schnellaster, manufactured from 1949 to 1962 was a small monospace (or one-box) design featuring its front wheels set forward of the passenger cabin, a short, sloping aerodynamic hood, front wheel drive, transverse engine, flat load floor throughout with flexible seating and cargo accommodations the key design ingredients that describe the modern minivan configuration popularized in such notable examples as the Renault Espace and Chrysler Voyager/Caravan minivans.[3]
Fiat 600 Multipla (1956-1965)
Other predecessors of minivans were compact vans. In 1950, the Volkswagen Type 2 adapted a bus-shaped body to the compact Volkswagen Beetle. It placed the driver above the front wheels, sitting behind a flat nose, with the engine mounted at the rear. The two hinged side doors were opposite to the driver's side, with optional doors on the driver's side, Fiat built a similar vehicle, Multipla based on the Fiat 600 with the same engine and door layout. Japanese and American manufacturers responded with compact vans since the 1960s. Usually Volkswagen Type 2 1964, Generation I based on front-engined compact cars with a FMR layout, the engine was mounted behind or under the front seat with a flat, vertical nose. Examples include the Ford Econoline, Chevrolet Van, Suzuki Carry, Toyota Hiace,and Subaru Sambar. When Volkswagen introduced a sliding side door on their van in 1968, it then had all the features that would later come to define a minivan: compact length, three rows of forward-facing seats, station wagon-style top-hinged tailgate/liftgate, sliding side door, passenger car base. As the U.S. vehicles such as the Econoline evolved into larger full-sized vans, the term minivan came to use in North America, when Toyota and Chrysler launched their respective smaller minivan products for the 1984 model year. The Toyota Van and Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager featured very different structural designs: the Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager had a FF layout and unibody construction, while the Toyota Van Wagon featured a FMR layout and was built on a body-on-frame chassis. The Chevrolet Astro / GMC Safari and Ford Aerostar were introduced for the 1985 model year with FR layout. A European minivan design was conceived in the late 1970s by the Rootes Group in partnership with the French automaker Matra (which was also affiliated with Simca, the former French subsidiary of the Chrysler Corporation, sold in 1977 to the PSA Group). The Matra design was originally intended to be sold as a Talbot and be a replacement for the Talbot-Matra Rancho. Early prototypes were designed to use Simca parts and a grille like the Simca 1307. Matra took their idea to Peugeot who thought it too expensive and risky so the project was then presented to Renault, becoming the Renault Espace introduced in 1984. The Renault had traditional hinged car doors on both sides. Chrysler had also been developing a minivan based on the Chrysler K platform, releasing the boxy
Minivan Dodge Caravan / Plymouth Voyager earlier than the Espace, in 1983.
28
Minivans by market
North America
Shortly after their arrival, the Chrysler minivans competed against the truck-based front-engine, rear drive Chevrolet Astro, GMC Safari (based on a reworked 1st generation S-10 platform), and Ford Aerostar (based on a reworked 1st-generation Ranger platform). Utilizing the transverse-mounted engine, front-wheel drive, monocoque (unibody) construction and "one-box" design, the Chrysler minivans offered better traction, size, and driving characteristics. Nissan and Mitsubishi also introduced minivans to North America; but like the Toyota Van Wagon, they had poor rear drive traction, had a bouncy ride due to the short wheelbase. In 1989, Mazda introduced the MPV, which featured a swing-out door with roll-down windows and was the first Japanese minivan with a front engine.
Dodge Caravan 1986, Generation I, at the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History
General Motors introduced the Chevrolet Lumina APV, Oldsmobile Silhouette, and Pontiac Trans Sport in 1990. These minivans were GM's first front-wheel drive minivans; built on a reworked version of GM's 1980s A-platform with composite plastic body panels, a cab-forward nose, steeply raked windshields, and deep dashboards. That same year, Toyota introduced the Previa. The Toyota Previa had a four-cylinder engine located under the floor of the vehicle, mounted nearly flat on its side, rather than straight up and down like in its predecessor. Ford and Nissan introduced models in 1993 with front-wheel drive, the Mercury Villager and Nissan Quest respectively. These minivans featured car-based platforms and V6 engines. Ford introduced a slightly larger front-wheel drive minivan (based on a reworked version of the 1980s Taurus platform) called the Windstar in 1994. In 1995 Honda introduced the Odyssey, based on the Honda Accord with outswing doors with roll-down second row windows, a rear seat that folded into the floor, and a 140hp inline four engine. According to Autodata, in 2006 Chrysler, Honda, and Toyota comprised 72% of the United States minivan market. General Motors and Ford made up 17%, Kia Sedona and Hyundai Entourage sales made up 5%, and the Nissan Quest was 3%. By 2008, most North American minivans had adopted the size and configuration of the long-wheelbase Chrysler vans, with Chrysler dropping their shorter models as well. In 2008, only the Kia Sedona and Chevrolet Uplander offered both short and long-wheelbase configurations. In 2008, Volkswagen debuted the Routan, a rebadged variant of the Chrysler RT platform minivans. Engines During the 1980s, North American minivans generally had four-cylinder engines and were slow and under-powered when compared with sport utility vehicles, but were more fuel efficient. Such vehicles typically had poor performance, especially since manual transmissions were (and still are) rare in minivans. The minivans also often had a higher rate of problems than vehicles with larger engines. Some minivans were notorious for having problems with their transaxles, as the vehicles were substantially heavier than the sedans for which their powertrains were originally designed. With the shift in the 1990s towards heavier, long-wheelbase models and light towing, V6 engines became more common and some automakers dropped their four-cylinder engines from their lineup. The Chevrolet Astro, the last surviving rear wheel drive mid-size van, was popular for towing applications because of its
Minivan available 4.3 liter V6, and some owners even installed their own V8 engines.
29
Europe
Apart from the Chrysler Minivans, the Renault did not have any direct rival during the 1980s. Other mainstream automakers began to develop multi-purpose vehicles designed with European tastes in mind. PSA Peugeot Citron and the Fiat Group founded a joint-venture, Sevel, and released in 1994 the eurovan under the nameplates Citron Evasion (marked as Synergie in the UK), Peugeot 806, Fiat Ulysse and Lancia Zeta. The Ford and the Volkswagen Group JV Auto-Europa similarly co-developed models on a common chassis and built them in a shared-plant in Palmela, Portugal. While the VW/SEAT/Ford model had alength of 4635mm (182.5in), the Espace and the eurovan were around 200mm (7.9in) shorter and would be considered today as compact MPVs. All of them were available as seven-seaters and the seats could be folded and removed. These models would be later called "large MPVs". The trend towards compact MPVs began in 1996 with the launch of the Renault Scnic and Opel Zafira. Compact MPVs were cars with tall bodies but based on the chassis and engines of a small family car (in the case of the Scnic, the Renault Mgane). The runaway success of the Scnic saw the car spawn a multitude of similar vehicles, like the Opel Zafira, the Citron Xsara Picasso, the Volkswagen Touran, the SEAT Altea, the Ford Focus C-Max, and the Nissan Almera Tino. By the mid-first decade of the 21st century virtually all mainstream automakers in Europe had a compact MPV in their range. Citron's Xsara Picasso was a strong seller and was followed up with the C4 Picasso range with 5 and 7 seat variants, a line-up which resulted in Citron becoming Europe's largest MPV manufacturer.[4] Also in the mid-first decade of the 21st century, automakers began to use MPV-style designs on supermini-based chassis. Examples of mini MPVs them are the Opel/Vauxhall Meriva, based on the Corsa, the Citron C3 Picasso, derived from the C3, and the Fiat Idea, derived from the Punto platform. In 2000, the Auto-Europa triplets (Galaxy, Sharan and Alhambra) were heavily face-lifted. More recently, Ford quit the Auto-Europa joint venture to make its own Galaxy sharing many parts with the Ford S-MAX, another MPV. However the Auto-Europa production was not dissolved as VW and SEAT continued with their own models. In 2010, the second-generation Volkswagen Sharan and SEAT Alhambra were presented, making the debut of the brand new Volkswagen group's MQB platform, and like their predecessors did, they were both again almost identical in design one to another, with the exception of the front fascias, rear ends and some minor details. The production site would still be the Auto-Europa site in Portugal. Engines European Minivans (MPVs) are generally powered by four-cylinder engines, originally a mix of petrol and diesel units, but with petrol engines becoming increasingly rare as diesels have improved. V6 engines are rare due to the increased fuel consumption of larger engines being considered unacceptable with high fuel prices.
Asia
In the ASEAN nations, China and India, multi-utility vehicles tend to be smaller than North American minivans and European MPVs. Compact MUVs are more popular than models of other sizes. They also differ in that they need to cope with uneven terrain as opposed to paved highways. Models from local manufacturers are usually based on Japanese designs from Suzuki, Daihatsu and Toyota. Popular models include Toyota Picnic, Toyota Previa, Mazda 8 and Honda StepWGN. MUVs vary widely in configuration. Whilst some MUVs might be replicas of European MPVs (such as the European Ford Fusion) or American-style minivans (like the Toyota Innova), in some cases MUVs are similar to SUVs (such as the Chevrolet Tavera).
Minivan Other examples of MUVs are the Maruti Versa, Isuzu Panther, Toyota Avanza, Mahindra Xylo, Toyota Qualis and Toyota Innova. In Korea, full-size minivans are popular. Korean made examples include the Kia Carnival and SsangYong Rodius. In Malaysia, the Proton Exora is Proton's first MPV and the Perodua Alza is Perodua's first MPV.
30
Minivan Gallery
Lloyd LT 500/600 (1953-1961)
Renault Espace 1984, Generation I
Plymouth Grand Voyager 1991, Generation II
Citron Evasion 1994
Fiat Ulysse 1994
Ford Windstar 1995-1998, Generation I
SEAT Alhambra 1996
Dodge Grand Caravan 1996, Generation III
Mercury Villager 1996-1998, Generation I
Opel/Vauxhall Sintra 1996
Honda Odyssey/Shuttle 19951998, Generation I, US
Citron Xsara Picasso 1999
Opel/Vauxhall Meriva 2002
Renault Espace 2002, Generation IV
Honda Odyssey 20022004, Generation II, US
Pontiac Montana 2002, short wheelbase
SEAT Altea XL 2004
SsangYong Rodius 2004
Honda Elysion 2004
Opel/Vauxhall Zafira 2005
Citron C4 Grand Picasso 2006
Kia Carnival/Sedona 2006, Generation II, short wheelbase, Europe
Ford C-Max 2007
Citron C4 Picasso 2007
Toyota Innova 2009
Minivan
31
Citron C3 Picasso 2009
Proton Exora 2009
Opel/Vauxhall Meriva 2010
Volkswagen Sharan 2010
Chevrolet Orlando 2011
References
[1] "7 Passenger Vehicle List for 2011" (http:/ / 7passengervehicleshq. com/ 7-passenger-vehicles-list/ ). 7passengervehicleshq.com. . Retrieved 2011-09-23. [2] Patton, Phil (January 6, 2008). "A Visionary's Minivan Arrived Decades Too Soon" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 01/ 06/ automobiles/ collectibles/ 06SCARAB. html?_r=1& scp=6& sq=minivan& st=cse). The New York Times. . Retrieved September 23, 2011. [3] Niedermeyer, Paul (March 29, 2010). "The Mother Of All Modern Minivans: 1949 DKW Schnellaster" (http:/ / www. thetruthaboutcars. com/ the-mother-of-all-modern-minivans-1949-dkw-schnellaster/ ). The Truth About Cars. . Retrieved September 23, 2011. [4] "Top Gear Citron Picasso" (http:/ / www. topgear. com/ uk/ citroen/ c3-picasso). .
External links
About.com Minivans Site (http://minivans.about.com)
Crossover (automobile)
A crossover is a vehicle built on a car platform and combining, in highly variable degrees, features of a sport utility vehicle (SUV) with features from a passenger vehicle, especially those of a station wagon or hatchback. Using the unibody construction typical of passenger vehicles, the crossover combines SUV design features such as tall interior packaging, high H-point seating, high ground-clearance or all-wheel-drive capability with design features from an automobile such as a passenger vehicle's platform, independent rear suspension, car-like handling and fuel economy. A crossover may borrow features from a station wagon or hatchback such as the two-box design of a shared passenger/cargo volume with rear access via a third or fifth door, a liftgate and flexibility to allow configurations that favor either passenger or cargo volume, e.g., fold-down rear seats. The crossover may include an A, B & C-pillar, as well as a D pillar. Crossovers are typically designed for only light off-road capability, if any at all.[1]
2009 Dodge Journey, CUV
2010 Fiat Palio Weekend Adventure Locker
32
Origin
The term crossover began as a marketing term,[2] and a 2008 CNNMoney article indicated that "many consumers cannot tell the difference between an SUV and a crossover."[1] A January 2008 Wall Street Journal blog article called crossovers "wagons that look like sport utility vehicles but ride like cars."[3]
2007 Saturn Outlook XR The market segment spans a wide range of vehicles. In some cases, manufacturers have marketed vehicles as crossovers simply to avoid calling them station wagons.[4] And while some crossover vehicles released in the early 2000s resembled traditional SUVs or wagons, others have prioritized sportiness over utilitysuch as the Infiniti FX and BMW X6.[5] [6]
Crossover antecedents include the AMC Eagle, a vehicle that "pioneered the crossover SUV"[7] By 2006, the segment came into strong visibility in the U.S., when crossover sales "made up more than 50% of the overall SUV market."[8] Sales increased in 2007 by 16%.[3] In the U.S., domestic manufacturers were slow to switch from their emphasis on light truck-based SUVs, and foreign automakers developed crossovers targeting the U.S. market, as an alternative to station wagons that are unpopular there. But by the 2010 model year, domestic automakers had quickly caught up.[1] The segment has strong appeal to aging baby boomers.[1]
Crossover examples
The broad spectrum of CUVs or crossovers includes: Compact CUVs: e.g., Audi Q5, BMW X1, BMW X3, Mahindra XUV500, Ford Escape/Mercury Mariner/Mazda Tribute, Honda CR-V, Toyota RAV4, Nissan Rogue, Nissan Juke, Mini Countryman, Acura RDX, Volvo XC60, Hyundai Tucson/Kia Sportage, Suzuki Grand Vitara, Mitsubishi Outlander Sport, Land Rover Freelander, Infiniti EX, Skoda Yeti, Subaru Forester, Mercedes-Benz GLK-Class, Volkswagen Tiguan, Land Rover Range Rover Evoque Mid-sized CUVs: e.g., Acura MDX, BMW X5, Chevy Equinox, Lexus RX, Mercedes-Benz M-Class, Toyota Highlander, Nissan Murano, Ford Edge/Lincoln MKX, Cadillac SRX (2010-), Saab 9-4X, Mazda CX-7, BMW X6, Mitsubishi Outlander, Infiniti FX, Hyundai Santa Fe/Kia Sorento (2011-), Volkswagen Touareg/Porsche Cayenne, GMC Terrain Full-sized CUVs: e.g., Audi Q7, Dodge Durango (2011 -), Ford Flex, Ford Explorer (2011-), Honda Pilot, Lincoln MKT, Mazda CX-9, Mercedes-Benz GL-Class, Mercedes-Benz R-Class (all of which offer three rows of seating for 7 or 8 passengers) Mid-sized sedan-derived CUVs: e.g., BMW X6, Honda Accord Crosstour, Acura ZDX, Toyota Venza, AMC Eagle, Audi A6 allroad quattro, Saab 9-3X, Subaru Outback, Volvo XC70 (the last five being based upon Station wagons) Compact sedan-derived hatchback CUVs: e.g. Toyota Matrix/Pontiac Vibe[9] , Subaru Impreza hatchback Minivan-like CUVs: e.g., Dodge Journey, Tata Aria, Buick Enclave/Chevrolet Traverse/GMC Acadia/Saturn Outlook (defunct), Ford C-MAX, Mazda 5 Semi-offroaders: e.g. Fiat Palio Adventure, Ford Fiesta Trail, Nissan Livina X-Trail, Land Rover LR2, Jeep Compass, Jeep Grand Cherokee (2005-) Peugeot Escapade, etc. The European MPV or large MPV may broadly resemble the crossover, including vehicles such as the Mercedes-Benz R-Class, VW Golf Plus, Ford Kuga, Renault Koleos and Ford S-Max. Notably, during the development of the Dodge Journey CUV, Dodge benchmarked the S-Max.[10] A short list of current crossovers with their platform genealogy (similar vehicles are grouped together):
33
Model(s) Acura MDX Acura RDX Acura ZDX Audi allroad Audi Q5 Audi Q7 BMW X1 BMW X3 BMW X5 BMW X6 Buick Enclave/Chevrolet Traverse/GMC Acadia/Saturn Outlook Buick Rendezvous Cadillac SRX Chevrolet Captiva/Saturn Vue Chevrolet Equinox Chrysler Pacifica Dacia Duster Dodge Journey Fiat Idea Fiat Palio Fiat Strada Ford Edge Ford Escape/Mazda Tribute/Mercury Mariner Ford EcoSport Ford Explorer (fifth generation) Ford Flex Ford Taurus X / Ford Freestyle Ford Territory Holden Adventra/HSV Avalanche Holden Crewman/HSV Avalanche XUV Honda CR-V/Honda HR-V Honda Element Honda Pilot Honda Crosstour Hyundai Tucson/Kia Sportage (2nd Generation)
Platform Honda mid-size "CD" platform Honda compact "C" platform [11] (Honda Accord)
[11]
(Honda Civic) (Honda Accord)
Honda mid-size "CD" platform
[11]
Volkswagen Group C5 platform Volkswagen Group B8 platform Volkswagen Group PL71 platform BMW 3 Series BMW 3 Series BMW 5 series BMW X5 GM Lambda platform GM U platform GM Theta Premium platform GM Theta platform GM Theta platform Chrysler CS platform (Chrysler Town and Country/Dodge Caravan) Nissan B / Dacia B0 platform (Dacia Logan) Mitsubishi GS platform (Dodge Avenger) Fiat Idea Adventure Locker Fiat Palio Weekend Adventure Locker Fiat Strada Adventure Locker Ford CD3 platform Ford CD2 platform Ford B3 platform (Ford Fiesta) Ford D3 platform Ford D4 platform Ford D3 platform (Ford Five Hundred/Taurus) Ford Falcon Holden Commodore Holden Commodore Honda compact "C" platform Honda compact "C" platform [11] [11] (Honda Civic) (Honda Civic) (Honda Accord) (Honda Accord)
Honda mid-size "CD" platform Honda mid-size "CD" platform Hyundai Elantra
[11] [11]
Hyundai Santa Fe/Hyundai Veracruz/Kia Sorento (2nd Generation) Hyundai Sonata
34
Nissan FM platform Nissan FM platform (Infiniti G35) Mitsubishi GS platform Toyota Camry Ford CD3 platform (Lincoln Zephyr/MKZ, Ford Fusion) Mazda 6 Ford CD3 platform (Mazda MPV)
Infiniti EX Infiniti FX Jeep Compass/Jeep Patriot Lexus RX Lincoln MKX/Ford Edge Mazda CX-7 Mazda CX-9 Mercedes-Benz GL-Class Mercedes-Benz GLK-Class Mercedes-Benz M-Class (second generation) Mercedes-Benz R-Class Mini Countryman Mitsubishi Endeavor Mitsubishi Outlander Nissan Murano Nissan Rogue/Nissan Qashqai/Renault Koleos Nissan X-Trail Peugeot 3008 Porsche Cayenne Saab 9-3X Saab 9-4X koda Octavia Scout Subaru Forester Subaru Outback Subaru Tribeca Suzuki Grand Vitara (Second generation) Suzuki XL7 (Second generation) Tata Aria Toyota Matrix Toyota RAV4 Toyota Venza Toyota Highlander/Kluger Volkswagen Tiguan Volkswagen Touareg Volvo XC60 Volvo XC70 Volvo XC90
Mercedes-Benz W204
Mitsubishi Galant Mitsubishi Lancer Nissan D platform (Nissan Altima) Nissan C platform (Nissan Sentra) Nissan C platform (Nissan Sentra) Peugeot 308 Volkswagen Group PL71 platform GM Epsilon platform GM Theta Premium platform Volkswagen Group A platform Subaru Impreza Subaru Legacy Subaru Legacy Suzuki SX4 Chevrolet Equinox Tata Indigo Manza Toyota Corolla Toyota Corolla Toyota Camry Toyota Camry Volkswagen Group B platform (PQ46) (Volkswagen Golf) Volkswagen Group PL71 platform Ford EUCD platform Ford EUCD platform Ford D3 platform (Volvo S80)
35
References
[1] Isidore, Chris (9 January 2006). "GM and Ford's New Cross to Bear" (http:/ / money. cnn. com/ 2006/ 01/ 09/ Autos/ detroit_crossovers/ index. htm). CNN Money.com. . Retrieved 8 August 2010. [2] "Smart Buying Essentials What is a Crossover Vehicle?" (http:/ / www. intellichoice. com/ carBuying101/ what-is-a-crossover). Intellichoice.com. . [3] White, Joseph B. (14 January 2008). "Crossover Market Is Thinly Sliced" (http:/ / blogs. wsj. com/ autoshow/ 2008/ 01/ 14/ crossover-market-is-thinly-sliced/ ). The Wall Street Journal Blogs. . Retrieved 8 August 2010. [4] "Definition of Crossover Utility Vehicle" (http:/ / usedcars. about. com/ od/ glossaryatoe/ g/ Crossovers. htm). Usedcars.about.com. 2009-09-17. . Retrieved 2009-10-13. [5] "Inifiti FX35 Review (MY 2010)" (http:/ / www. edmunds. com/ infiniti/ fx35/ review. html). Edmunds.com. 2009. . Retrieved 2010-01-21. [6] Thomas, David (2008-09-15). "2009 Infiniti FX35" (http:/ / www. cars. com/ go/ crp/ research. jsp?makeid=20& modelid=7091& year=2009& section=reviews). cars.com. . Retrieved 2010-01-21. [7] Sherman, Don (February 2001). "All-Wheel-Drive Revisited: AMC's 1980 Eagle pioneered the cross-over SUV" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m3012/ is_2_181/ ai_70935228/ ?tag=content;col1). Automotive Industries. . Retrieved 8 August 2010. [8] Carty, Sharon Silke (3 May 2006). "Crossover vehicles pass up SUVs on road to growing sales" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ money/ autos/ 2006-05-03-crossover-usat_x. htm). USAtoday. . Retrieved 8 August 2010. [9] Huffman, John. "A sleek CUV with youthful imagination - 2003 Toyota Matrix" (http:/ / www. thecarconnection. com/ Vehicle_Reviews/ SUVs_Wagons/ 2003_Toyota_Matrix. S181. A4435. html). The Car Connection. . Retrieved 2008-04-26. [10] "2009 Dodge Journey Road Test" (http:/ / car-reviews. automobile. com/ Dodge/ review/ 2009-dodge-journey-road-test/ 5449/ ). Car Reviews.com, Feb 3, 2008, Justin Couture. . [11] Haines, Steven (2008). The Product Manager's Desk Reference (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xTMWzXuPqgwC& pg=PA13& dq=Honda+ platforms& ei=DlBjS-OEJZryygSt-dEW& client=safari& cd=1#v=onepage& q=Honda platforms& f=false). McGraw-Hill. pp.1314. ISBN9780071591348. . Retrieved 20100129.
Commercial vehicle
A commercial vehicle is a type of motor vehicle that may be used for transporting goods or passengers. The European Union defines "commercial motor vehicle" as any motorised road vehicle, which by its type of construction and equipment is designed for, and capable of transporting, whether for payment or not: (1) more than nine persons, including the driver; (2) goods and "standard fuel tanks". This means the tanks permanently fixed by the manufacturer to all motor vehicles of the same type as the vehicle in question and whose permanent fitting enables fuel to be used directly, both for the purposes of propulsion and, where appropriate, for the operation of a refrigeration system. Gas tanks fitted to motor vehicles designed for the direct use of gas as a fuel are considered to be standard fuel tanks.[1]
Commercial classification
In the United States a vehicle is designated commercial when it is titled or registered to a company. This is a broad definition, as commercial vehicles may be fleet vehicles, company cars, or other vehicles used for business. Vehicles that are designed to carry more than 16 passengers are considered a commercial vehicle. A vehicle may be considered a commercial vehicle if: the title was placed in the name of a company or corporation. The vehicle is used for business but is in an individual's name such as a sole proprietor. the vehicle is a leased vehicle and in the name of the financial institution that owns it. the vehicle exceeds a certain weight or class and therefore is "classified" as commercial even though it may not be commercially used or commercially owned. A weight rating of 26,001 pounds or more is always consider commercial.[2] the vehicle is used to haul any hazardous material. A vehicles can be used for a business, if not exclusively, and remain private licensed, depending on the amount of time used for business.
Commercial vehicle
36
Examples of commercial vehicles

Truck Semi truck (articulated lorry) Van Coach Bus Taxicab Trailers Box truck (also known as a straight truck)
Commercial truck classification

Commercial trucks are classified according to the Gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). The United States Department of Transportation classifies commercial trucks with eight classes[3] : Class 1- GVWR ranges from 0 to 6,000 pounds (0 to 2,722 kg) Class 2- GVWR ranges from 6,001 to 10,000 pounds (2,722 to 4,536kg) Class 3- GVWR ranges from 10,001 to 14,000 pounds (4,536 to 6,350kg) Class 4- GVWR ranges from 14,001 to 16,000 pounds (6,351 to 7,257kg) Class 5- GVWR ranges from 16,001 to 19,500 pounds (7,258 to 8,845kg). Class 6- GVWR ranges from 19,501 to 26,000 pounds (8,846 to 11,793kg) Class 7- GVWR ranges from 26,001 to 33,000 pounds (11,794 to 14,969kg) Class 8- GVWR is anything above 33,000 pounds (14,969kg)
Preservation
Old commercial vehicles, like vintage cars, are popular items for preservation. News about preservation can be found in magazines, such as Heritage Commercials.
References
[1] EC Council Directive 68/297, substituted by EC Council Directive 85/347 [2] (http:/ / www. is-it-a-lemon. com/ vehicle_history/ faq-commercial. htm) -commercial vehicles [3] (http:/ / changingears. com/ rv-sec-tow-vehicles-classes. shtml) Commercial truck classificatio
Bus
37
Bus
A bus ( /bs/; plural "buses" or "busses", /bsz/, archaically also omnibus, multibus, or autobus) is a road vehicle designed to carry passengers. Buses can have a capacity as high as 300 passengers.[1] The most common type of bus is the single-decker bus, with larger loads carried by double-decker buses and articulated buses, and smaller loads carried by midibuses and minibuses; coaches are used for longer distance services. Bus manufacturing is increasingly globalised, with the same design appearing around the world. Buses may be used for scheduled bus transport, scheduled coach transport, school transport, private hire, tourism; promotional buses may be used for political campaigns and others are privately operated for a wide range of purposes. Horse drawn buses were used from 1820, followed by steam buses in the 1830 and electric trolleybuses in 1882. The first buses powered by internal combustion engines were used 1895 and this is still the most common power source. Recently there has been growing interest in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, electric buses as well as ones powered by compressed natural gas or bio-diesel.
An Arriva double-decker bus, running route 102 on the London Buses network.
Volvo B10M articulated bus in Chiba, Japan.
Police bus in Australia
Bus
38
Etymology
Bus is an apheresis of the Latin word Omnibus. The latter name is derived from a hatter's shop which was situated in front of one of the first bus stations in Nantes, France in 1823. "Omnes Omnibus" was a pun on the Latin sounding name of that hatter Omns: omnes meaning "all" and omnibus means "for all" in Latin. Nantes citizen soon gave the nickname of Omnibus to the vehicle.[2] When motorized transport replaced horse-drawn transport starting 1905, a motorized omnibus was called an autobus, a term still used.
Parisian Omnibus, late nineteenth century
Types
Formats include single-decker bus, double-decker bus and articulated bus (or 'bendy-bus') the prevalence of which varies from country to country. bi-articulated buses are also manufactured, and passenger-carrying trailers either towed behind a conventional bus (a bus trailer), or hauled as a trailer by a truck (a trailer bus). Smaller midibus have a lower capacity and open-top bus are typically used for leisure purposes. In many new fleets, particularly in local transit systems, there is an increasing shift to low-floor buses primarily for easier accessibility. Coaches are designed for longer-distance travel and are typically fitted with individual high-backed reclining seats, Enviro 400 in Newcastle, England seat-belts, toilets, audio-visual entertainment systems and can operate at higher speeds with more capacity for luggage. Coaches may be single- or double-deckers, articulated and often include a separate luggage compartment under the passenger floor. Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes. Bus manufacturing may be by a single company (an integral manufacturer), or by one manufacturer's building a bus body over a chassis produced by another manufacturer.
Design
Accessibility
Bus
39 Transit buses increasingly use low-floor bus designs and optionally also 'kneeling' air suspension and electrically or hydraulically extended under-floor ramps to provide level access for wheelchair users and people with baby carriages. Prior to more general use of such technology these wheelchair users could only use specialist paratransit mobility buses. Accessible vehicles also have wider entrances and interior gangways and space for wheelchairs. Interior fittings and destination displays Bus with wheelchair lift extended may also be designed to be usable by the visually impaired. Coaches generally use wheelchair lifts instead of low floor designs. In some countries vehicles are required to have these features by disability discrimination laws.
Configuration
Buses were initially configured with an engine in the front and an entrance at the rear. With the transition to one-man operation, many manufacturers moved to mid or rear-engined designs, with a single door at the front, or multiple doors. The move to the low-floor design has all but eliminated the mid-engined design, although some coaches still have mid mounted engines. Front-engined buses still persist for niche markets such as American school buses, some minibuses, and buses in less developed countries, which may be derived from truck chassis, rather than purpose-built bus designs. Most buses have two axles, articulated buses have three.
Guidance
Guided buses are fitted with technology to allow them to run in designated guideways, allowing the controlled alignment at bus stops and less space taken up by guided lanes than conventional roads or bus lanes. Guidance can be mechanical, optical or electromagnetic. Guidance is often, but not exclusively, employed as part of a BRT scheme. Extensions of the guided technology include the Guided Light Transit and Translohr systems, although these are more often termed 'rubber tyred trams' as they have limited or no mobility away from their guideways.
Liveries
Transit buses are normally painted to identify the operator or a route, function or to demarcate low-cost or premium service buses. Bus may be painted onto the vehicle, applied using adhesive vinyl technologies or using decals. Vehicles often also carry bus advertising or part or all of their visible surfaces (as mobile billboard). campaign buses may be decorated with key campaign messages.
Propulsion
The most common power source since the 1920s has been the diesel engine. Early buses, known as trolleybus, were powered by electricity supplied from overhead lines. Nowadays, electric buses often carry their own battery, which is sometimes recharged on stops/stations in order to keep the size of the battery small/lightweight. Currently there is interest in hybrid electric buses, fuel cell buses, electric buses and ones powered by compressed natural gas or bio-diesel. Gyrobuses, which are powered by the momentum stored by a flywheel were tried in the 1940s.
Ride On hybrid electric bus with appropriate livery
Bus
40
Manufacture
Early bus manufacturing grew out of carriage coachbuilding, and later out of automobile or truck manufacturers. Early buses were merely a bus body fitted to a truck chassis. This body+chassis approach has continued with modern specialist manufacturers, although there also exist integral designs such as the Leyland National where the two are practically inseparable. Specialist builders also exist and concentrate on building buses for special uses, or modifying standard buses into specialised products. Integral designs have the advantages that they are have been well tested for strength, stability and so forth, and also are off-the-shelf. But there are, however, two incentives to use the chassis+body model. First it allows the buyer and manufacturer both to shop for the best deal for their needs, rather than having to settle on one fixed design the buyer can choose the body and the chassis separately. Second it is likely that over the lifetime of a vehicle (in constant service and heavy traffic) that it will get minor damage now and again, and to be able easily to replace a body panel or window etc. can vastly increase its service life and save the cost and inconvenience of removing it from service. As with the rest of the automotive industry, into the 20th century bus manufacturing increasingly became globalized, with manufacturers producing buses far from their intended market to exploit labour and material cost advantages. As with the cars, new models are often exhibited by manufacturers at prestigious industry shows to gain new orders.
Uses
Public transport
Transit bus, used on public transport bus services, have utilitarian fittings designed for efficient movement of large numbers of people, and often have multiple doors. coaches are used for longer distance routes. High capacity bus rapid transit services may use the bi-articulated bus or tram style buses such as Wright StreetCar and the Irisbus Civis. Buses and coach services often operate to a pre-determined published public transport timetable defining the route and the timing, however smaller vehicles may be used on more flexible demand responsive transport services.
Public transit bus in Brooklyn, New York
Tourism
Buses play a major part in the tourism industry. Tour buses around the world allow tourists to view local attractions or scenery. These are often open-top buses, but can also be by regular bus or coach. In local sightseeing, City Sightseeing is the largest operator of local tour buses, operating on a franchised basis all over the world. Specialist tour buses are also often owned and operated by safari parks and other theme parks or resorts. Longer distance tours are also carried out by bus, either on a turn up and go basis or through a tour operator, and usually allow disembarkation from the bus to allow touring of sites of interest on foot. These may be day trips or longer excursions incorporating hotel stays. Tour buses will often carry a tour guide, although the driver or a pre-recorded audio commentary may also perform this function. The tour operator may itself be a subsidiary of a bus operating company that operates buses and coaches for other uses, or an independent company that charters buses or coaches. Commuter transport operators may also use their coaches to conduct tours within the target city between the morning and evening commuter transport journey.
Bus Buses and coaches are also a common component of the wider package holiday industry, providing private airport transfers (in addition to general airport buses) and organised tours and day trips for holidaymakers on the package. Public long distance coach networks are also often used as a low-cost method of travel by students or young people travelling the world. Some companies such as Topdeck Travel were set up to specifically use buses to drive the hippie trail or travel to places like north Africa. In many tourist or travel destinations, a bus is part of the tourist attraction, such as the North American tourist trolleys, Londons Routemaster heritage routes, or the customised buses of Malta, Asia and the Americas.
41
Student transport
In some countries, particularly the USA and Canada, buses used to transport school children have evolved in to a specific design with specified mandatory features. These school buses feature things such as the school bus yellow livery and crossing guards. Other countries may mandate the use of seat belts. As a minimum many countries require that a bus carrying students displays a sign, and may also adopt yellow liveries. Student transport often uses older buses cascaded from service use, retro-fitted with more seats and/or seatbelts. Student transport may be operated by local authorities or private contractors. Schools may also own and operate their own buses for other transport needs, such as class field trips, or to transport associated sports, music or other school groups.
U.S. style school bus
Private charter
Due to the costs involved in owning, operating and driving buses and coaches, many bus and coach uses a private hire of vehicles from charter bus companies, either for a day or two, or a longer contract basis, where the charter company provides the vehicles and qualified drivers. Charter bus operators may be completely independent businesses, or charter hire may be a subsidiary business of a public transport operator who might maintain a separate fleet or use surplus buses, coaches, and dual purpose coach seated buses. Many private taxicab companies also operate larger minibus vehicles to cater for An Example of a private bus featuring, Kuwait group fares. Companies, private groups and social clubs may hire SC Football team bus. buses or coaches as a cost effective method of transporting a group to an event or site, such as a group meeting, racing event, or organised recreational activity such as a summer camp. Entertainment or event companies may also hire temporary shuttles buses for transport at events such as festivals or conferences. Party buses are used by companies in a similar manner to limousine hire, for luxury private transport to social events or as a touring experience. Sleeper buses are used by bands or other organisations that tour between entertainment venues and require mobile rest and recreation facilities. Some couples hire preserved buses for their wedding transport instead of the traditional car. Buses are often hired for parades or processions. Victory parades are often held for triumphant sports teams, who often tour their home town or city in an open-top bus. Sports teams may also contract out their transport to a team bus, for travel to away games, to a competition or to a final event. These buses are often specially decorated in a livery matching the team colours. Private companies often contract out private shuttle bus services, for transport of their customers or patrons, such as
Bus hotels, amusement parks, university campuses or private airport transfer services. This shuttle usage can be as transport between locations, or to and from parking lots. High specification luxury coaches are often chartered by companies for executive or VIP transport. Charter buses may also be used in Tourism and for promotion (See Tourism and Promotion sections)
42
Private ownership
Many organisations, including the police, not for profit, social or charitable groups with a regular need for group transport may find it practical or cost-effective to own and operate a bus for their own needs. These are often minibuses for practical, tax and driver licensing reasons, although they can also be full size buses. Cadet or scout groups or other youth organizations may also own buses. Specific charities may exist to fund and operate bus transport, usually using specially modified mobility buses or otherwise accessible buses (See Accessibility section). Some use their contributions to buy vehicles, and provide volunteer drivers. Airport operators make use of special airside airport buses for crew and passenger transport in the secure airside parts of an airport. Some public authorities, police forces and military forces make use of armoured buses where there is a special need to provide increased passenger protection. The United States Secret Service acquired two in 2010 for transporting dignitaries needing special protection.[3] Police departments make use of police buses for a variety of reasons, such as prisoner transport, officer transport, temporary detention facilities and as command and control vehicles. Some fire departments also use a converted bus as a command post,[4] while those in cold climates might retain a bus as a heated shelter at fire scenes.[5] Many are drawn from retired school or service buses.
Promotion
Buses are often used for advertising, political campaigning, public information campaigns, public relations or promotional purposes. These may take the form of temporary charter hire of service buses, or the temporary or permanent conversion and operation of buses, usually of second-hand buses. Extreme examples include converting the bus with displays and decorations or awnings and fittings. Interiors may be fitted out for exhibition or information purposes with special equipment and/or audio visual devices. Bus advertising takes many forms, often as interior and exterior adverts and all-over advertising liveries. The practice often extends into the exclusive private hire and use of a bus to promote a brand or product, appearing at large public events, or touring busy streets. The bus is sometimes staffed by promotions personnel, giving out free gifts. Campaign buses are often specially decorated for a political campaign or other social awareness information campaign, designed to bring a specific message to different areas, and/or used to transport campaign personnel to local areas/meetings. Exhibition buses are often sent to public events such as fairs and festivals for purposes such as recruitment campaigns, for example by private companies or the armed forces. Complex urban planning proposals may be organised into a mobile exhibition bus for the purposes of public consultation.
Buses around the world
Bus
43 Historically, the types and features of buses have developed according to local needs. Buses were fitted with technology appropriate to the local climate or passenger needs, such as air conditioning in Asia, or cycle mounts on North American buses. The bus types in use around the world where there was little mass production were often sourced second hand from other countries, such as the Malta bus, and buses in use in Africa. Other countries such as Cuba required novel solutions to import restrictions, with the creation of the camellos (camel bus), a specially manufactured trailer bus.
Ryujin bus, Japan
After the Second World War, manufacturers in Europe and the Far East, such as Mercedes-Benz buses and Mitsubishi Fuso expanded into other continents influencing the use of buses previously served by local types. Use of buses around the world has also been influenced by colonial associations or political alliances between countries. Several of the Commonwealth nations followed the British lead and sourced buses from British manufacturers, leading to a prevalence of double-decker buses. Several Eastern Bloc countries adopted trolleybus systems, and their manufacturers such as Trolza exported trolleybuses to other friendly states. In the 1930s Italy designed the world's only triple decker bus for the busy route between Rome and Tivoli that could carry eighty-eight passengers. It was unique not only in being a triple decker but having a separate smoking compartment on the third level.[6] The buses to be found in countries around the world often reflect the quality of the local road network, with high floor resilient truck based designs prevalent in several less developed countries where buses are subject to tough operating conditions. Population density also has a major impact, where dense urbanisation such as in Japan and the far east has led to the adoption of high capacity long multi-axle buses, often double-deckers, while South America and China are implementing large numbers of articulated buses for bus rapid transit schemes.
Bus expositions
Euro Bus Expo is a trade show, which is held bi-annually at the UK's National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham. As the official show of the Confederation of Passenger Transport, the UKs trade association for the bus, coach and light rail industry, the three day event offers visitors from Europe and beyond the chance to see and experience, at first hand, the very latest vehicles and product and service innovations right across the industry. The next show will be held in November 2010.[7] Busworld Kortrijk is the leading bus trade fair in Europe is the Busworld in Kortrijk in Belgium. It is held bi-annually, last time October 2009 and next time October 2011.
History
The first known public bus line (known as a "Carriage" at that time) was launched by Blaise Pascal in 1662 and was quite popular until fares were increased and access from to the service restricted to high society members only by regulation. Services ceased after 15 years[2] [8] and no further such services were known until the 1820s. Horse buses operated in many cities during the later part of the 1800s and early 1900s with one company in London operating 220 horse-buses by 1880. The last horse bus in London stopped operation in 1914.[9] Early horse-drawn buses were a combination of a hackney carriage and a stagecoach.
Old bus, serving Viveiro and Lugo in Galicia, Spain.
Bus From the 1830s steam powered buses existed. In parallel to the development of the bus, was the invention of the electric trolleybus, typically fed through trolley poles by overhead wires, which actually preceded, and in many urban areas outnumbered, the conventional engine powered bus. The first internal combustion engine buses were developed along with the automobile. After the first engine powered bus of 1895. The Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company which rapidly became a major manufacturer of buses was founded in Chicago in 1923 by John D. Hertz. General Motors purchased a majority stake in 1925 and changed its name to the Yellow Truck & Coach Manufacturing Company. They then purchased the balance of the shares in 1943 to form the GM Truck & Coach Division. Models expanded in the 20th century, leading to the widespread introduction of the contemporary recognizable form of full size buses from the 1950s. One of the most unusual buses ever built was a prop for Paramount Productions in 1935 for a movie set.[10] The Montgomery Bus Boycott which opposed the city's policy of racial segregation on its public transit system started on 1 December 1955, when Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to surrender her seat to a white person in Montgomery, Alabama, USA. It ended on 20 December 1956 with a United States Supreme Court decision that the laws requiring segregated buses were unconstitutional.[11] Many historically significant figures of the civil rights movement were involved in the boycott, including Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. and Ralph Abernathy.
44
Use of retired buses

Most public or private buses and coaches, once they have reached the end of their service with one or more operators, are sent to the wrecking yard for breaking up for scrap and spare parts. Some buses, while not economical to keep running as service buses, are often converted in some way for use by the operator, or another user, for purposes other than revenue earning transport. Much like old cars and trucks, buses often pass through a dealership where they can be bought for a price or at auction. Bus operators will often find it economical to convert retired buses to Retired GM bus use as permanent training buses for driver training, rather than taking a regular service bus out of use. Some large operators have in the past also converted retired buses into tow bus vehicles, to act as tow trucks. With the outsourcing of maintenance staff and facilities, the increase in company health and safety regulations, and the increasing curb weights of buses, many operators now contract their towing needs to a professional vehicle recovery company. Many retired buses have been converted to static or mobile cafs, often using historic buses as a tourist attraction. Food is also provided from a catering bus, in which a bus is converted into a mobile canteen and break room. These are commonly seen at external filming locations to feed the cast and crew, and at other large events to feed staff. Some organisations adapt and operate playbuses or learning buses to provide a playground or learning environments to children who might not have access to proper play areas. An ex-London Routemaster bus has been converted to a mobile theatre and catwalk fashion show.[12] Some buses meet a destructive end by being entered in banger races or at demolition derbys. Many old retired buses have also been converted into mobile holiday homes and campers.
Bus
45
Bus preservation
Rather than being scrapped or converted for other uses, sometimes retired buses are saved for preservation. This can be done by individuals, volunteer preservation groups or charitable trusts, museums, or sometimes by the operators themselves as part of a heritage fleet. These buses often need to undergo a degree of vehicle restoration to restore them to their original condition, and will have their livery and other details such as internal notices and rollsigns restored to be authentic to a specific time in the bus's actual history. Some buses that undergo preservation are rescued from a state of great disrepair, but others enter preservation with very little wrong with them. As with other historic vehicles, many preserved buses either in a working or static state form part of the collections of transport museums. Working buses will often be exhibited at rallies and events, and they are also used as charter buses. While many preserved buses are quite old or even vintage, in some cases relatively new examples of a bus type can enter restoration. In-service examples are still in use by other operators. This often happens when a change in design or operating practice, such as the switch to one person operation or low floor technology, renders some buses redundant while still relatively new.
References
[1] "China's longest bus unveiled in Shanghai" (http:/ / news. jongo. com/ articles/ 07/ 0315/ 9180/ OTE4MAmXAYhbF0. html). Jongo.com. 15 March 2007. . [2] "Histoire gnrale des transports" (http:/ / www. amtuir. org/ 03_htu_generale/ htu_1_avant_1870/ htu_1. htm). French transportations Museum Website. . Retrieved 16 September 2010. (French) [3] Robert Farley (25 August 2011). "Obamas Canadian-American Bus" (http:/ / www. factcheck. org/ 2011/ 08/ obamas-canadian-american-bus/ ). FactCheck. . Retrieved 17 October 2011. [4] "Chesapeake Fire Department" (http:/ / cityofchesapeake. net/ services/ depart/ fire/ bus. shtml). Cityofchesapeake.net. 1998-05-01. . Retrieved 2010-10-12. [5] City of Winnipeg Corporate Web Services. "Winnipeg Fire Department" (http:/ / www. winnipeg. ca/ fps/ Services/ Operations/ MIRV. stm). Winnipeg.ca. . Retrieved 2010-10-12. [6] "Three Decker Auto Bus Carries 88 Persons" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7-EDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA286& dq=popular+ mechanics+ 1932+ the+ president+ of+ a+ big& hl=en& ei=JIgVTcvHIM2AnQf50_3fDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=true) Popular Mechanics, August 1932 [7] "Euro Bus Expo : Welcome to the European coach & bus industry exhibition" (http:/ / www. eurobusxpo. com). Eurobusxpo.com. . Retrieved 2009-05-30. [8] "Le temps de rvolutions" (http:/ / www. herodote. net/ histoire/ evenement. php?jour=18260810). Herodote.net. . Retrieved 16 September 2010. (French) Retrieved 13 June 2008. [9] "Riding on a knifeboard" (http:/ / www. museumoflondon. org. uk/ postcodes/ places/ SE15. html). London Museum. . "Thomas Tilling started his bus service in the 1840s. By 1901 he had a total of 220 horse-drawn buses... The last recorded horse omnibus in London was a Tilling bus. It ran its last journey between Peckham and Honor Oak Tavern on 4 August 1914." [10] "Streamline Bus Is Like Dirigible On Wheels" Popular Mechanics, April 1935 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wt8DAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA487& dq=Popular+ Science+ 1935+ plane+ "Popular+ Mechanics"& hl=en& ei=zHM2Tpf-IeuFsgLc_MH3Cg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCwQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage& q=Popular Science 1935 plane "Popular Mechanics"& f=true) [11] "Montgomery Bus Boycott" (http:/ / www. crmvet. org/ tim/ timhis55. htm#1955mbb). Civil Rights Movement Veterans. . [12] Event preview: Fashion Bus On The Square, London (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ stage/ 2008/ aug/ 16/ theatre. londonlistings1) The Guardian, 16 August 2008
This articleincorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
External links
American Bus Association (http://www.buses.org)
Truck
46
Truck
A truck (North American, Irish and Australian English) or lorry (British and Commonwealth English) is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo. Trucks vary greatly in size, power and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to an automobile. Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful, and may be configured to mount specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire trucks and concrete mixers and suction excavators. Modern trucks are powered by either gasoline or diesel engines, with diesel dominant in commercial applications. In the European Union vehicles with a gross combination mass of less than 3500 kilograms (7716lb) are known as Light commercial vehicles and those over as Large goods vehicles.
North American highway freight rig pulled by a Kenworth tractor. Note the refrigerated trailer and the Conventional ("American") engine-cab style.
The word
Etymology
The word "truck" might have come from a back-formation of "truckle" with the meaning "small wheel", "pulley", from Middle English trokell, in turn from Latin trochlea. Another explanation is that it comes from Latin trochus with the meaning of "iron hoop". In turn, both go back to Greek trokhos () meaning "wheel" from trekhein (, "to run"). The first known usage of "truck" was in 1611 when it referred to the small strong wheels on ships' cannon carriages. In its extended usage it came to refer to carts for carrying heavy loads, a meaning known since 1771. With the meaning of "motor-powered load carrier", it has been in usage since 1930, shortened from "motor truck", which dates back to 1916.[1] [2]
1898 "NW First Truck"
"Lorry" has a more uncertain origin, but probably has its roots in the railroad industry, where the word is known to have been used in 1838 to refer to a type of truck (a freight car as in British usage, not a bogie as in the American), specifically a large flat wagon. It probably derives from the verb lurry (to pull, tug) of uncertain origin. With the meaning of "self-propelled vehicle for carrying goods" it has been in usage since 1911.[3] [4]
International variance
In the United States and Canada "truck" is usually reserved for Truck carrying a large load in India commercial vehicles larger than normal cars including pickups and other vehicles having an open load bed, while in Australia and New Zealand, a pickup truck is usually called a ute (short for "utility") and the word "truck" is mostly reserved for larger vehicles. The small utility truck was invented in Australia in the 1930s.[5] In the United Kingdom, India, Malaysia, Singapore, Ireland and Hong Kong lorry is used instead of truck, but only for the medium and heavy types.
Truck In American English, the word "truck" is often preceded by a word describing the type of vehicle, such as a "fire truck" or "tanker truck". In British English these would be referred to as "fire engine" and "tanker" or "petrol tanker", respectively. In Canada and the United States, "fire engine" is also used.
47
Driving
In the United States, a commercial driver's license is required to drive any type of commercial vehicle weighing 26001lb (11794kg) or more.[6] The United Kingdom and the rest of Europe now have common, yet complex rules (see European driving licence). As an overview, to drive a vehicle weighing more than 7500 kilograms (16535lb) for commercial purposes requires a specialist licence (the type varies depending on the use of the vehicle and number of seats). For licences first acquired after 1997, that weight was reduced to 3500 kilograms (7716lb), not including trailers.
Inside a Mack truck
In Australia, a truck driving license is required for any motor vehicle with a Gross Vehicle Mass (GVM) exceeding 4500 kilograms (9921lb). The motor vehicles classes are further expanded as: LR: Light rigid: a rigid vehicle with a GVM of more than 4500 kilograms (9921lb) but not more than 8000 kilograms (17637lb). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9000 kilograms (19842lb) GVM. MR: Medium rigid: a rigid vehicle with 2 axles and a GVM of more than 8000 kilograms (17637lb). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9000 kilograms (19842lb) GVM. Also includes vehicles in class 'LR'. HR: Heavy Rigid: a rigid vehicle with 3 or more axles and a GVM of more than 8000 kilograms (17637lb)). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9000 kilograms (19842lb)) GVM. Also includes articulated buses and vehicles in class 'MR'. HC: Heavy Combination, a typical prime mover plus semi trailer combination. MC: Multi Combination e.g. B Doubles/Road trains. There is also a heavy vehicle transmission condition for a licence class HR, HC or MC test passed in a vehicle fitted with an automatic or synchromesh transmission, a drivers licence will be restricted to vehicles of that class fitted with a synchromesh or automatic transmission . To have the condition removed, a person needs to pass a practical driving test in a vehicle with non synchromesh transmission (constant mesh or crash box).[7] [8] In 2006, the U.S. trucking industry employed 1.8million drivers of heavy trucks.[9] There are around 5 million truck drivers in India.[10]
Anatomy of a truck
Almost all trucks share a common construction: they are made of a chassis, a cab, an area for placing cargo or equipment, axles, suspension and roadwheels, an engine and a drivetrain. Pneumatic, hydraulic, water, and electrical systems may also be identified. Many also tow one or more trailers or semi-trailers.
A Russian truck from the early 1920s
Truck
48
Cab
The cab is an enclosed space where the driver is seated. A sleeper is a compartment attached to the cab where the driver can rest while not driving, sometimes seen in semi-trailer trucks. There are several possible cab configurations: Cab over engine (COE) or flat nose; where the driver is seated above the front axle and the engine. This design is almost ubiquitous in Europe, where overall truck lengths are strictly regulated, but also widely used in the rest of the world as well. They were common in North America, but lost prominence when permitted length was extended in the early 1980s. To access the engine, the whole cab tilts forward, earning this design the name of tilt-cab. This type of cab is especially suited to the delivery conditions in Europe where many roads follow the layout of much more ancient path, and trackways which require the additional turning capability of the cab over engine type. The COE design was invented by Viktor Schreckengost.[11]
Scania R470 flat nose truck
Conventional cabs are the most common in North America and Australia, and are known in the UK as American cabs and in the Netherlands as "torpedo cabs". The driver is seated behind the engine, as in most passenger cars or pickup trucks. Conventionals are further divided into large car and aerodynamic designs. A "large car" or "long nose" is a conventional truck with a long (6 to 8 foot (1.8 to 2.4 m) or more) hood. Aerodynamic cabs are very streamlined, with a sloped hood and other features to lower drag. Cab beside engine designs also exist, but are rather rare and are mainly used inside shipping yards, or other specialist uses such as aircraft baggage loading.
Engine
The oldest truck was built in 1896 by Gottlieb Daimler.[12] Most small trucks such as sport utility vehicles (SUVs) or pickups, and even light medium-duty trucks in North America and Russia will use petrol engines (gasoline engines), but many diesel engined models are now being produced. Most heavier trucks use four stroke diesel engine with a turbocharger and aftercooler. Huge off-highway trucks use locomotive-type engines such as a V12 Detroit Diesel two stroke engine. Diesel engines are becoming the engine of choice for trucks ranging from class 3 to 8 GVWs. North American manufactured highway trucks almost always use an Cummins ISB 6.7L medium duty truck diesel engine engine built by a third party, such as CAT, Cummins, or Detroit Diesel. The only exceptions to this are Volvo and its subsidiary Mack Trucks, which are available with their own engines. Freightliner Trucks, Sterling Trucks and Western Star, subsidiaries of Daimler AG, are available with Mercedes-Benz and Detroit Diesel engines. Trucks and buses built by Navistar International usually also contain International engines. The Swedish manufacturer Scania claims they stay away from the U.S. market because of this third party tradition. In the European Union, all new lorry engines must comply with Euro 5 emission regulations.
Truck
49
Drivetrain
Small trucks use the same type of transmissions as almost all cars, having either an automatic transmission or a manual transmission with synchromesh (synchronizers). Bigger trucks often use manual transmissions without synchronisers, saving bulk and weight, although synchromesh transmissions are used in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers, known as "crash boxes", require double-clutching for each shift, (which can lead to repetitive motion injuries), or a technique known colloquially as "floating", a method of changing gears which doesn't use the clutch, except for starts and stops, due to the physical effort of double clutching, especially with non power assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear.
A truck rear suspension and drive axles overview
Double-clutching allows the driver to control the engine and transmission revolutions to synchronize, so that a smooth shift can be made, e.g., when upshifting, the accelerator pedal is released and the clutch pedal is depressed while the gear lever is moved into neutral, the clutch pedal is then released and quickly pushed down again while the gear lever is moved to the next higher gear. Finally, the clutch pedal is released and the accelerator pedal pushed down to obtain required engine speed. Although this is a relatively fast movement, perhaps a second or so while transmission is in neutral, it allows the engine speed Eaton Roadranger 18 speed "crash box" with to drop and synchronize engine and transmission revolutions relative to automated gearshift the road speed. Downshifting is performed in a similar fashion, except the engine speed is now required to increase (while transmission is in neutral) just the right amount in order to achieve the synchronization for a smooth, non-collision gear change. Skip changing is also widely used; in principle operation is the same as double-clutching, but it requires neutral be held slightly longer than a single gear change. Common North American setups include 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18 speeds. Automatic and semi-automatic transmissions for heavy trucks are becoming more and more common, due to advances both in transmission and engine power. In Europe 8, 10, 12 and 16 gears are common on larger trucks with manual transmission, while automatic or semi-automatic transmissions would have anything from 5 to 12 gears. Almost all heavy truck transmissions are of the "range and split" (double H shift pattern) type, where range change and so-called half gears or splits are air operated and always preselected before the main gear selection.
Frame
A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C-shaped rails, or beams, held together by crossmembers. These frames are referred to as ladder frames due to their resemblance to a ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition to vertical flex when weight is applied to the top of the frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on heavy duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over the axles. The holes in rails are
A truck rear frame (chassis) section view
Truck used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and hoses, or measuring and adjusting the orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop. Though they may be welded, crossmembers are most often attached to frame rails by bolts or rivets. Crossmembers may be boxed or stamped into a c-shape, but are most commonly boxed on modern vehicles, particularly heavy trucks. The frame is almost always made of steel, but can be made (whole or in part) of aluminium for a lighter weight. A tow bar may be found attached at one or both ends, but heavy trucks almost always make use of a fifth wheel hitch.
50
Environmental effects
Trucks contribute to air, noise, and water pollution similarly to automobiles. Trucks may emit lower air pollution emissions than cars per equivalent vehicle mass, although the absolute level per vehicle distance traveled is higher, and diesel particulate matter is especially problematic for health.[13] With respect to noise pollution, trucks emit considerably higher sound levels at all speeds compared to typical car; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks.[14] There are several aspects of truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those from tires rolling on the DAF tractor with an auto-transport semi-trailer roadway, and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway carrying koda Octavia cars in Cardiff, Wales speeds. Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched whistle of a turbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and when the use of engine braking retarders are allowed. Concerns have been raised about the effect of trucking on the environment, particularly as part of the debate on global warming. In the period from 1990 to 2003, carbon dioxide emissions from transportation sources increased by 20%, despite improvements in vehicle fuel efficiency.[15] In 2005, transportation accounted for 27% of U.S. greenhouse gas emission, increasing faster than any other sector.[16] Between 1985 and 2004, in the U.S., energy consumption in freight transportation grew nearly 53%, while the number of ton-miles carried increased only 43%.[17] "Modal shifts account for a nearly a 23% increase in energy consumption over this period. Much of this shift is due to a greater fraction of freight ton-miles being carried via truck and air, as compared to water, rail, and pipelines." According to a 1995 U.S. Government estimate, the energy cost of carrying one ton of freight a distance of one kilometer averages 337kJ for water, 221kJ for rail, 2,000kJ for trucks, and nearly 13,000kJ for air transport.[18] Many environmental organizations favor laws and incentives to encourage the switch from road to rail, especially in Europe.[19] The European Parliament is moving to ensure that charges on heavy-goods vehicles should be based in part on the air and noise pollution they produce and the congestion they cause, according to legislation approved by the Transport Committee.[20] The Eurovignette scheme has been proposed, whereby new charges would be potentially levied against things such as noise and air pollution and also weight related damages from the lorries themselves.[21]
Truck
51
Sales and sales issues

Truck market worldwide
Worldwide
Isuzu truck
Mercedes-Benz lorry
IVECO lorry
Volvo's subsidiary Renault Magnum lorry
Hino Motors truck UD Nissan lorry
SISU truck
Largest truck manufacturers in the world as of 2009, over 16 tons GVW in 2009.[22]
Pos. Make 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Units
Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz, Freightliner Trucks, Sterling Trucks, Unimog, Western Star, Fuso) 478,535 Volvo Group (Volvo, Mack, Renault, UD Nissan Diesel) Dongfeng Tata Group (Tata Motors, Daewoo Commercial Vehicle) Hyundai Kia Automotive Group (Hyundai) Toyota Group (Hino Motors) Fiat Group (Iveco, Magirus, Astra, Seddon Atkinson, Yuejin) PACCAR (DAF Trucks, Kenworth, Peterbilt, Leyland Trucks) Volkswagen Group (Scania, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles) MAN SE (MAN SE, Volkswagen Trucks and Buses, China National Heavy Duty Truck Group) 438,954 341,875 159,237 157,781 129,107 127,542 126,960 110,617 92,485
Truck
52
Operations issues
Commercial insurance
Primary liability Insurance coverage protects the truck from damage or injuries to other people as a result of a truck accident. This truck insurance coverage is mandated by U.S. state and federal agencies, and proof of coverage is required to be sent to them. Insurance coverage limits range from $35,000 to $1,000,000. Pricing is dependent on region, driving records, and history of the trucking operation. Motor truck cargo insurance protects the transporter for his responsibility in the event of damaged or lost freight. The policy is purchased with a maximum load limit per vehicle. Cargo insurance coverage limits can range from $10,000 to $100,000 or more. Pricing for this insurance is mainly dependent on the type of cargo being hauled.
Truck shows
In the UK, three truck shows are popular - Shropshire Truck Show in Oswestry Showground during May, The UK Truck Show held in June at Santa Pod Raceway, and FIA European Drag Racing Championships from the home of European Drag-Racing. The UK Truck Show features drag-racing with 6-tonne trucks from the British Truck Racing Association, plus other diesel-powered entertainment. Truck shows provide operators with an opportunity to win awards for their trucks.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] "Truck" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ truck?show=2& t=1284721768) Merriam-Webster Dictionary "Truck" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=truck& searchmode=none) Online Etymology Dictionary 2010-09-16 "Lorry" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?search=lorry& searchmode=none) Online Etymology Dictionary 2010-09-16 "Lorry" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ lorry) Marriam-Webster Dicitionary Radio Australia - Innovations - The First Ute (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ ra/ innovations/ stories/ s841574. htm) "Commercial Drivers License" (http:/ / www. nhtsa. gov/ people/ injury/ enforce/ cvm/ CMV_license. html). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. . Retrieved 2008-05-21. [7] Australian driving license classifications (http:/ / www. transport. sa. gov. au/ licences_certification/ drivers/ classifications. asp) [8] License class information (http:/ / www. transport. sa. gov. au/ licences_certification/ drivers/ about_licence_class. asp) [9] "Truck Drivers and Drivers/Sales Workers" (http:/ / www. bls. gov/ oco/ ocos246. htm#projections_data). Occupational Outlook Handbook. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 2007-12-18. . Retrieved 2008-01-25. [10] " Indian Truckers Strike to Protest Against Fuel Price Hike (http:/ / www2. dw-world. de/ southasia/ South_Asia/ 1. 234233. 1. html)". Deutsche Welle. July 2, 2008. [11] Bernstein, Adam (2008-01-29). "Viktor Schreckengost; Designed Bicycles, Dinnerware and More" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2008/ 01/ 28/ AR2008012802613. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2010-05-26. [12] "Truck History" (http:/ / inventors. about. com/ library/ inventors/ bltruck. htm). About.com. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [13] "Heavy-Duty Truck and Bus Engines" (http:/ / www. dieselnet. com/ standards/ us/ hd. html). dieselnet.com. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [14] C. Michael Hogan (1973). "Analysis of highway noise" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ x1707075n815g604/ ). Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 387392. doi:10.1007/BF00159677. . [15] "U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Energy Use by Sector" (http:/ / www. bts. gov/ publications/ national_transportation_statistics/ html/ table_04_49. html). United States Department of Transportation. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [16] "Trends in Greenhouse Gas Emissions" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080718170054/ http:/ / www. epa. gov/ climatechange/ emissions/ downloads06/ 07Trends. pdf) (PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Archived from the original (http:/ / epa. gov/ climatechange/ emissions/ downloads06/ 07Trends. pdf) on 2008-07-18. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [17] "Energy Intensity Indicators" (http:/ / www1. eere. energy. gov/ ba/ pba/ intensityindicators/ ). United States Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [18] "U.S. Domestic Freight Transportation" (http:/ / www. eia. doe. gov/ emeu/ efficiency/ ee_ch5. htm). United States Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [19] "How Government policy can realize rail freights role in reducing carbon emissions" (http:/ / www. freightonrail. org. uk/ ConsultationsEnvironmentalAuditCommittee. htm). FreightOnRail.org.uk. . Retrieved 2008-09-06. [20] MEPs push for green tolls (http:/ / www. europarl. europa. eu/ news/ expert/ infopress_page/ 062-48814-040-02-07-910-20090209IPR48793-09-02-2009-2009-false/ default_en. htm) Last retrieved 11-02-09
Truck
[21] European Parliament discuss Eurovignette scheme (http:/ / www. europarl. europa. eu/ news/ public/ story_page/ 062-48727-040-02-07-910-20090205STO48540-2009-09-02-2009/ default_en. htm) Last retrieved 10-02-09 [22] World ranking 2007.xls (http:/ / oica. net/ wp-content/ uploads/ world-ranking-2007. pdf)
53
External links
Truck (http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Transportation_and_Logistics/Trucking//) at the Open Directory Project Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration (http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/) Hutchinson, Jr., Rollin W. (January 1912). "Motor Trucks - The New Freighters: Quicker And More Reliable Service, Cleaner And Less Congested Cities, Concrete Examples Of Saving" (http://books.google.com/ ?id=Vv--PfedzLAC&pg=PA268). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXIII: 268187. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
Tractor
A tractor is a vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high tractive effort (or torque) at slow speeds, for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used in agriculture or construction. Most commonly, the term is used to describe a farm vehicle that provides the power and traction to mechanize agricultural tasks, especially (and originally) tillage but nowadays a great variety of tasks. Agricultural implements may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor, and the tractor may also provide a source of power if the implement is mechanised. The word tractor was taken from Latin, being the agent noun of A tractor pulling a chisel plow in Slovenia [1] [2] trahere "to pull". The first recorded use of the word meaning "an engine or vehicle for pulling wagons or ploughs" occurred in 1901, displacing the earlier term traction engine (1859).[3]
Tractor
54
National variations
In Britain, Ireland, Australia, India, Spain, Argentina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, and Germany the word "tractor" usually means "farm tractor", and the use of the word "tractor" to mean other types of vehicles is familiar to the vehicle trade but unfamiliar to much of the general public. In Canada and the US the word may also refer to the road tractor portion of a tractor trailer truck.
History
The first powered farm implements in the early 19th century were portable engines steam engines on wheels that could be used to drive mechanical farm machinery by way of a flexible belt. Around 1850, the first traction engines were developed from these, and were widely adopted for agricultural use. The first tractors were steam-powered plowing engines. They were used in pairs, placed on either side of a field to haul a plow back and forth between them using a wire cable. Where soil conditions permitted (as in the United States) steam tractors were used to direct-haul plows, but in the UK and elsewhere plowing engines were used for cable-hauled plowing instead. Steam-powered agricultural engines remained in use well into the 20th century until reliable internal combustion engines had been developed.[4]
1882 Harrison Machine Works steam-powered tractor
In 1892, John Froelich invented and built the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor in Clayton County, Iowa, USA.[5] [6] After receiving a patent Froelich started up the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company, investing all of his assets which by 1895, all would be lost and his business resigned to become a failure.[7] [8] [9] After graduating from the University of Wisconsin, Charles W. Hart and Charles H. Parr developed a two-cylinder gasoline engine and set up their business in Charles City, Iowa. In 1903 the firm built fifteen "tractors". A term with Latin roots coined by Hart and Parr and a combination of the words traction and power. The 14,000 pound #3 is the oldest surviving internal combustion engine tractor in the United States and is on display at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington D.C. The two-cylinder engine has a unique hit-and-miss firing cycle that produced 30 horsepower at the belt and 18 at the drawbar.[10]
A very early, hand-built gasoline powered tractor.
In Britain, the first recorded tractor sale was the oil-burning Hornsby-Ackroyd Patent Safety Oil Traction engine, in 1897. However, the first commercially successful design was Dan Albone's three-wheel Ivel tractor of 1902. In 1908, the Saunderson Tractor and Implement Co. of Bedford introduced a four-wheel design, and went on to become the largest tractor manufacturer outside the U.S. at that time. While unpopular at first, these gasoline-powered machines began to catch on in the 1910s when they became smaller and more affordable.[11] Henry Ford introduced the Fordson, the first mass-produced tractor in 1917. They were built in the U.S., Ireland, England and Russia and by 1923, Fordson had 77% of the U.S. market. The Fordson dispensed with a frame, using the strength of the engine block to hold the machine together. By the 1920s, tractors with a gasoline-powered internal combustion engine had become the norm.
Tractor
55
Farm tractor design, power and transmission

Tractor configurations
Tractors can be generally classified as two-wheel drive, two-wheel drive with front wheel assist, four-wheel drive (often with articulated steering), or track tractors (with either two or four powered rubber tracks). The classic farm tractor is a simple open vehicle, with two very large driving wheels on an axle below and slightly behind a single seat (the seat and steering wheel consequently are in the center), and the engine in front of the driver, with two steerable wheels below the engine compartment. This basic design has remained unchanged for a number of years, but enclosed cabs are fitted on almost all modern models, for reasons of operator safety and comfort. In some localities with heavy or wet soils, notably in the Central Valley of California, the "Caterpillar" or "crawler" type of tracked tractor became popular in the 1930s, due to superior traction and floatation. These were usually maneuvered through the use of turning brake pedals and separate track clutches operated by levers rather than a steering wheel.
A 1958 Series II Field Marshall--the classic standard tread farm tractor configuration
Four-wheel drive tractors began to appear in the 1960s. Some four-wheel drive tractors have the standard "two large, two small" configuration typical of smaller tractors, while some have four large powered wheels. The larger tractors are typically an articulated center-hinged design steered by hydraulic cylinders that move the forward power unit while the trailing unit is not steered separately. In the early 21st century, articulated or non-articulated, steerable multi-track "tractors" have largely supplanted the "Caterpillar" type for farm use. Larger types of modern farm tractors include articulated four wheel or eight wheel drive units with one or two power units which are hinged in the middle and steered by hydraulic clutches or pumps. A relatively recent development is the replacement of wheels or steel crawler-type tracks with flexible steel-reinforced rubber tracks, usually powered by hydrostatic or completely hydraulic driving mechanisms. The configuration of these tractors bears little resemblance to the classic farm tractor design.
Volvo T25, 1956, Gasoline tractor
A modern 4-wheel drive farm tractor
Tractor
56
Engine and fuels

The predecessors of modern tractors, traction engines, used steam engines for power. Since the turn of the 20th century, internal combustion engines have been the power source of choice. Between 1900 and 1960, gasoline was the predominant fuel, with kerosene and ethanol being common alternatives. Generally one engine could burn any of those, although cold starting was easiest on gasoline. Often a small auxiliary fuel tank was available to hold gasoline for cold starting and warm-up, while the main A modern steerable all-tracked power unit planting wheat in North Dakota fuel tank held whatever fuel was most convenient or least expensive for the particular farmer. Dieselisation gained momentum starting in the 1960s, and modern farm tractors usually employ diesel engines, which range in power output from 18 to 575 horsepower (15 to 480kW). Size and output are dependent on application, with smaller tractors for lawn mowing, landscaping, orchard work, and truck farming, and larger tractors for vast fields of wheat, maize, soy, and other bulk crops. Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) or propane also have been used as tractor fuels, but require special pressurized fuel tanks and filling equipment so are less prevalent in most markets.
Transmission
Most older farm tractors use a manual transmission. They have several gear ratios, typically 3 to 6, sometimes multiplied into 2 or 3 ranges. This arrangement provides a set of discrete ratios that, combined with the varying of the throttle, allow final-drive speeds from less than one mile per hour up to about 25 miles per hour (40km/h), with the lower speeds used for working the land and the highest speeds used on the road. Slow, controllable speeds are necessary for most operations that are performed with a tractor. They help give the farmer a larger degree of control in certain situations, such as field work. However, when travelling on public roads, the slow operating speeds can cause problems, such as long queues or tailbacks, which can delay or annoy motorists in cars and trucks. These motorists are responsible for being duly careful around farm tractors and sharing the road with them, but many shirk this responsibility, so various ways to minimize the interaction or minimize the speed differential are employed where feasible. Some countries (for example the Netherlands) employ a road sign on some roads that means "no farm tractors". Some modern tractors, such as the JCB Fastrac, are now capable of much higher road speeds of around 50mph (80km/h).
Tractor
57
Older tractors usually have unsynchronized transmission design, which often requires that the operator stop the tractor in order to shift between gears. This mode of use is inherently unsuited to some of the work that tractors do, and has been circumvented in various ways over the years. For existing unsynchronized tractors, the methods of circumvention are double clutching or power-shifting, both of which require the operator to rely on skill to speed-match the gears while shifting. Both of these solutions are undesirable from a risk-mitigation standpoint because of what can go wrong if the operator makes a mistake transmission damage is possible, and loss of vehicle control can occur if the tractor is towing a heavy load either uphill or downhill something that tractors often do. Therefore, operator's manuals for most of these An older model European farm tractor. These tractors state that one must always stop the tractor before shifting, and types of tractors are still common in Eastern Europe they do not even mention the alternatives. As already said, that mode of use is inherently unsuited to some of the work that tractors do, so better options were pursued for newer tractor designs. In these, unsynchronized transmission designs were replaced with synchronization or with a continuously variable transmission (CVT). Either a synchronized manual transmission with enough available gear ratios (often achieved with dual ranges, high and low) or a CVT allow the engine speed to be matched to the desired final-drive speed while keeping engine speed within the appropriate rpm range for power generation (the working range) (whereas throttling back to achieve the desired final-drive speed is a trade-off that leaves the working range). The problems, solutions, and developments described here also Cutaway of modern tractor describe the history of transmission evolution in semi-trailer trucks. The biggest difference is fleet turnover; whereas most of the old road tractors have long since been scrapped, many of the old farm tractors are still in use. Therefore, old transmission design and operation is primarily just of historical interest in trucking, whereas in farming it still often affects daily life.
Hitches and power applications

The power produced by the engine must be transmitted to the implement or equipment in order to do the actual work intended for the equipment. This may be accomplished via a drawbar or hitch system if the implement is to be towed or otherwise pulled through the tractive power of the engine, or via a pulley or power takeoff system if the implement is stationary, or a combination of the two.
Drawbars
Until the 1950s, plows and other tillage equipment usually were connected to the tractor via a drawbar, or a proprietary connecting system. The classic drawbar is simply a steel bar attached to the tractor (or in some cases, as in the early Fordsons, cast as part of the rear transmission housing) to which the hitch of the implement was attached with a pin or by a loop and clevis. The implement could be readily attached and removed, allowing the tractor to be used for other purposes on a daily basis. If the tractor was equipped with a swinging drawbar, the drawbar could be set at the center or offset from center to allow the tractor to run outside the path of the implement.
Tractor The drawbar system necessitated that the implement have its own running gear (usually wheels) and in the case of a plow, chisel cultivator or harrow, some sort of lift mechanism to raise it out of the ground at turns or for transport. Drawbars necessarily posed a rollover risk depending on how the tractive torque was applied. The Fordson tractors (of which more units were produced and placed in service than any other farm tractor) was extremely prone to roll over backwards due to an excessively short wheelbase. The linkage between the implement and the tractor usually had some slack which could lead to jerky starts and greater wear and tear on the tractor and the equipment. Drawbars were appropriate to the dawn of mechanization, because they were very simple in concept and because as the tractor replaced the horse, existing horse-drawn implements usually already had running gear. As the history of mechanization progressed, however, the advantages of other hitching systems became apparent, leading to new developments (see below). Depending on the function for which a tractor is used, however, the drawbar is still one of the usual means of attaching an implement to a tractor (see photo at left).
A large modern John Deere model 9400 four wheel drive tractor with tripled wheels and a drawbar-towed tool chain including one-pass tillage equipment, planter and fertilizer applicator with tanks
58
Fixed mounts
Some tractor manufacturers produced matching equipment that could be directly mounted on the tractor. Examples included front-end loaders, belly mowers, row crop cultivators, corn pickers and corn planters. In most cases, these fixed mounts were proprietary and unique to each make of tractor, so that an implement produced by John Deere, for example, could not be attached to a Minneapolis Moline tractor. Another disadvantage was that mounting usually required some time and labor, resulting in the implement being semi-permanently attached with bolts or other mounting hardware. Usually it was impractical to remove the implement and reinstall it on a day-to-day basis. As a result, the tractor was unavailable for other uses and dedicated to a single use for an appreciable period of time. An implement generally would be mounted at the beginning of its season of use (such as tillage, planting or harvesting) and removed only when the likely use season had ended.
Three-point hitches and quick hitches

The drawbar system was virtually the exclusive method of attaching implements (other than direct attachment to the tractor) before Harry Ferguson developed the three-point hitch. Equipment attached to the three-point hitch can be raised or lowered hydraulically with a control lever. The equipment attached to the three-point hitch is usually completely supported by the tractor. Another way to attach an implement is via a Quick Hitch, which is attached to the three-point hitch. This enables a single person to attach an implement quicker and put the person in less danger when attaching the implement.
Tractor
59 The three-point hitch revolutionized farm tractors and their implements.
Almost every tractor today features Ferguson's 3 point linkage or a derivative of it. The three-point hitch allows for easy attachment and detachment of implements while allowing the implement to function as a part of the tractor almost as if it were attached by a fixed mount. Previously, when the implement hit an obstacle the towing link would break or the tractor could flip over. Ferguson's genius was to combine a connection via two lower and one upper lift arms that were connected to a hydraulic lifting ram. The ram A modern three point hitch was in turn connected to the upper of the 3 links so that increased drag (as when a plough hits a rock) caused the hydraulics to lift the implement until the obstacle was passed. Other manufacturers copied Ferguson's invention, or developed variations of it. For example, International Harvestor's Farmall tractors had a two-point "Fast Hitch" and John Deere had a power lift that was similar but not as flexible as the Ferguson invention. Recently, Bobcat's patent on its front loader connection (inspired by these earlier systems) has expired; and compact tractors are now being outfitted with quick-connect attachments for their front-end loaders.
Power take-off systems and hydraulics

In addition to towing an implement or supplying tractive power through the wheels, most tractors have a means to transfer power to another machine such as a baler, swather, or mower. Unless it functions solely by pulling it through or over the ground, a towed implement needs its own power source (such as a baler or combine with a separate engine) or else a means of transmitting power from the tractor to the mechanical operations of the equipment. Early tractors used belts or cables wrapped around the flywheel or a separate belt pulley to power stationary equipment, such as a threshing machine, buzz saw, silage blower, or stationary baler. In most cases, it was not practical for the tractor and equipment to move with a flexible belt or cable between them, so this system necessitated that the tractor remain in one location with the work brought to the equipment, or that the tractor be relocated at each turn and the power set-up reapplied (as in cable-drawn plowing systems used in early steam tractor operations). Modern tractors use a power take-off (PTO) shaft to provide rotary power to machinery that may be stationary or pulled. The PTO shaft generally is at the rear of the tractor, and can be connected to an implement that is either towed by a drawbar or a three-point hitch. This eliminates the need for a separate implement-mounted power source, which is almost never seen in modern farm equipment.
A PTO shaft connected to a tractor.
Virtually all modern tractors can also provide external hydraulic fluid and electrical power to the equipment they are towing, either by hoses or wires.
Tractor
60
Operation
Modern tractors have many electrical switches and levers in the cab for controlling the multitude of different functions available on the tractor.
Pedals
Modern farm tractors usually have four or five foot-pedals for the operator on the floor of the tractor. The pedal on the left is the clutch. The operator presses on this pedal to disengage the transmission for either shifting gears or stopping the tractor. Some modern tractors have (or as optional equipment) a button on the gear stick for controlling the clutch, in addition to the standard pedal.
A lawn tractor towing a cargo cart
Two of the pedals on the right are the brakes. The left brake pedal stops the left rear wheel and the right brake pedal does the same with the right side. This independent left and right wheel braking augments the steering of the tractor when only the two rear wheels are driven. This is usually done when it is necessary to make a sharp turn. The split brake pedal is also used in mud or soft dirt to control a tire that spins due to loss of traction. The operator presses both pedals together to stop the tractor. For tractors with additional front-wheel drive, this operation often engages the 4-wheel locking differential (diff-lock) to help stop the tractor when traveling at road speeds. The pedal furthest to the right is the foot throttle. Unlike in automobiles, it can also be controlled from a hand-operated lever ("hand throttle"). This helps provide a constant speed in field work. It also helps provide continuous power for stationary tractors that are operating an implement by shaft or belt. The foot throttle gives the operator more automobile-like control over the speed of the tractor for road work. This is a feature of more recent tractors; older tractors often did not have this feature. In the UK it is mandatory to use the foot pedal to control engine speed while travelling on the road. Some tractors, especially those designed for row-crop work, have a 'de-accelerator' pedal, which operates in the reverse fashion to an automobile throttle, in that the pedal is pushed down to slow the engine. This is to allow fine control over the speed of the tractor when maneuvering at the end of crop rows in fields- the operating speed of the engine is set using the hand throttle, and if the operator wishes to slow the tractor to turn, he simply has to press the pedal, turn and release it once the turn is completed, rather than having to alter the setting of the hand throttle twice during the maneuver. A fifth pedal is traditionally included just in front of the driver's seat to operate the rear diff-lock, which prevents wheelslip. The differential normally allows the outside wheel to travel faster than the inside wheel during a turn. However, in low-traction conditions on a soft surface the same mechanism could allow one wheel to slip, further reducing traction. The diff-lock overrides this, forcing both wheels to turn at the same speed, reducing wheel slip and improving traction. Care must be taken to unlock the differential before turning, usually by hitting the pedal a second time, since the tractor cannot perform a turn with the diff-lock engaged. In modern tractors this pedal is replaced with an electrical switch.
Tractor
61
Levers and switches

Many functions that were once controlled with a lever have been replaced with some model of electrical switch with the rise of indirect computer controlling of functions in modern tractors. Until the beginning of the 60's tractors had a single register of gears, hence one gear stick. Often 3-5 forwards and 1 reverse. Then group gears were introduced, hence another gear stick. Later on control of the reverse gear was moved to a special stick that controls direction and adding a gear stick or a lever attached at the side of the steering wheel. Nowadays with CVT or other clutch-free gear types there are fewer sticks for controlling the transmission, some replaced with electrical switches or totally computer controlled. The three-point hitch was controlled with a lever for adjusting the position, or as with the earliest ones, just the function for raising or lowering the hitch. With modern electrical systems it's often replaced with a potentiometer for lower bound position and another one for the upper bound and a switch allowing automatic adjustment of the hitch between these settings. The external hydraulics also originally had levers but nowadays often replaced with some form of electrical switch, the same goes for the power take-off shaft.
Safety
Agriculture in the United States is one of the most hazardous industries, only surpassed by mining and construction. No other farm machine is so identified with the hazards of production agriculture as the tractor.[12] Tractor-related injuries account for approximately 32% of the fatalities and 6% of the non-fatal injuries in agriculture. Over 50% is attributed to tractor overturns.[13] The roll over protection structure (ROPS) and seat belt, when worn, are the two most important safety devices to protect operators from death during tractor overturns.[14] Modern tractors have rollover protection systems (ROPS) to prevent an operator from being crushed if the tractor overturns. It is important to remember that the ROPS does not prevent tractor overturns. Rather, it prevents the operator from being crushed during an overturn. This is especially important in open-air tractors, where the ROPS is a steel beam that extends above the operator's seat. For tractors with operator cabs, the ROPS is part of the frame of the cab. A ROPS with enclosed cab further reduces the likelihood of serious injury because the operator is protected by the sides and windows of the cab.
Farm tractor rear turnover
The classic Row Crop tractor (an Allis-Chalmers WD). Note the absence of any rollover protection system.
ROPS were first required by legislation in Sweden in 1959. Before ROPS were required, some farmers died when their tractors rolled on top of them. Row-crop tractors, before ROPS, were particularly dangerous because of their 'tricycle' design with the two front wheels spaced close together and angled inward toward the ground. Some farmers were killed by rollovers while operating tractors along steep slopes. Others have been killed while attempting to tow or pull an excessive load from above axle height, or when cold weather caused the tires to freeze to the ground, in both cases causing the tractor to pivot around the rear axle. For the ROPS to work as designed, the operator must stay within the protective frame of the ROPS. This means the operator must wear the seat belt. Not wearing the seat belt may defeat the primary purpose of the ROPS.
Tractor
62
Applications and variations

Farm tractor applications
The most common use of the term "tractor" is for the vehicles used on farms. The farm tractor is used for pulling or pushing agricultural machinery or trailers, for plowing, tilling, disking, harrowing, planting, and similar tasks.
A modern John Deere 8110 Farm Tractor plowing a field using a chisel plow.
A tractor pulling a rototiller
A variety of specialty farm tractors have been developed for particular uses. These include "row crop" tractors with adjustable tread width to allow the tractor to pass down rows of corn, tomatoes or other crops without crushing the plants, "wheatland" or "standard" tractors with non-adjustable fixed wheels and a lower center of gravity for plowing and other heavy field work for broadcast crops, and "high crop" tractors with adjustable tread and increased ground clearance, often used in the cultivation of cotton and other A farm tractor used to power a pump for high-growing row crop plant operations, and "utility tractors", typically irrigating a plot of land smaller tractors with a low center of gravity and short turning radius, used for general purposes around the farmstead. Many utility tractors are used for non-farm grading, landscape maintenance and excavation purposes, particularly with loaders, backhoes, pallet forks and similar devices. Small garden or lawn tractors designed for suburban and semi-rural gardening and landscape maintenance also exist in a variety of configurations. Some farm-type tractors are found elsewhere than on farms: with large universities' gardening departments, in public parks, or for highway workman use with blowtorch cylinders strapped to its sides and a pneumatic drill air compressor permanently fastened over its power take-off. These are often fitted with grass (turf) tyres which are less damaging to soft surfaces than agricultural tires.
A tractor with a chaser bin.
Tractor
63
Precision agriculture
Space technology has been incorporated into agriculture in the form of GPS devices, and robust on-board computers installed as optional features on farm tractors. These technologies are used in modern, precision farming techniques. The spin-offs from the space race have actually facilitated automation in plowing and the use of autosteer systems drone on tractors that are manned but only steered at the end of a row, the idea being to neither overlap and use more fuel nor leave streaks when performing jobs such as cultivating.
Engineering tractors
The durability and engine power of tractors made them very suitable for engineering tasks. Tractors can be fitted with engineering tools such as dozer blade, bucket, hoe, ripper, and so on. The most common attachments for the front of a tractor are dozer blade or a bucket. When attached with engineering tools the tractor is called an engineering vehicle. A bulldozer is a track-type tractor attached with blade in the front and a rope-winch behind. Bulldozers are very powerful tractors and have excellent ground-hold, as their main tasks are to push or drag things. Bulldozers have been further modified over time to evolve into new machines which are capable of working in ways that the original bulldozer can not. One example is that loader tractors were created by removing the blade and substituting a large volume bucket and hydraulic arms which can raise and lower the bucket, thus making it useful for scooping up earth, rock and similar loose material to load it into trucks.
A tractor factory in Chelyabinsk in the Soviet Union circa 1930.
Ebro farm tractor
A front-loader or loader is a tractor with an engineering tool which consists of two hydraulic powered arms on either side of the front engine compartment and a tilting implement. This is usually a wide open box called a bucket but other common attachments are a pallet fork and a bale grappler. Other modifications to the original bulldozer include making the machine smaller to let it operate in small work areas where movement is limited. There are also tiny wheeled loaders, officially called Skid-steer loaders but nicknamed "Bobcat" after the original manufacturer, which are particularly suited for small excavation projects in confined areas.
Tractor
64
Backhoe loader
The most common variation of the classic farm tractor is the hoe, also called a hoe-loader. As the name implies, it has a loader assembly on the front and a backhoe on the back. Backhoes attach to a 3 point hitch on farm or industrial tractors. Industrial tractors are often heavier in construction particularly with regards to the use of steel grill for protection from rocks and the use of construction tires. When the backhoe is permanently attached, the machine usually has a seat that can swivel to the rear to face the hoe controls. Removable backhoe attachments almost always have a separate seat on the attachment.
A common backhoe-loader. The backhoe is on the left, the bucket/blade on the right.
Backhoe-loaders are very common and can be used for a wide variety of tasks: construction, small demolitions, light transportation of building materials, powering building equipment, digging holes,loading trucks, breaking asphalt and paving roads. Some buckets have a retractable bottom, enabling them to empty their load more quickly and efficiently. Buckets with retractable bottoms are also often used for grading and scratching off sand. The front assembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Often the bucket can be replaced with other devices or tools. Their relatively small frame and precise control make backhoe-loaders very useful and common in urban engineering projects such as construction and repairs in areas too small for larger equipment. Their versatility and compact size makes them one of the most popular urban construction vehicles. In the UK, the word "JCB" is sometimes used colloquially as a genericized trademark for any such type of engineering vehicle. The term JCB now appears in the Oxford English Dictionary, although it is still legally a trademark of J. C. Bamford Ltd. The term "digger" is also commonly used.
Compact Utility Tractor

A Compact Utility Tractor, also called a CUT is a smaller version of an agricultural tractor but designed primarily for landscaping and estate management type tasks rather than for planting and harvesting on a commercial scale. Typical CUTs range in from 20 to 50 horsepower (15-37kW) with available power take off (PTO) horsepower ranging from 15 to 45hp (11-34kW). CUTs are often equipped with both a mid-mounted PTO and a standard rear PTO, especially those below 40 horsepower (30kW). The mid-mount PTO shaft typically rotates at/near 2000 rpms and is typically used to power such implements as In the middle is a 24 hp (18 kW) diesel CUT mid-mount finish mower, a front mounted snow blower or front illustrating the size difference between a small 40 mounted rotary broom. The rear PTO is standardized at 540 rpms for hp farm tractor and a garden tractor the North American markets, but in some parts of the world a dual 540/1000 rpm PTO is standard and implements are available for either standard in those markets.
Tractor
65
One of the most common attachment for a Compact Utility Tractor is the front end loader or FEL. Like the larger agricultural tractors, a CUT will have an adjustable three-point hitch that is hydraulically controlled. Typically a CUT will have four wheel drive, or more correctly 4 wheel assist. Modern Compact Utility Tractors often feature a Hydrostatic transmission, but many variants of gear drive transmissions are also offered from low priced simple gear transmissions to synchronized transmissions to advanced glide-shift transmissions. All modern CUTs feature a government mandated roll over protection structure (ROPS) just like agricultural tractors. The most well known brands in North America include Kubota, John Deere Tractor, New Holland Ag, Case-Farmall and Massey-Ferguson. Although less common, compact backhoes are often attached to compact utility tractors.
Howse brand modular Subsoiler mounted to a tractor
Broadcast seeder mounted to a Kubota Compact Utility Tractor
JD 71 Flexi Planter for tractors 20 to 35 horsepower
Compact Utility Tractors require special smaller implements than full size agricultural tractors. Very common implements include the box blade, the grader blade, the landscape rake, the post hole digger (or post hole auger), the rotary cutter (also called a slasher or a brush hog), a mid or rear mount finish mower, broadcast seeder, subsoiler and the rototiller (also rotary tiller). In northern climates, a rear mounted snow blower is very common, on smaller CUTs some models are available with front mounted snow blowers that are powered by a mid-PTO shaft. There are many more implement brands than there are tractor brands offering CUT owners a wide selection of choice.
For small scale farming or large scale gardening, there are some planting and harvesting implements sized for CUTs. One and two row planting units are commonly available as are cultivators, sprayers and different types of seeders (slit, rotary and drop).
Tractor
66
Row-crop tractor
A row-crop tractor is a tractor tailored specifically to the growing of row crops (crops grown in rows, as in truck farming), and most especially to cultivating. Cultivating can take place anytime from soon after the crop plants have sprouted until soon before they are harvested. Several rounds of cultivating may be done over the season. A row-crop tractor essentially brings together a farm tractor and its cultivator into one machine, in the same way that motive power has been combined into other machinery (for example, horseless carriages combined the motive power into transport vehicles; self-propelled guns combined the artillery tractor and its gun into one machine).
An Oliver Row Crop 60 tractor
The earliest win from introducing tractors to mechanize agriculture was in reducing the heavy efforts of plowing and harrowing before planting, which could often be (almost literally) backbreaking tasks for humans and draft animals. Early tractors were used mainly to alleviate this drudgery. But they tended to be very big and heavy, so they were not well suited to getting into a field of already-planted row crops to do weed control. Row-crop tractorslight, affordable, and reliablecorrected this flaw. Row crop itself refers to any farm crop that is cultivated in rows. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines 'row crop' as an "Agricultural crop planted, usually with mechanical planting devices, in individual rows that are spaced to permit machine traffic during the early parts of the growing season" [15] Row-crop tractor history The first tractors designed for the ability to fit between rows of crops were made by International Harvester (IH), with development beginning in the 1920s. The first row-crop tractors made by IH were called "Farmalls". The cultivator mounted in the front so it was easily visible. Additionally, the tractor had a narrow front end; the front tires were spaced very closely and angled in towards the bottom. The back wheels straddled two rows and it could cultivate four rows at once. From 1924 until 1963, Farmalls were the largest selling row-crop tractors.
A Farmall Regular
To compete, John Deere designed the Model C which had a wide front and could cultivate three rows at once. Only 112 prototypes were made as Deere realized that sales would be lost to Farmall if their model did less. In 1928, John Deere released the Model C anyway, only as the Model GP (General Purpose) to avoid confusion with the Model D when order over the then unclear phone.[16] Oliver refined its "Row Crop" model early in 1930.[17] Until 1935, the 18-27 was OliverHart-Parr's only row-crop tractor.[18] Many Oliver row crop models are referred to as "Oliver Row Crop 77" or "Oliver Row Crop 88" etc.
Tractor Row-crop tractor safety Many early row-crop tractors had a tricycle design with two closely spaced front tires, and some even had a single front tire. This made it dangerous to operate on the side of a steep hill, and, as a result, many farmers died from tractor rollovers. Also, early row-crop tractors had no rollover protection system (ROPS), meaning that if the tractor flipped back the operator could be crushed. Sweden was the first country which passed legislation requiring ROPS, in 1959. Over 50% of tractor related injuries and deaths are attributed to tractor rollover.[13]
Allis-Chalmers WD. Note the absence of any rollover protection system.
67
Modern row-crop tractors The Canadian agricultural equipment manufacturer Versatile makes row-crop tractors that are 250 and 280 horsepower (190 and 210 kW); powered by an 8.3 liter Cummins Diesel engine.[19] Modern row crop tractors have rollover protection systems in the form of a reinforced cab or a roll bar.
Garden tractors
Garden Tractors (also called Mini Tractors) are small, light and simple tractors designed for use in domestic gardens. Garden Tractors are usually designed primarily for cutting grass, being fitted with horizontal rotary cutting decks. Visually, the distinction between a garden tractor and a ride-on lawnmower is often hard to make - generally Garden Tractors are more sturdily built, with stronger frames, axles and transmissions rated for ground-engaging applications. Garden Tractors are generally capable of mounting other implements such as harrows, cultivators/rotavators, sweepers, rollers and dozer-blades. Like ride-on mowers, Garden Tractors generally have a vertical-crankshaft engine with a belt-drive to a transaxle-type transmission (usually of 4- or 5-speeds, although some may also have two-speed reduction gearboxes or a hydrostatic drive). However, Wheel Horse (now part of Toro) garden tractors have horizontal-crankshaft engines with belt-drive, whilst Allen/Gutbrod tractors had an automotive-type clutch and gearbox. The engines are generally a 1- or 2-cylinder petrol (gasoline) engine, although diesel engine models are also available, especially in Europe. In the U.S., the term riding lawn mower today often is used to refer to mid or rear engined machines. Front-engined tractor layout machines designed primarily for cutting grass and light towing are called lawn tractors; and heavier duty tractors of the same overall size, often shaft driven, are called garden tractors. The primary differences between a lawn tractor and a garden tractor are the transmission torque handling capability, frame durability, the rear wheels (garden tractors almost always have multiple mounting bolts, while most lawn tractors have a single bolt or clip on the hub), and the ability to attach ground engaging equipment such as plows or disk-harrows. Craftsman, MTD, Snapper, and other major mowing equipment manufacturers use these terms. As well as dedicated manufacturers, many makers of agricultural tractors have made (or continue to make) ranges of garden tractors, such as Case, Massey-Ferguson, International Harvester and John Deere.
Two-wheel tractors
Although most people think first of four-wheel vehicles when they think of tractors, a tractor may have one or more axles. The key benefit is the power itself, which only takes one axle to provide. Single-axle tractors, more often called two-wheel tractors or walk-behind tractors, have had many users ever since the beginning of internal combustion engine tractors. They tend to be small and affordable. This was especially true before the 1960s, when a walk-behind tractor could often be more affordable than a two-axle tractor of comparable power. Today's compact utility tractors and advanced garden tractors may negate most of that market advantage, but two-wheel tractors still
Tractor enjoy a loyal following, especially where an already-paid-for two-wheel tractor is financially superior to a compact or garden tractor that would have to be purchased. Regions where two-wheel tractors are especially prevalent today include India, China, and Southeast Asia.
68
Orchard tractors
Tractors tailored to use in fruit orchards typically have features suited to passing under tree branches with impunity. These include a lower overall profile; reduced tree-branch-snagging risk (via underslung exhaust pipes rather than smoke-stack-style exhaust, and large sheetmetal cowlings and fairings that allow branches to deflect and slide off rather than catch); spark arrestors on the exhaust tips; and often wire cages to protect the operator from snags.
Automobile-conversion tractors and other homemade versions

The ingenuity of farm mechanics, coupled in some cases with OEM or aftermarket assistance, has often resulted in the conversion of automobiles for use as farm tractors. In the United States, this trend was especially strong from the 1910s through 1950s. It began early in the development of vehicles powered by internal combustion engines, with blacksmiths and amateur mechanics tinkering in their shops. Especially during the interwar period, dozens of manufacturers (Montgomery Ward among them) marketed aftermarket kits for converting Ford Model Ts for use as tractors.[20] (These were sometimes called "Hoover Wagons" during the Great Depression, although this term was usually reserved for automobiles converted to horse-drawn buggy use when gasoline was unavailable or unaffordable. During the same period, another common name was "Doodlebug"). Ford even considered producing an "official" optional kit.[21] Many Model A Fords also were converted for this purpose. In later years, some farm mechanics have been known to convert more modern trucks or cars for use as tractors, more often as curiosities or for recreational purposes (rather than out of the earlier motives of pure necessity or frugality). During World War II, a shortage of tractors in Sweden led to the development of the so-called EPA tractor (EPA was a chain of discount stores and it was often used to signify something lacking in quality). An EPA tractor was simply an automobile, truck or lorry, with the passenger space cut off behind the front seats, equipped with two gearboxes in a row. When done to an older car with a ladder frame, the result was not dissimilar to a tractor and could be used as one.
A Ford rebuilt to an EPA tractor.
An "A tractor" based on Volvo 760. Notice the slow-vehicle triangle and the longer boot.
After the war it remained popular, now not as a farm vehicle, but as a way for young people without a driver's license to own something similar to a car. Since it was legally seen as a tractor it could be driven A Volvo Duett rebuilt to an EPA tractor. from 16 years of age and only required a tractor license. Eventually the Obviously the intended use is no longer as a farm legal loophole was closed and no new EPA tractors were allowed to be vehicle. made, but the remaining were still legal, something that led to inflated prices and many protests from people that preferred EPA tractors to ordinary cars.
Tractor In March 1975 a similar type of vehicle was introduced in Sweden, the A tractor [from arbetstraktor (work tractor)]. The main difference is that an A tractor has a top speed of 30km/h. This is usually done by fitting two gearboxes in a row and not using one of them. Volvo Duett was for a long time the primary choice for conversion to an EPA or A tractor, but, since supplies have dried up, other cars have been used, in most cases a Volvo. Another type of homemade tractors are ones that are fabricated from scratch. The "from scratch" description is relative, as often individual components will be repurposed from earlier vehicles or machinery (e.g., engines, gearboxes, axle housings); but the tractor's overall chassis is essentially designed and built by the owner (e.g., a frame is welded from bar stockchannel stock, angle stock, flat stock, etc.). As with automobile conversions, the heyday of this type of tractor, at least in developed economies, lies in the past, when there were large populations of blue-collar workers for whom metalworking and farming were prevalent parts of their lives. (For example, many 19th- and 20th-century New England and Midwestern machinists and factory workers had grown up on farms.) Backyard fabrication was a natural activity to them (whereas it might seem daunting to most people today).
69
Alternative machine types 'called' tractors

The term tractor (US & Canada) or tractor unit (UK) is also applied to: Road tractors, tractor units or traction heads, familiar as the front end of an articulated lorry / semi-trailer truck. They are heavy-duty vehicles with large engines and several axles. The majority of these tractors are designed to pull long Road tractor pulling a flatbed trailer semi-trailers, most often to transport freight of some kind over a significant distance, and is connected to the trailer with a fifth wheel coupling. In England this type of "tractor" is often called an "artic cab" (short for articulated cab). A minority is the ballast tractor, whose load is hauled from a drawbar. Pushback tractors are used on airports to move aircraft on the ground, most commonly pushing aircraft away from their parking stands. Locomotive tractors (engines) or Rail car movers The amalgamation of machines, electrical generators, controls and devices that comprise the traction component of railway vehicles Artillery tractors Vehicles used to tow artillery pieces of varying weights. NASA and other space agencies use very large tractors to move large launch vehicles and space shuttles between their hangars and launch pads. A pipe-tractor is a device used for conveying advanced instruments into pipes for measurement and data logging, and the purging of well holes, sewer pipes and other inaccessible tubes.
Diesel-electric locomotive at work
Komsomolets Soviet artillery tractor
A Trackmobile 4150
Aircraft Pushback tractor
Tractor
70
Glossary of tractor-related terms not explained elsewhere

Term Nebraska tractor tests Explanation Tests, mandated by a Nebraska law and administered by the University of Nebraska, that objectively tested the performance of all brands sold in that state. In the 1920s and 1930s, an era of snake oil sales and advertising tactics, the Nebraska tests helped farmers throughout North America to see through marketing claims and make informed buying decisions. The tests continue today, making sure that the snake oil, which has mostly been vanquished, stays that way.
tractor A period of ruinous competition and price warring between tractor manufacturers in the 1920s. Led to a consolidation in the industry. war(s) great tractor war(s)
Gallery
An unusual application - road roller powered by a tractor-drive
Russian peasants gather to watch their village's first tractor - drawing by Vladimir Krikhatsky
A single tractor in Brazil.
Manufacturers
See List of tractor manufacturers See List of former tractor manufacturers In addition to commercial manufacturers, the Open Source Ecology group has developed several working prototypes of an open source tractor called the LifeTrac as part of its Global Village Construction Set. When technical documentation, including CAD blueprints, is completed for instructions to build it, anyone with access to the Internet will be able to download a full set of blueprints and manufacturing instructions to build their own tractor (assuming they have the necessary tools and equipment); under the open source license, the do-it-yourself tractors may be built and used for any purpose including selling the working tractors.
Tractor
71
References
[1] Houghton Mifflin (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (http:/ / www. houghtonmifflinbooks. com/ epub/ ahd4. shtml) (4th ed.). Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. pp.1829. ISBN978-0-395-82517-4. . [2] Merriam-Webster Unabridged (http:/ / unabridged. merriam-webster. com) (MWU). (Online subscription-based reference service of Merriam-Webster, based on Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002.) Headword tractor. Accessed 2007-09-22. [3] "Tractor" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=tractor). (etymology). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved 2008-06-02. [4] http:/ / www. livinghistoryfarm. org/ farminginthe30s/ machines_04. html Tractors in the 1930s [5] The John Deere Tractor Legacy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3cJeffKoriEC& pg=PA41& dq=John+ Froelich+ and+ tractor#v=onepage& q& f=false). Voyageur Press. . [6] Xulon Press (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Vtgl7YKNFQ0C& pg=PA42& dq=John+ Froelich+ and+ tractor#v=onepage& q& f=false). Xulon Press. 2002-06. ISBN9781591601340. . [7] "Gasoline Tractor" (http:/ / www. iptv. org/ iowapathways/ mypath. cfm?ounid=ob_000058). Iowa Pathways. . [8] "From Steam to Gasoline" (http:/ / theinspiredmedia. com/ 2009/ 08/ from-steam-to-gasoline/ ). Inspired Media. . [9] Miller 2003. [10] "Smithsonian Museum of American History" (http:/ / americanhistory. si. edu/ collections/ object. cfm?key=35& objkey=157). Hart Parr #3. . Retrieved 2010-11-29. [11] Rumely 1910. [12] NASD: Tractor Overturn Hazards (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ nasd/ docs/ d000701-d000800/ d000746/ d000746. html) [13] Donham, K., D. Osterberg,, M.L/ Meyers, and C. Lehtola. 1999. Final report tractor risk abatement and control: the policy conference, September 1012, 1997. The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. [14] General Tractor Safety (http:/ / www. ext. colostate. edu/ pubs/ farmmgt/ 05016. html) [15] "Crop Glossary | Ag 101 | Agriculture | US EPA" (http:/ / www. epa. gov/ oecaagct/ ag101/ cropglossary. html). Epa.gov. 2006-06-28. . Retrieved 2010-07-29. [16] Klancher et al. 2003. [17] "Tractors Advance during the Depression" (http:/ / www. livinghistoryfarm. org/ farminginthe30s/ machines_04. html). Livinghistoryfarm.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-29. [18] Ertel 2001, p.72. [19] Row Crop Tractors 250 to 280 hp (http:/ / www. versatile-ag. ca/ news_and_media/ downloads/ Versatile-RC-brochure. pdf) [20] Pripps & Morland 1993, p.28. [21] Leffingwell 2004, pp.4353.
Bibliography
Ertel, Patrick W. (2001). The American Tractor: A Century of Legendary Machines (http://books.google.com/ books?id=vQenXMGgRc4C&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false). Osceola, WI, USA: MBI. ISBN978-0760308639. Klancher, Lee; Leffingwell, Randy; Morland, Andrew; Pripps, Robert N. (2003). Farm Tractors (http://books. google.com/?id=b1U8tvBEEDMC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Crestline [Imprint of MBI]. ISBN978-0760317761. Leffingwell, Randy (2004). Ford Farm Tractors (http://books.google.com/books?id=A1GzJ_Hyj1kC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Motorbooks Classics Series. Osceola, WI, USA: MBI. ISBN978-0760319192. Miller, Orrin E. (2003). "John Froelich: The Story of a Man and a Tractor" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=3cJeffKoriEC&pg=PA41#v=snippet&q=john froelich tractor&f=false). In Macmillian, Don. The John Deere Tractor Legacy. Voyaguer Press. ISBN978-0896586192. Pripps, Robert N.; Morland, Andrew (photographer) (1993). Farmall Tractors: History of International McCormick-Deering Farmall Tractors (http://books.google.com/books?id=y6FKAAAAYAAJ). Farm Tractor Color History Series. Osceola, WI, USA: MBI. ISBN978-0-87938-763-1. Rumeley, Edward A. (August 1910). "The Passing Of The Man With The Hoe" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=HsrkfU461xAC&pg=PA13246). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XX: 1324613258. Retrieved 2009-07-10
Tractor
72
External links
Tractor information
Database covering all makes and models of farm tractors (http://www.tractordata.com/) Paying homage to humble tractor (http://www.youtractor.com/) UK tractor & Construction Plant Wikia for collectors & information (http://tractors.wikia.com/wiki/Tractor_& _Construction_Plant_Wiki) Purdue University Tractor Safety Article re: ROPS, PTO, etc (http://www.ces.purdue.edu/extmedia/S/S-56. html) Agricultural Tractors and Machinery (http://www.dmoz.org/Business/Agriculture_and_Forestry/ Equipment_and_Supplies/Tractors,_Machinery,_and_Implements/) at the Open Directory Project Nebraska Tractor Test Laboratory (http://tractortestlab.unl.edu/) Historical Tractor Test Reports and Manufacturers' Literature (http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/ tractormuseumlit/) Reports on 400+ models 1903-2006 A History of Tractors (http://www.agriculture.technomuses.ca/english/collections_research/tractors.cfm) at the Canada Agriculture Museum European tractors (http://www.tractorforum.com/f245/) Russian tractors (http://www.chetra-im.com/)
Tractor safety
EU Working Group on Agricultural Tractors - Work Safety (http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/automotive/ tws_meetings/index.htm) EU Directives on tractor design: (Mapped Index) (http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/automotive/directives/ tractors/index_map.htm), or (Numerical Index) (http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/automotive/directives/ tractors/index.htm) Tractor Safety (http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d000101-d000200/d000155/tractor.html) (National Agricultural Safety Database) Tractor Safety (http://www.nsc.org/resources/factsheets/ag/ts.aspx) (National Safety Council) Adaptive Tractor Overturn Prediction System (http://age-web.age.uiuc.edu/faculty/teg/Research/ BiosystemsAutomation/SafetyORE/AdaptiveTractorOverturnPredictionSystem.pdf) Tractor Overturn Protection and Prevention (http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/FARMMGT/05018.html) Case Report: 04NY077 Farm Owner Dies during Tractor Overturn (http://www.health.state.ny.us/ environmental/investigations/face/04ny077.htm). ACC: Farm safety: Vehicles, machinery and equipment (http://www.acc.co.nz/injury-prevention/rural-safety/ vehicles-machinery-and-equipment/index.htm).
Article Sources and Contributors
73

Automotive industry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458369184 Contributors: -Majestic-, 00666, 1122334455, 16@r, 7tattoosleeves7, 842U, 85jettaguy, A elalaily, A little insignificant, A8UDI, Abghosh71, Ace Darville, Adamccl, Addshore, Admirer123, Ahunt, Airport master, Akosikupal, Aldo L, AlexLibman, Allo002, Altermike, Amicianthony, Anaanalatte, Andrewpmk, Anniv22, Anserta, AntoSFD1982, AntoniusJ, Antonw1, Arm jstp, Athene cunicularia, Atomician, Avono, Barneca, Basilicum, Bathrobe, Beland, Belligero, Ben Ben, Benefactordyr, Benjamin12, Bento00, Bielasko, BigBen212, Bjenks, BlGene, Blanchardb, Bllr3, Bob A, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Borgx, Bravada, Brossow, Brutaldeluxe, Brydo16, Bryschneider, BsBsBs, Bsroiaadn, CZmarlin, Calabe1992, Canadian, Canaima, Chasingsol, Cheezman183, Chendy, Chinahanji1, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Chrisgarty, Clyde1998, Constantijn09, CrookedAsterisk, Cymru.lass, D, Dale Arnett, Dan69en, Dancarblog, Dancho612, Danielign9, Davepape, DeFacto, DeLarge, Decltype, Dekisugi, Delorean, Dennis Bratland, Deon Steyn, Dino246, Discospinster, Djibouti,Djibouti, Domger, Doug Coldwell, Dougofborg, Download, Drbreznjev, Dricherby, Drilnoth, E2eamon, Ecthelion83, Ehoopman, ElSaxo, Elockid, Empoor, Enthusiast10, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Evbat95, Facts707, Faisal Shariar, Favouritesky, FetchcommsAWB, Flubeca, FoxLad, FreedomSeven, Ftcnt, Gail, Gaucho9, Gildos, Giraffedata, Glane23, Gogo Dodo, Gonzalez Gabe, Goodnightmush, Graham87, Gregor cox, Grifter72, Gsarwa, Gscshoyru, H falcon, Ham Pastrami, Hamiltha, Hamster X, Hasan.habib, Hassan.ishtiaq, Hezery99, Hobbsgobble, Howcheng, Hu12, HybridBoy, Hydro, I dream of horses, Iamabeast333, Icairns, Icsunonove, Infrogmation, Interiot, Ionica55amg, Ipigott, J.delanoy, JArbacol, JCDenton2052, JCam, JForget, JJx2, JMBZ-12, Jackehammond, Jacobpage21, James086, JamesBWatson, Jamie DD, JanSderback, JaneGJanson, Jevansen, Jklamo, John Anderson, Johnanth, JosefBranson, JovanCormac, Jreconomy, JuWiki2, Juliancolton, JustinRossi, KP-TheSpectre, Kalaua, KansasCity, Kenneth M Burke, Khalidshou, Kierant, Kingj123, Kookyunii, KoreanSentry, Kozuch, Kroum, Kshitij85, Ksyrie, Kuru, Kwende, Lakshmix, LeaveSleaves, Lefty G. Balogh, Levineps, Lorikeet, Lotje, Love Krittaya, Luna Santin, MER-C, Mac, Malcolma, Marco bisello, Markus451, Martin451, Mattg82, Mba4931627, McSly, Mdavidson98, Mellisa Anthony Jones, Mgblair, MickMacNee, Minimac93, Miniotx, Modster, Motorworld, Mr Vinx, MrOllie, Mrwojo, Mtaylor848, Mwanner, My sister drives a '98 Sunfire, Mykeathome, Mysteo, NJA, Nate 687, Netalarm, Newgenerationz, Newt, Nietszeggend, Nopetro, Nuno Tavares, Nzd, OOODDD, OSX, Oda Mari, Olivier, Omk 489, Opc123, OranL, OrbiliusMagister, Ouyuecheng, Oxymoron83, PFHLai, PGWG, Peter E. James, Phantomsteve, Phatdawg00, PhilHibbs, Philip Trueman, PhnomPencil, Pineapple fez, Pinkadelica, Plasticup, Polly, Pondok Cerita, Pontificalibus, Porsche997SBS, Prashanthns, PrincessofLlyr, Ptr123, Rangoon11, Reaper Eternal, Regushee, Renato Costa, Rhp26, RiseOfTheRev01ution, Rjensen, Rjuice, Robofish, Rrburke, Ryuhaku, SHCarter, Sable232, Salted sugar, Samwise12, Schalkcity, Scheno, Sciurin, Scoty6776, Sennen goroshi, SergeyKurdakov, Sgeureka, Shantigk69, Shawnc, Shinerunner, Shoobs056, SidneyWeston, Siim, SimonX, Skartsis, Skcpublic, Sky Attacker, Slo-mo, Snc, Softjuice, Somatosis, SomeUsr, Sparrowman980, Species8473, Spectorza, Steve Dufour, Stude62, Sun830816, SuperHamster, Taalo, Taegetos, TakuyaMurata, TastyPoutine, Tempodivalse, Teutonic Tamer, Thamzn, The Grumpy Hacker, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thingg, Thomas Paine1776, Tide rolls, Timpicerilo, Tomh009, Tony Corsini, Tresiden, Trusilver, Tvskyfreak, Tydwil3, Typ932, TyrantSinner, Ucdddfl, Uncle Dick, Vega84, Vibhijain, Vickyshekhawat07, Viddea9, VitaleBaby, Vossanova, Vrenator, Vytal, WLU, Wavelength, Welsh, Wickamouse, WikHead, Wikipelli, Wiooiw, Wmania, Writeswift, YorkshireM, Yottamaster, YouAndMeBabyAintNothingButCamels, Z10x, Zeck 23, Zigger, Ziggymaster, Zik2, Zoe, Zunaid, Zzorse, ,42.., 1234 anonymous edits Automobile Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457828131 Contributors: $5forMe, -Midorihana-, -hiphop-, .K, 04pandre, 08toi, 10sh10, 10totti10, 200.191.188.xxx, 21655, 24.93.53.xxx, 2586, 271292hrs, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2e2e2e3r3r4t4tt5y5y6u6u7ui8i, 61.9.128.xxx, 62.83.130.xxx, 80120t, 83d40m, 84user, 92889, A455bcd9, AEMoreira042281, AGToth, AKMask, ATS 500, Aaron Brenneman, Aaron Schulz, Abdullais4u, Abkovalenko, Academic Challenger, Acdx, Adam Rock, Adam78, Adamkelly, Adashiel, Ahildaballa, Ahoerstemeier, Aim Here, Akadruid, Aksi great, Ala.foum, Alai, Alan Liefting, Aldie, AlexPlank, AlexWilkes, AlexanderM, Alexdi, AlexiusHoratius, Alexofdodd, Alexzor1, Alfio, Ali K, Aliceinlampyland, Alison, Alison9, All Is One, All in, Alskdjfdhfiwow, Altenmann, Altermike, Ambarish, AmosWolfe, An Editor With a Self-Referential Name, Anand Karia, Ancheta Wis, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrea244, Andrewferrier, Andrewpmk, Andrewrhchen, Andy Dingley, Andy G, Andy M. Wang, AndySimpson, Andycartland, Andycjp, Andygharvey, Anetode, AniRaptor2001, Animum, Anobo, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous anonymous, Anphanax, Antandrus, Anthro135 JDK, Antonrojo, AntonyGDines, Anwar Javed, Anwar saadat, ApolloBoy, Archangel x105, Aremith, Argon233, ArielGold, Arpingstone, Arrenlex, Arsenikk, Asanchez1572, Asfadsfasdfasdfasdfreybhkiu, Ashenai, Asskikr1001, AtholM, Atn55, Aude, Austria156, Autonova, Avarame, Avenged Eightfold, Avengerx, Average Earthman, Az1568, Aztune, BECPL, BGOATDoughnut, BRG, Barneca, Barnie slyvester, Barrylb, Basawala, Bathrobe, Beckettc, BeelzebubJNR, Beeswaxcandle, Beetstra, Beland, Bencherlite, Benefactordyr, Benny the wayfarer, Beno1000, Benzocane, Bernd.Brincken, Berney, Berria, Bevo, Bewildebeast, Beyond silence, Bfar7122, Bfigura's puppy, Bggoldie, Bhadani, Bhludzin, Biker Biker, Bilbobee, BillC, BillFlis, Birdthug, BiroZombie, Biswaranjan, Bjorn Elenfors, Bkonrad, Blablablob, Blah3, Blainster, Blank7, BlankVerse, Blimpguy, Bloodshedder, Blorf, Blue520, BlueMars, Bntsg, Bob332, Bobblewik, Bobet, Bobjob455, Bobo192, Bobobo10547, Bobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobobob, Bogdangiusca, Boivie, Bonaparte, BonesBrigade, Bongle, Bongohead222, Bongwarrior, Boothy443, BorgQueen, Borisblue, BostonMA, Bovineone, Brakedust, Branden Gorecki, Brat32, Bravada, BrendelSignature, Brian Pearson, Brian0918, Brim, BrokenSphere, Brossow, BrowardBulldawg, Bruce A. McHenry, BryanG, Btownsox13, Buckley699, Burzmali, Byrule62, CART fan, CIMCOBILL, CJ, CSvBibra, CT Cooper, CUSENZA Mario, CZmarlin, Cacycle, Cadillac, Calm, Caltas, Camaro96, Cambrasa, CambridgeBayWeather, Camembert, Cameron Dewe, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Candyman36ws, Captain panda, CardinalDan, Careless hx, Carfreek, Carmaniacx, Carmenharvey, Casey8572, Caster23, Cate, Catmoongirl, Celebration1981, Century0, Ceyockey, Chan Han Xiang, Chaos, Charitwo, Charles Matthews, Charmander trainer, Cheese wizzz, Chendy, Chief tin cloud, Chienlit, Chill doubt, Chouette Sage, Chris 73, Chris Roy, ChrisUK, Chrisd87, Christian List, Christopher Parham, Chu333222, Chupa me wevos, CiTrusD, Clampton, Cleanupman, Clearbluepr, Clich Online, Cm233lh, Coasting, Cobi, Colleenthegreat, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Compass35, Conufsed, Conversion script, Cookie90, Cool Blue, Coolcaesar, CopperMurdoch, Cory007, Covalent, Cowboy Ray, Craig Butz, Crazycomputers, Crystallina, Curley boi 69, Cuye, CyclePat, DAMurphy, DH85868993, DJ Bungi, DJ Clayworth, DRTllbrg, DVD R W, Da man239, DanKeshet, DanMS, Daniel, Daniel.Cardenas, Danmore1101, Dar-Ape, DarkFalls, Darkfred, Dave Runger, David R. Ingham, DavidLevinson, DavidMcKenzie, DavidWBrooks, Davidgoymt, Davidovarcherson, Dbergan, Dbtfz, Dcoetzee, Ddgonzal, Ddmtrackstar, DeFacto, DeLarge, DeadEyeArrow, Delirium, Delldot, Deltabeignet, Deor, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Descendall, Dharmabum420, Dietary Fiber, DifiCa, Digitalme, Digitize, DineshAdv, Dino246, DirkvdM, Dismas, Dispenser, Djinn112, Djordjes, Dlae, Dman64, DocWatson42, Doctorevil64, Doctormatt, Dodo bird, Dorfd1, Dorftrottel, Doug Coldwell, DougieLawson, Dr demon, DrBob, Dragonflyharasser, Dryazan, Duffman, Duk, Dust Filter, Dysepsion, ESkog, ETO Buff, Eco84, Ed g2s, EdJogg, Edcolins, Eddaido, Eddy3615, Edson.ajj, Edward, Edward321, Egil, Ekrub-ntyh, ElTyrant, Elenseel, Eliz81, Elmicker, Eluchil404, EmanWilm, Emarshizz, Emc2, Emre D., EnSamulili, Enigmaman, Enthusiast10, Envirocorrector, Erc, Erebus555, Eric outdoors, EricStyles, Ericd, Esprit15d, Eternalnoob, Etiquette, Eubulides, Eukesh, Evankk, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evil saltine, Exander, Excaliburo, Exia, Extransit, Eye of the Mind, EyrianAtWork, Eyu100, Fabricationary, Fact check, Fang Aili, Fanoftheworld, Fantadrink11, Fdp, FelisLeo, FenderTele, Ferkelparade, Ferracin, FetchcommsAWB, Fir0002, Firsfron, FishUtah, FisherQueen, Fixa, Fixer88, Flonase, Flyerhell, Flyguy649, Foxandpotatoes, Foxman95, FrancoGG, Frank, Frankn628, Freakofnurture, Fredbauder, Fredrik, Freekc, Freiberg, FreplySpang, Freshbakedpie, Frymaster, FuegoFish, Funandtrvl, Funnybunny, Furkaocean, Fvw, Fwappler, G Clark, GDonato, GPrestidge, GRAHAMUK, GVnayR, Galadh, Gamaliel, GangstaEB, Gansys, Gardar Rurak, GargoyleMT, Gary King, Gary99, Gciriani, Geil ramirez, Gene Nygaard, Geneb1955, Geologyguy, George737, GeorgeMoney, Gertjan R., Ghaly, Ghettodude, Ghewgill, Ghostbubbles, Ghostshark, Giftlite, Gigemag76, Gilliam, Gjd001, Glen, Glenn, Globeclotter, God of War, Gogo Dodo, Gogoboots, Goodm08, GraemeL, Grafen, Grafikm fr, Graham87, GrahamTM, Graufbold, Gravitan, Green Cardamom, Green caterpillar, Greennecro8, Greensidedown, Greentopia, Gregfitzy, Greglocock, Greyhood, Ground Zero, Gsarwa, Gtapro91, Guaka, Gurch, Gurlpower Ca, Guska, Gwernol, Hadal, HaeB, Happymango, Happynoodleboycey, Harold1234, Harryt95, Hashem sfarim, Hbackman, Hbird18, Hehehe111, HeikoEvermann, Hektor, Henry Flower, Henry1245, Henrygb, Hermione1980, Heron, Heymrdrummer, Hezzy, Hgvlyiwegv, Hi.ro, Hibernian, Highwaydude2007, Hiper15, Historikos, Hoohp, HorsePunchKid, Hotlorp, Hoxxy, Hu12, Hullo exclamation mark, Husainj, Hut 8.5, Hutcher, HybridBoy, I Dig Cars, IANMOORELOVESWIKI, IGod, IRT.BMT.IND, Iain99, IamSuzie, Iamvered, Ian Dalziel, Icairns, Icarus, Icot, Icydid, Igor potkonjak, Ihosvany, Ikescs, Ikh, Illdz, InNuce, InfinityAndBeyond, Infrogmation, Ingolfson, Inter, Interiot, Ireas, IronDuke, Ixfd64, J 1982, J Di, J. Finkelstein, J.delanoy, JForget, JLaTondre, JRM, JTN, JWM83, JYolkowski, Jaberwocky6669, JackLumber, Jackace911, Jacob1219, Jacob12190, Jaganath, Jak Inn Thee Been Stock, Jakey981, Jakslayer, James086, JamesBurns, Jasonstark, Jasz, Jauerback, Java7837, Jayron32, Jdforrester, Jdrumgoole, JeLuF, JeopardyTempest, Jeremyster, Jeromewiley, Jespersm, Jesse Viviano, JesseGarrett, Jesvane, Jh51681, Jimbobzeway, Jimp, Jimxu, Jjron, Jmlk17, Jnc, JoanneB, Jobe457, Jodis, Joe11miles, Joeblakesley, John254, JohnCub, Johnie, Johnmccollim, Johnny69420, Jon442, Jonearles, Jonnogibbo, Jononon, Jorge Stolfi, Jose77, Joshthejedi3, Joshygoodwin, Jossi, Joy, Joyous!, Jpgordon, Jph, Jpogi, Jptwo, Jredmond, Jtdirl, Jtkiefer, Jules.lt, Juliancolton, JuliusJackson, Junglecat, JunkyardDawg, Just zis Guy, you know?, Justinlovesmonica, Jwhyte, Jwy, JzG, K731, KBBEditors, KFan II, KJBracey, KVDP, Kageyose, Kaisershatner, Kanags, Kane5187, Kar98, Karrmann, Katalaveno, Kateshortforbob, Katieh5584, Kazrak, Kazvorpal, Kdales, Keithonearth, KelleyCook, Ken6en, Kendrick7, Kesac, Kevin, Kevin Hayes, Kevyn, Keycard, KeysHistorian, Khazar, Kiand, Kidpoker15, Kierant, Kim Bruning, Kingturtle, Kipala, Kiteinthewind, Kjkolb, Knight123, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kntrabssi, Konman72, Korath, Kostan1, Kowey, Kozuch, Krawi, Krishowns, Krsont, Kukini, Kuribosshoe, KurtRaschke, Kuru, Kurykh, Kuzaar, Kvdveer, Kyle sb, LFaraone, Laogeodritt, Lapuwali, Latka, LauLaunohow, Lda523287, Lectonar, Ledpup, Lee, Leenewton, Legotech, Leidolf, Leonard G., Lesorcan, Levineps, Lexor, Liftarn, Lightdarkness, Lightmouse, Like 3, Limp10, Linmhall, Llort, Llywrch, Locos epraix, Logan, LonelyMarble, Lord Hawk, Lord Pistachio, Lord Ramza, Louisrix, Lovenoble, Luapnampahc, Lucan8ter, Lucas the scot, Lucasgarsha, Lucyin, Lugomasa, Luk, Lumos3, Luna Santin, Lupin, Lupo, LuvWikis, Lvivske, Lynndunn, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MD87, MER-C, MJ94, MZMcBride, Mac, MacMed, Magain, Magister Mathematicae, Mailer diablo, Mairi, Malcolma, Mani1, Maniacgeorge, Marc Venot, Marcika, Marcus Qwertyus, Marcus22, Mariordo, Mark Dingemanse, MarkGallagher, Markb, Master of Puppets, Mateuszica, Mateycow, Matron10, Matt Crypto, Mav, Maximilian Schnherr, Maximus Rex, Mayank shah 89, Mclal1pt1, Mcluvin, Mcmillin24, Mdlutz, Meeples, Meggar, Mel Etitis, Mellisa Anthony Jones, Mentor2007, Mercury888, Merphant, Meyers018, Meznaric, Mgreenbe, Michael Hardy, Michael1115, MickMacNee, Midgrid, Midnightcomm, Miguelisgay, Mike 7, Mike Christie, Mike Rosoft, MikeCapone, Mikem77, Mikeymcbreen, Milkmandan, Million$Baby, Mindspillage, Minesweeper, Minority Report, Minority2005, Mintguy, Mion, Miss Madeline, Misza13, Mjb, Mjpieters, Mlouns, Modster, Monedula, Moneypage, Montrealais, Moonriddengirl, Moreschi, Moros, Morther, Morven, Moscovite Knight, Mr Mulliner, Mr. Lefty, Mr.hankythepoo, MrDarcy, MrDarkChao, Mrc360, Msikma, Muchness, Mulad, Muppppet, Murderbike, Mushroom, Music Sorter, Musical Linguist, Mxn, Myanw, Mysdaao, Myths245, NaBUru38, Nakon, Naryathegreat, Nascar1996, Nathan Johnson, Natofyelsew, NawlinWiki, Nayvik, Neelix, Neil Martin India, Neonumbers, Nerval, Netsnipe, Nevetsjc, New Thought, NewEnglandYankee, Newfoundlanddog, Ngantengyuen, Nighthawk leader, Nikkul, Nil Einne, Nilfanion, Nilmerg, Ninnnu, Nishkid64, Niteowlneils, Nivix, Nju987, Nk, Nkayesmith, Nlu, Noah Salzman, Node ue, Non-dropframe, Nonono123, Nopetro, Norm, Northamerica1000, Nslsmith, NuclearWarfare, Nucleusboy, Nufy8, Nukeless, Nyletak, Nyvhek, ONEder Boy, OSX, Obli, Ocicatmuseum, Ohnoitsjamie, Oilpanhands, Oleg Alexandrov, Olegwiki, Oliver202, Olivier, Omgwehavename, Omicronpersei8, Ontopic, Orangutan, Ott, OverlordQ, OwenX, Oxymoron83, P0mbal, PAK Man, Paco1991, Padajtsch-kall, Palica, Panchitaville, Papaya07, Parable1991, Past-man, Patrick, Patstuart, Paul August, Pavel Vozenilek, Pawyilee, Pax:Vobiscum, Paxsimius, Pc13, PeaceNT, Peas and corn, Pediainsight, Peligroso, Pellande12, Persian Poet Gal, Peruvianllama, Peter, Peter Horn, PeterEastern, Petewailes, Pgan002, Pgk, Phill up 007, Phlamer26, Phntm, Pigeon.dyndns.org, Pithecanthropus, Pjbflynn, Pladuk, Plastikspork, PlatinumX, Pokrajac, Polluxian, Pomadeguy, Poorleno, Porqin, Portiab, Possum, Poypoyboiiii, Prashanthns, Primate, PseudoSudo, Ptk, Puchu,

Pumbill, Punchup, Pwnr77, Pyrospirit, Q5967, QIOY, Qazwsx777, Qbmessiah, Qqwwwwwwww, Qtoktok, Quadell, Quadratic, Quaque, Quiddity, Qwerty33, Qxz, R9tgokunks, RC-0722, RG2, RJN, RMFan1, RWardy, Rabhach, Rachelgiggles, RadioKirk, Radon210, Rajkiandris, Randomblue, Raryel, Rasmus Faber, RaymondSutanto, Razbox, Rdsmith4, Recury, RedCoat1510, Redvers, Reginmund, Regushee, Relvin, Remag Kee, Renamed user 24, Rent A Troop, Reswobslc, Rettetast, Revcanon, RexNL, Rgoodermote, Rhobite, Riana, Ric36, Rich Farmbrough, Richardearl, Richdude24, RickK, Rintrah, RitKill, Rjwilmsi, Rlsheehan, Rmhermen, Rmt2m, Roadrunner, Rob230, RobDe68, Robert Merkel, RobertG, Robitaille03, Rocastelo, Rock427, RockMFR, Rocket000, Rodrigue, Roke, Rolf, Romanm, Rory096, Roux, RoyBoy, Royalguard11, Rppeabody, Rujoesmith, Runch, Runner5k, Rusl, Ryan4314, Rzf3, S.M., SCEhardt, SPUI, Saberwyn, Sagesebas, Saket6, Sam Francis, Sam Hocevar, SamH, SamdupLama, SamuraiClinton, Samw, Sandy13397, SavoySison, Sc147, Sceptre, Scheetor, Schicklgruber, Schlichtinator, SchmuckyTheCat, Schwnj, Scientizzle, Scipius, Scole01, Sdornan, Sean Whitton, Sean William, Seant, Selimbey, SenorAnderson, Seoanalyzer, Serketan, Sfoskett, Shacurthi, Shadow1, Shane0016, Shanes, Sharnak, Shashwatrocks, Shawn in Montreal, Shawnc, Shazam3592, Shenme, Shoemoney2night, Siddhant, Sietse Snel, Silverback, Silverxxx, SimonP, Sir Lewk, SirVulture, Sjakkalle, Sjdfisher, Sjschen, Sk8er 4533, SkiBumMSP, Skull365, Sladen, Slakr, Slippered sleep, Smidydevil, Smith609, Smmf1, Snailwalker, Snori, Snowmanradio, Snoyes, Soakologist, Sobolewski, Sohailstyle, Sohmc, Solipsist, Soriamic, Souljaboytellem44, South Bay, South Birmingham OK, Sp, Spangineer, Spatulli, SpeakFree, Spearhead, Specter01010, Speeddemonvegas, Spellcast, Spick And Span, SpigotMap, Spike Wilbury, Splintax, Spookfish, SpookyMulder, SportWagon, Springeragh, Sqash, Staceybabesx, Stagerd.thomas, Stalfur, Stapian, Stars4change, Steel, Steinsky, Stephan Leeds, StephanGFX, StephenMacmanus, Stephenb, SteveBaker, Steven Zhang, Stewacide, Stickman sam, Stombs, Stoopered, Stuartclift, Stude62, StuffOfInterest, Sunroof, Super edd, SuperDude115, Superkevin95, Supertouch, Swift, Symane, Syrthiss, Syvanen, TACD, TBadger, Talking goat, Tannin, Tasc, TastyCakes, Tbjablin, Tbonnie, Tcotrel, Teddey, Teilas, Teklund, Tellyaddict, Terps21, Terra-rent, Terrorist420x, Teryx, Teutonic Tamer, TexasAndroid, Thalia42, The Evil Spartan, The Giant Puffin, The Ronin, The Transhumanist, The undertow, TheBlazikenMaster, TheKMan, TheNewPhobia, Thelacerator, Themanwithoutapast, Themfromspace, Theonlycarmire, Theuion, Thewalrus, Thingg, Tiddly Tom, Tifego, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tkeller62, Tolu600, Tom harrison, Tomdobb, Tone, Topory, Toppersjcc, Tpbradbury, Train of thought, Trekky3012, Trekphiler, Trent, Trevor MacInnis, TrippingTroubadour, Tristarmotors, Trozig, Trusilver, Truth or consequences-2, Tstingert, Tsunaminoai, Ttwaring, Tucson Arizona Mexico, TurboBoostMan, Typ932, UNIXCOFFEE928, Ultratomio, Ultraviolet scissor flame, Ummakynes, Ummit, Uncle G, UniQue tree, Unibond, User27091, Vaceituno, Val42, Valuecityauto, Van helsing, Vanished User 4517, Vanished user 39948282, Velho, VeryVerily, Vgranucci, Vildricianus, Vsbhogadi, W4zz0, WJBscribe, WODUP, Waggers, Waldopepper, WalrusRescue, Walton One, Watti Renew, Wavelength, Wayward, Welsh, Wetwilli, Whale plane, WhaleyTim, Whiteshoes, Whomp, Wickethewok, Wik, WikEditor, Wiki alf, Wikibofh, Wikicalvin299, Wikidudeman, Wikiklrsc, Wikipedia brown, Wiktionary4Prez!, Wilt, Wimt, Winchelsea, Wingspeed, Winjay, Wipe, Wknight94, Wmahan, WojPob, Wolfkeeper, WongFeiHung, World arm lamp, X3ni, Xagent86, Xcentaur, Xen 1986, Xerocs, Xezbeth, Xkfusionxk, Xymmax, YELKENN, Yamaea, Yamaguchi, Yankees9043, Yazeed M, YellowMonkey, Yelsent, Yidisheryid, Yihfeng, Yitscar, Ylbissop, Ylem, Ynhockey, Yoasif, Yoshi348, Youngoat, Youpli, Your vexation, Z.E.R.O., ZS, Zafiroblue05, Zazou, Zeno Gantner, Zeno of Elea, Zepheus, Zigger, Zmajjlu, Zombiebaron, Zondor, Zoney, Zsinj, Zzuuzz, , 2389 , anonymous edits Sedan (automobile) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457599883 Contributors: 842U, A2 supersonique, ALadinN, Abeg92, Adyason, Ajshm, Alecsescu, Ali mehmood zaki, AliceJMarkham, ApolloBoy, Asterion, Barfoos, Barnstarbob, Bathrobe, BhaiSaab, Bhk858, BobShair, Borgx, Bravada, BrendelSignature, Bull-Doser, Burdenj, Bustago, CZmarlin, Caerwine, Camaro96, Capital photographer, Casper2k3, Chameleon, Chief tin cloud, Chris the speller, Cvalda, CvetanPetrov1940, Damuna, Daniel C, Darklilac, Darklock, Deepak, Deflective, Deor, DocWatson42, Donbert, Drbreznjev, Dvulture, ESkog, EVula, Ehn, Fabiform, Faithlessthewonderboy, Fatsamsgrandslam, Felixludwigpaul, Fluence, Folksong, Funandtrvl, Fuzzy Logic, GL, Gary King, Gene Nygaard, GeorgeOne, Hannolancia, Hede2000, Herjazz, Hetar, Howcheng, IFCAR, Icd, Imnotminkus, J.delanoy, JackLumber, Jagvar, James086, Jeff3000, Jh12, Joffeloff, Johnnymartins, Jst enthar, Karrmann, Kbh3rd, Kwekubo, LeaveSleaves, Liftarn, Lightmouse, M-le-mot-dit, MADI13, MMuzammils, Malcolma, Manop, Mark Wheaver, Matt Deres, MattTM, Matthead, Mattnad, MeToo, Mediumsilver21, Meelar, Melaen, Mercury McKinnon, MetsFan76, Michelet, Mickeymicks, Mikael V, Morcus, Mulad, NaBUru38, Nbarth, NewGuy4, Niteowlneils, NorthernThunder, OSX, Obsessiveatbest, Ogu1234, Ojigiri, Oliver202, Olivier, OnkelFordTaunus, Pegasus1138, Peterblaise, Pion, Racky pt, Rap raz, Regushee, Richard W.M. Jones, RivGuySC, Rmhermen, Royote, Runedance, Sacxpert, Saidferid, Saintswithin, SamH, Scheinwerfermann, SchuminWeb, Section6, Sesshomaru, SidP, SimonP, Slicing, Sobolewski, Sonett72, Stombs, Syndicate, Tavilis, TedColes, Teixant, TeunvsT, Tkynerd, Tom Pippens, Trilobite, Typ932, Typhoon, Ugur Basak, Varco, Velho, Vinay412, Vincenzo.romano, Volathor1, WikiuserNI, Woohookitty, WooteleF, Writegeist, Zeno Gantner, Zoney, ^demon, 204 anonymous edits Minivan Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458540549 Contributors: 24.93.53.xxx, 842U, Alecsescu, AlexiusHoratius, Anticipation of a New Lover's Arrival, The, ApolloBoy, Arthena, Aruton, Aschwieter, Aurevilly, Ayame28, Azer Red, BD2412, Bachcell, Bavaria, Bavaria II, Billlion, Blackshaw000, Bluedisk, Bob20102010, Bobber100, Bobblewik, Brabblebrex, Brighterorange, Brossow, Butterfly0fdoom, CLI, CPStapleton, CZmarlin, Camaro96, Celerityfm, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Cliff, Colonies Chris, Conversion script, Cst17, Cvalda, CyanideSandwich, DJ Clayworth, DanCBJMS, DeFacto, DetroitTiger2121, Doug, Drdisque, Ebyabe, Elm-39, Elmwood, Enthusiast10, Es330td, Essesense, Eternalnoob, Evil saltine, EvilEuropean, Facts707, Fdtdguy, Feour, Fh1, Flomobile, Fred amyett, FunPika, G3150, Gaius Cornelius, Gekedo, Giant89, Gogo Dodo, GreenLineMan, Guroadrunner, H falcon, H005, Hairy Dude, Hajhouse, Heinrich L., Hektor, Hephaestos, Hezery99, Hkw2121, Hmains, Howcheng, Hyline79, IFCAR, J.delanoy, JaGa, Jamieli, Jeffreyhermann, Jelliott4, Jellyfish dave, Jesse's Girl, Jetgraphics, Jgp, JimMatczak, Jimgawn, Jjlasne, Jkolak, Jnelson09, Johnneal, Joy, Jrleighton, Justinboles, Justme89, K3v1n, KNHaw, Karrmann, KillerKris, Kitsunegami, Koavf, Kurrurrin, Liftarn, Lost tourist, Love Krittaya, LtPowers, Luckas Blade, Luna Santin, Mac, Mahanga, Mahjongg, Markb, Mattbrundage, Mbezoyan, Mboverload, Mendel, Michaelsbll, Microbike, Miguel Andrade, Mike384, Minivanone, Mjl0509, Mjnbrn, Morcus, Morven, MosheZadka, Mrschimpf, Mulad, Murtasa, Mwtoews, My76Strat, NHRHS2010, NaBUru38, Nandesuka, NewGuy4, Nick Number, Niteowlneils, Nlu, Nono64, NotWaving, Ogriofac, PJ Pete, Panicum, Patsw, Peter Horn, Petri Krohn, Pil56, Pineapple fez, Pmeisel, Pmj, Pnkrockr, Postdlf, PrinceGloria, Pskykosys, Quadell, Quai-de-Javel, R'son-W, Rama, Reedy, Reelcheeper, Regushee, Ridge Runner, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Robth, Ryguy611, SCEhardt, SFGiants, Sable232, Sable24V, Samw, Sava9e, Scat King, Scootey, Sdechant, Sfoskett, SilkTork, SimonP, Spinoff, Splash, Steve B., SteveBaker, SteveCof00, Superbeecat, TEAKAY-C II R, TGC55, Temurjin, That Guy, From That Show!, The Lonely Celia, Thehelpfulone, Thomas Blomberg, Thruston, Tinton5, Tommyjr, TruckMatt, Truthdowser, Typ932, Tzartzam, UberMan5000, UdovdM, Uhai, Vegaswikian, Versageek, Victor-435, Vincentszupica, Vossanova, Wiarthurhu, Wikipe-tan, Will Beback Auto, Woohookitty, Xavier86, Yaubrandon, Z10x, ZZZico, Zoney, Zzuuzz, mogus, , 337 anonymous edits Crossover (automobile) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457945886 Contributors: 123Scalian123, 2o6, 842U, AK Auto, Alecsescu, AlexJola, Amehyaro, Ancientphoenixians, Andros 1337, ApolloBoy, Atlant, Barticus88, Becker911, Bkpedia, BrendelSignature, Brossow, Bull-Doser, CZmarlin, Chester Markel, Ckatz, Cmdrjameson, CommonsDelinker, Cornela, Craxyxarc, Davidbspalding, Delband, DelphinidaeZeta, Denimmonkey, Denis1210, DocWatson42, Dogface, El monty, Entoaggie09, Equinoxe, Evanreyes, Fatsamsgrandslam, Fh1, FilMys, Fxhomie, Gilliam, Giulit, Gogiva, GoldDragon, Grahill, Grendelkhan, HiMadden, Howcheng, I love SUV's, Invader Poonchy, IstvanWolf, Jbl1975, Jdh8711, JeffTL, JonathanDP81, Jro78, Kainophobia, Kenshi22, Killerdove, Koopa turtle, Krazychris81, L21logan99, Lathrop1885, Leszek Jaczuk, Leugim1972, Liftarn, Lozowski, MJBurrage, Mac, Matt434, Meggar, Michael Hardy, Milkmandan, Mkhbgpa, Monedula, Morenus, NaBUru38, Nickj, Nintendude, Ntedualng, PS2pcGAMER, Pattidude, Paul Fisher, Pc13, PorscheRacer711, Publicly Visible, Pundit, R'n'B, Randroide, Raven in Orbit, Rawja, RedWolf, Regushee, Rgvis, Rickjpelleg, Ridge Runner, Roadstaa, Robert, Robth, Rondread444, Sable232, SamH, Sarveshkarkhanis, Sbrianhicks, Semievolvedsimian, Sfoskett, Shaylot, SimonX, SiobhanHansa, Sklocke, Snessi32, Somegeekintn, Stacecom, Stepho-wrs, SteveLoughran, Stombs, SuperDude115, SuperXero07, Swaq, Sycthos, Taifarious1, TheHeat3, Theda, Tregoweth, Tri400, TruckMatt, Typ932, Vegaswikian, Vicenarian, Victor-435, Virinderv, Wanderer77, Wdfarmer, Wiarthurhu, WiiKiBoyz, WikHead, WikiSkeptic, Wikiuser100, Woohookitty, Xezbeth, Y2kcrazyjoker4, Zman4000, , 275 anonymous edits Commercial vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=444650244 Contributors: 777sms, Abdefo, BD2412, Biscuittin, Bjankuloski06en, Buckthegr8, Crossmr, Dawnseeker2000, DeFacto, ErgoSum88, H falcon, Immunize, Interiot, Mion, Muzammil786, NaBUru38, Oatmeal batman, Otr500, Rich Farmbrough, SAllen22, SMasters, The Cre8r, Trilobyte fossil, Vegaswikian, Wiz9999, 22 anonymous edits Bus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458538620 Contributors: *drew, -Kerplunk-, 07181972ko, 111000wipnug, 1exec1, A. B., A.arvind.arasu, ADS190, ATS 500, Aaronbuck, Abdullais4u, Abe Backman, Accountants Son, Adam.J.W.C., AdamW, Adsda118, Ae7flux, Aesopos, Aflm, Afri, After Midnight, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akamad, Alanmak, Alansohn, Allamericanbear, Altermike, Alx 91, Amicon, Amolnaik3k, Anders Torlind, Andrewpmk, Andy Dingley, Ang342, Anna Frodesiak, Antandrus, Apparition11, Arcturus, ArglebargleIV, ArnoldReinhold, Arpingstone, Arsenikk, Art LaPella, Artur Oliveira Silva, Awesome cris, Awk500007, B58PMCSA, BIL, BLEBBLEB, BRG, BW52, Backifran, Backpack kiwi, Badgernet, Beniles,sfms, Berendale1, Big Bird, Billinghurst, Bkell, Blackbirdfly, Blackflag5, Blackrose0728, BladesCrusade, Blanchardb, Blimpguy, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bobyoy, Bongwarrior, Borisgh, BouncingDragon, Brianga, BrownsSB, Bubba23, BulldozerD11, Busesireland, Bushes and gentlemen, CALR, Cab88, Cabe6403, Callum3242, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carolinatourbus, Catgut, Cccc3333, Chaleyer61, Chargeball, Charleca, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chmouel, Chris j wood, Chrishmt0423, Chrislk02, Chun-hian, CiTrusD, Cimp3, Clawed, CliffC, Colbyjrocks, Colonel Warden, Cometstyles, Commander Keane, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Coolcaesar, Covalent, Crazycomputers, Crohnie, Cst17, D34thsp4wn, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DVdm, Dachshund, Daf, Damdes, Dante Alighieri, Darkcore, Darthali, Darthgriz98, DavidCane, DavidLevinson, DavidSpanel, Dawn Bard, DeadEyeArrow, Death973, Deb, Debresser, Deflective, Deli nk, DerHexer, Diamondland, Discospinster, Djflem, Dmacgr 22, Donald Albury, Doremo, Dori, Downthroughthere, Dura-Ace, Dysprosia, Eagle4000, Eco84, Edanstone, Edson Rosa, Egmonster, El C, El monty, Elcago, Electrolite, Emerson7, Enotayokel, Enviroboy, Envirocorrector, Epbr123, Epleku, Erebus Morgaine, Erik9, EscapingLife, Euryalus, Excirial, Fa95bri, Falcon8765, Fasouzafreitas, Father Llymic, Favonian, Fertuno, Fillefolle, Finbarr Saunders, Finchr04, Finn-Zoltan, Flewis, Fnfd, FoeNyx, Foxmulder, FrFintonStack, Fraggle81, Frankie0607, Freakmighty, FreplySpang, Fresh start, FriedMilk, Furrykef, Gaius Cornelius, Garfield226, Gayman5, Geniac, Genisock2, Geniu, Geo Swan, Gerald Farinas, Gilliam, Gimboid13, Gimmetrow, Glass Sword, Glen, Gnevin, Gogo Dodo, Gohiking, Goldi12, GraemeL, Grafen, Graham87, Gravitan, Greatgavini, Grunt, Gtg204y, Guanako512, Gwernol, Gypsum Miner, Gzornenplatz, HFret, HalJor, HammerHeadHuman, Hansjorn, Hasannur, Hassocks5489, Hcheney, HenryLi, Heroes1008, Heron, Hi878, Hmains, Hoo man, Hooperbloob, HorsePunchKid, Hydrargyrum, ILovePlankton, Iamajpeg, Iamawesomesmartperson, Icairns, Icy Chev, Ida Shaw, Iking, Ilovevancouver90909, Indon, Infrogmation, Instantnood, Interestingstuffadder, Iridescent, IsarSteve, Istig Kite, J. 'mach' wust, J04n, JBsupreme, JForget, Jackehammond, Jackohare, Jacquerie27, Jaded-view, Jadtnr1, Jaffaguy, Jake Wartenberg, Jaknouse, Jalnet2, Jamesontai, JamieS93, JavierMC, JayC, JayHenry, Jaybird vt, JeffMGreen, Jeffrey Mall, JerryTheWin, Jesster79, Jim.henderson, Jimdevlin, Jimguot, Jnelson09, Jobie29, Joe2395, Johann Wolfgang, John Broughton, JohnCFC125, Johnjohncoo, Johnnydno7, Johnwalton, Jon84, JonMoore, Jongleur100, Jonik, Joojooflop, Joost P. Vermeer, JosephBarillari, Joshii, Joshua Scott, Jotel, Joyous!, Jp347, Jpatokal, Jpom, Julesd, Jusjih, JustAGal, Jwinston1111, K man21, KF, KGasso, Ka Faraq Gatri, Kafziel, Katalaveno, Keilana, Kelisi, Kimera Kat, Kinkijui KNK, Kjecko10, Klzabc, Kmoksy, Kprateek88, Kschang77, Kuru, Kuwaitsoccer, Kwamikagami, L Kensington, L.vivian.richard, LHOON, LOLBREDBUSLOL, Lancehchrist, Lara0303, Laurapg, Lazulilasher, LeaveSleaves, Leszek Jaczuk, Leutha, LiDaobing, Liftarn, Lights, Lihoujun, Likelife, LilHelpa, Liliankwk, Linnell, LittleOldMe, Logan, Lohengrin1991, Lord Emsworth, LordFoppington, Lradrama, Lugnad, Luk, Lulzbus, Luna Santin, Luniz97, M1xmast3r, MER-C, Mac, Magnus Manske, Mailer diablo, Malinaccier, Mapmark, MarsRover, Marshall Williams2, Martarius, Martg76, MathKnight, Matt Brennen,
74

Matt037291, Matthewedwards, Matticus78, Max.coke, Megaman en m, Mentifisto, Mephistophelian, Merdfrog, Michael Dorosh, Michael Hardy, MichaelBillington, MickMacNee, Mikau735, Mike Rosoft, Mike88chan, MilkTheImp, Mirsadkannur, Moebiusuibeom-en, Morwen, Motorworld, Mschilz24, Msr69er, Mulad, Murdockh, Murraypaul66, Mxn, Myanw, N12345n, Nankai, NewEnglandYankee, Nickypedro, Nictrain, Night Gyr, Nivix, Nixeagle, Nomnomhammer, Non-dropframe, Nopetro, Norm, NotACow, NuclearWarfare, Nudecline, Numbo3, Nv8200p, Octahedron80, Oda Mari, Ohevami, Ososessy, Ouro, Oxymoron83, Oysterguitarist, Ozebus, PTSE, Palica, Palmiped, Pan32, Patrick, Patstuart, Pauli133, Pawyilee, Pebkac, Peter Horn, PeterEastern, Pewwer42, Philip Trueman, Phillip J, Photnart, Piano non troppo, Picaroon, Piellas Athena, PierreAbbat, Pigsonthewing, Pilotguy, Pinethicket, Planesrock, Plasmoe, Plentonk, Plrk, Poopie-longbum, PrestonH, Prolog, Pumpie, Q5967, Qrsdogg, QuantumEleven, Quintote, Qweasdzxc12312345678910987654321, Qwyrxian, Qxz, R'n'B, RHaworth, RXUYDC, Radagast, Ranjithrnath, Rcsprinter123, RedWolf, Redrocketboy, Reedy, Reznako, Ricardocolombia, Rich Solano, Richard Bowman, Rickey145, Rickyrab, Ridernyc, Rintrah, Robbiex, RobertG, Ronline, Roxxyroxursox, Rpyle731, RuairiQuinn, RxS, Ryank808, SAUNDERS, SCEhardt, SDC, SJ Morg, SNIyer12, Sabbut, Sahrin, Saikokira, SaltyBoatr, Samsara, Samtheboy, Scanbus, Scarian, SchuminWeb, Sciovanni, ScottDavis, Sebwite, Seidenstud, Seksen iki yz krk be, Seth Ilys, Sewing, Shaelyn123, Shantavira, Sharkmkd, Signalhead, Silence, SimonP, SimonTrew, Sintaku, SiobhanHansa, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Siva1979, Sjakkalle, SlackerMom, Sladen, SlimVirgin, Slon02, Smjg, Smlowe5, Snowmanradio, Snowolf, Snoyes, Solipsist, Sommers, Soundoftoday, Spmarshall42, SpuriousQ, Spyder GSR, Squids and Chips, Stanzilla, StarbucksFreak, Stephenb, Steve Dufour, Stevenspall, Stu pendousmat, Sujithbhakthan, Supersaiyanplough, Supsup747, Swarmtime, Synchronism, TAS, THEL3G1TASSASSIN, Tarquin, TastyPoutine, Tawker, Tcr25, Technopat, Teiresias84, Tellyaddict, Thai H. Nguyen, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, The.aviation.expert, TheCoffee, Thenthornthing, Theo F, Theroadislong, Thomas Larsen, Thunderboltz, TiagoTiago, Tide rolls, Tillman, Timc, Titansfan007, Tkynerd, Tony Fox, Torstein90, Tpbradbury, Tradalj, TriviaKing, Triwbe, Twinxor, Typ932, Ugur Basak, Ukexpat, Ulric1313, Unisouth, Useight, User2004, Valdezlopez, Vandylist, Vanka5, Vaoverland, Vardion, Vegaswikian, Vernk, Vgy7ujm, Villager57, Viriditas, Vlatko.mk, Wafulz, Walkingschoolbus, WatermelonPotion, Wendell, WereSpielChequers, Wetman, Wheels on the bus, WhisperToMe, WhiteDragon, Whitebox, Whitejay251, Wiarthurhu, WideArc, Wiki alf, WikiArlo*k, Wikiadrie, Willking1979, Wizardist, Wjejskenewr, Wknight94, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Woopdededoop, Woot99, Wtmitchell, Ww2censor, X!, Xdenizen, Xxchangwoo0120xx, YUL89YYZ, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yath, Yeryerbuggy, Yidisheryid, Yintan, ZKibler, Zac4b, Zacharie Grossen, Zagaboy, Zimmer550, Zsero, Zzzzzzus, 975 anonymous edits Truck Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=458499642 Contributors: *drew, -hiphop-, 12.234.49.xxx, 165.123.179.xxx, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, A D 13, A8UDI, ABF, ATS 500, AVX, Aaronfeldman, Acroterion, Adam fillips, Addshore, Adityagadgil, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Alansohn, Aldis90, Aleenf1, Alex.muller, AlexiusHoratius, Aleyland96, Allstarecho, Alois Musil, Alphachimp, Altermike, Anclation, Andonic, Andrewpmk, Andy Christ, Andyjsmith, Andyluciano, Angusmclellan, Anlace, AnnaFrance, Annmarie94, Anonymius, Anonymous Dissident, Ansell, Antandrus, Ante Aikio, Anthony Appleyard, Apgeraint, Ariedartin, Aris Katsaris, ArmadilloFromHell, Arpingstone, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Artmartxx, Ascidian, Ashley ob, Astral, Athaler, Autocracy, BKnoss, BMAN44, Backslash Forwardslash, Barek, Barneca, BarretBonden, Barry Zell, Bart133, Baseball62, Bastien Sens-My, Bcorr, Beastfromouteast, Beastlyskillzz, Beaver, Benny55, Bettertom, Bggoldie, Bigdumbdinosaur, Bine Mai, Biscuittin, BlastOButter42, Blood Red Sandman, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Bogdan, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonadea, Bongwarrior, Boothman, Bossonova, BritishWatcher, Bubbaandgumpshrimps, Bunnyhop11, Buron444, Buttcruncher, Bwil, Bwileyr, C'est moi, COMPFUNK2, CZmarlin, Calliopejen1, Camaro96, Cameron, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Captain-n00dle, Carey Evans, Castagna, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Cheesemike, Chill doubt, Chillum, Chmod007, Chris the speller, Chrishmt0423, Chtito, Cimmerian praetor, Ckatz, Clawed, Closedmouth, Coldsweetvengance, Colewilliamgilmore, Colinstu, Cometstyles, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Corpx, Cosmicsqueaker, Credema, Crunch13, Crzrussian, CumbiaDude, Cumulus Clouds, Cureden, CurranH, Cwhite, Cwmhiraeth, Cyanolinguophile, Cyfal, Caquia, DC, DDerby, DO'Neil, DabMachine, Daduzi, Dahlis, DanTD, Daniel J. Leivick, Darklilac, Darkwind, Darth Panda, David Jordan, David Kernow, DavidNw, Dawnseeker2000, DeFacto, DeLarge, Deb, Deepak, Deli nk, Delldot, Deor, Derek71us, Desertsky85451, Deville, Devonbyrne, Dgies, Diceman, Dickpenn, Dino246, DirkvdM, Discospinster, Dlohcierekim, Dmac4933, Docker dave, Docu, Dolunay34, Donarreiskoffer, DooDooMan2, Dougofborg, Dr.frog, Dragomiloff, Drilnoth, Dropthedimeonisaaclime, Druzhnik, Duncharris, Dunkelfalke, Dycedarg, ENeville, ERcheck, EamonnPKeane, Easternreaper, EdJogg, Edison, El-yellow, Elipongo, Emvn, Enthusiast10, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Eraticus, Erebus Morgaine, ErgoSum88, Eric-Wester, Erik1946, Erik9, Esanchez7587, Escape Orbit, Everyking, Excirial, Exox, FAThomssen, Faithlessthewonderboy, Ffaarr, Fieldday-sunday, FisherQueen, Flexi008, Fmiser, Foobar, Footballnerds09, Fraggle81, Francis dolarhyde, FredR, Frehley, FreplySpang, Fsiler, Funeral, GB fan, Gagilbert13, Gary D, Gazimoff, Gene Nygaard, George100, GerardM, Gilliam, Glane23, Glenn, Globbet, GoatGuy, Gogo Dodo, GraemeLeggett, Grey Shadow, Ground Zero, Grover cleveland, Groyolo, Gt567, Gwernol, Giffen, H Padleckas, Hadal, Hairchrm, Hairy Dude, Hakan silver, HappyCamper, Happynoodleboycey, Hasannur, Hauskalainen, Heegoop, Hellothereyoupeoples, Hoboanger, HorsePunchKid, Howcheng, Hoxxy, Hughespj, Husond, Hydrargyrum, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, IanOsgood, Ianb, IdreamofJeanie, Imroy, Indon, Infrogmation, Ingolfson, Innocuostruck, Intgr, Ionica55amg, Irishguy, IslandHopper973, Isloowala, Ivanlul, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JNW, Jack hol, JamesBWatson, Janus Shadowsong, Jauerback, JavierMC, Jay Litman, Jcassioppi2, Jcrggp, Jeff3000, Jeltz, Jesster79, Jimgawn, Jimmy307123, Jlas000, Jmundo, Jnc, Joancreus, Joe9320, John254, JohnCD, Johnkenyon, Johnnymartins, Jomasecu, Jordan1a2b3c4a, Jrleighton, Jslacks, Judycristi, JuniperisCommunis, Junyor, KVDP, Kanags, KaragouniS, Katalaveno, Kazvorpal, Keegan, Keilana, KelleyCook, Kennethmaage, Keveth, KevinTR, Khatru2, Kierant, Kingcooltom, Kingpin13, Kneiphof, KnowledgeOfSelf, Korath, Kprateek88, Krispinek, Ksyrie, Kudz75, Kuru, Kzaral, LAX, Larrysphatpage, Lda523287, LeaveSleaves, Leolaursen, Leonard G., Liftarn, Limabeans, Linexcorp, Littleskier21, Llort, Loewenm, Lord Eru, Luna Santin, Mac, MacStep, Mahjongg, Malo, Mandarax, ManiacJLR, Marc Venot, Mark, Mark in wiki, Marka100, Markb, Martin451, Massysett, MathKnight, Max Naylor, Maxsumner, MeegsC, Mentifisto, Merogutz, Metricmike, Mikaey, Mike Rosoft, Mikue, Mintguy, Misleader, Monkeyfkker, Monobi, Mpgmann, Mplslocal, Mrg3105, Msrinivassarma, Muncadunc, Muratkaraci, Mxn, Myscrnnm, Myths245, N2e, NHRHS2010, Nachoman-au, Nakon, Narvalo, NawlinWiki, Neilbeach, Neo139, Nepenthes, Networkplusxxx, NewEnglandYankee, Neznanec, Nick81, Nlu, NorthernThunder, Oarsm, Obli, Oda Mari, Ohnoitsjamie, Oiskas, Oknazevad, One Night In Hackney, Ottawa4ever, Owain.davies, Oyvind, PRA, Packer98, Pak21, Paranoid, Parsecboy, Party, Pasi, Patrick, Paul Richter, PeaceNT, Peaceduck, Pengo, Peter Horn, PeterEastern, Pgk, Phenz, Philip Trueman, Phuzion, Pi zza314159, Pigsonthewing, Pineapple fez, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Plaws, Poindexter Propellerhead, Pol098, Pollinator, Postoak, Potaaatos, Prolog, Pseudomonas, Pstudier, Ptschett, Querto, Quintote, R. S. Shaw, RCinfoweb, RONRON61093, RadioActive, RandomXYZb, Ranjithrnath, Realmenonly, Rebroad, RedHillian, Reperspliter, Responsible?, Rhys Bowen, Rich Farmbrough, Rich Janis, Richard New Forest, Ricky81682, Ridge Runner, Rjwilmsi, Rlobkovsky, Rmhermen, Robert Merkel, Rocket000, Rodhullandemu, S3000, SJP, ST47, SWAdair, Saintswithin, Sam8, Sanderrl, Sannse, Sceptre, Scimitar, Sciurin, ScottDavis, Scratali, Scriberius, SeamusHC, SeanMack, Seaphoto, Sephia, Seraphim, Sesu Prime, Setanta747, Shadow1, Shanes, Shell Kinney, Shogunpk, Shulaah, Sietse Snel, SimonP, SiobhanHansa, Sir-wiki, Sky Attacker, SkylineEvolutionIII, Sladen, Slakr, Smith1656, Snorre, SoLando, Some jerk on the Internet, Sonett72, Spence500, Spike Wilbury, Spitfire, Splash15, Sportstar22, Spydercomp, Sran Popovi, Ssryry2, Staffwaterboy, Stan J Klimas, Stanistani, Steevm, Steinberger, Stemonitis, Stephen G. Brown, Stephreg, Stonufka, Strombreaker, Styrofoam1994, Suction Man, SuperPooperScooper, Supplements, T-borg, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TRIBESMAN, TVSRR, Tajgenie, Taxman, Tecwolf, TenOfAllTrades, Terence, Tesscass, The Anome, The Proffesor, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheSuave, ThefirstM, Theforkontheleft1132, Thingg, ThinkBlue, Thomas Blomberg, Thomas Larsen, Thomasahazel, Three, Thryduulf, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tifw, Timtrent, Tj00xj91, Tluap2, Tobby72, Tonytrucker11, Tracy the astonishing, Transdoodlers, Trekphiler, Trovatore, Truckdrivertraining, Trucker 2000, Tterraj, TutterMouse, Twaz, UBJ 43X, Ukexpat, Ultratomio, Ummit, Uruiamme, User2004, VIVTERRO, Vaceituno, Valvolean, Vanished User 4517, Vanka5, Vaoverland, Vaubin, Vegaswikian, Veinor, VernoWhitney, Versus22, Vildricianus, Villager57, Vishnava, Vossanova, WAS 4.250, WHeimbigner, WadeSimMiser, Wafulz, Waggers, Waninoco, Wavelength, Wayne Slam, Welsh, Werdan7, WhatamIdoing, White Dove: Number Seven, Whpq, WikiDon, WikiLaurent, Wikipeida11, Wikipelli, Wikitrkr, WildWildBil, Will Beback, William Avery, Wilymo23, Wilzo, Wjmoore17, Wknight94, Wolfgang7, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Wdenhelm, X!, Xavexgoem, Xezbeth, Xiahou, Xionbox, Xxmongrelmobxx, Yidisheryid, Zanaq, Zomno, ZooFari, Zuejay, Zundark, Zzuuzz, 1172 , anonymous edits Tractor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=456325923 Contributors: -Midorihana-, -js-, 95j, 99DBSIMLR, A Softer Answer, A.w.stephens, ABF, Acroterion, Adam.J.W.C., AdamUnrath, Addihockey10, Alan Liefting, Alan4124, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Algonquin247, Alphachimp, Altenmann, Anclation, Andre7775, Andreas Kaganov, Andrevruas, Andrewjuren, Anna512, Anthony Appleyard, Anthonyhcole, Apparition11, Aqualize, Arabiska Natt, Arbitrarily0, ArglebargleIV, Arthena, Arthur77, AshLin, Ashby10, Astronautics, Atif.t2, Atlant, Avoided, BD2412, Baby gift idea, Barts1a, Bazza 7, Beetstra, Beland, BenFrantzDale, Berean Hunter, Bggoldie, Bidgee, Bilboon, Billertl, Billhpike, Billst, Billwhittaker, Biscuittin, Bjf, BlckKnght, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boomshadow, Bossonova, BritishWatcher, Brown1990, Brumpz, BulldozerD11, CPStapleton, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus, Capricorn42, Cessator, Charlie Tango, Chebchetra, Cheese be good, Chibiabos, Chris Roy, Chris Ssk, ChrisCork, Chrissy385, Clover77, CommonsDelinker, Cralize, Creeknet, CustardJack, D. Recorder, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DGVAS, DR04, Da Joe, Danharibo, Daniel Christensen, DanielDeibler, Dannycarpet, Danyoung, DeadEyeArrow, Delta Tango, DerGolgo, DerHexer, Deutschgirl, Dicklyon, Dina, Discospinster, DividedByNegativeZero, DotHQ, Dr Black Knife, DuncanHill, Dustimagic, ENeville, Easel3, Eating Tomatoes, EdJogg, Edward, Eighthundredeight, Elcajonfarms, Enigmaman, EoGuy, Epbr123, Epimorph, Epp, Eraser123, Eric Herriman, Eric outdoors, Erodium, EronMain, Escape Orbit, Evil joey, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Extra999, Factorator, Faradayplank, Farmboy4864618, Favonian, Fingal, Fir0002, FisherQueen, FlipmyAPC, Foobar, Formermarine, Forwarder Boy, FrancisTyers, Frickeg, Funandtrvl, Furledd, GB fan, Gary D Robson, Gazdaspaz, Gbleem, George2001hi, Gfoley4, Gilliam, Glob.au, Gnarkill, Gogo Dodo, GoingBatty, Grantmidnight, GregorB, Grika, Grim..., Gsl, Gurch, Gwernol, Gkhan, Hailey C. Shannon, Hairy Dude, Halibutt, Heegroid, Heimstern, Heron, Hick ninja, Hmains, Hogne, Hornlitz, Hphparts, Hunting dog, I already forgot, Ianb, Ibbn, Icairns, Imaginenow, Imbacknblack, Independent Journalist, J neish, J.delanoy, JForget, JNW, JSpung, Jamesgpeck, Jan1nad, Jauhienij, Javit, Jesster79, Jjkr, Joedamadman, JohnCD, Jojhutton, Joyous!, Jrdioko, Jua Cha, Julesd, Junglecat, JuniperisCommunis, Just plain Bill, JustinTime55, KF, KVDP, Karanne, Katieh5584, Keanu, Kingpin13, Kneiphof, KnowledgeOfSelf, Kostisl, Kotiwalo, Kozuch, Kslattery, Kukini, L Kensington, Lankiveil, Lanky, Lear's Fool, LeaveSleaves, Leebo, Leonard G., Liftarn, LightCMM, Lights, Limesap, LindsayH, Lingosalad, Linmhall, Liquidryan, LordPaulyman, Luk, Lumbercutter, Mac, Malcolma, Mandarax, Marcusmax, MarkusHagenlocher, MathKnight, Matmota, Matt Deres, Mav, Maximus Rex, Mcr hxc, Melensdad, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Mervyn, Metrax, Michael Calwell, Michael Hardy, Microtony, Mike Roch132, Modster, Morven, Mrh30, Mulad, Mzajac, N5iln, NameIsRon, Nathan, Natkeeran, NawlinWiki, Neelix, Neutrality, NewEnglandYankee, Newportm, Nikola Smolenski, Ninly, Nohat, Noisy, Nopetro, Northamerica1000, Oleg Alexandrov, Omodaka, OneArmedBUSINESS, Orphan Wiki, Oscarthecat, Ospalh, OverlordQ, Oxymoron83, PCock, PPalmer, Parker007, Patrick, Paul Erik, Pearle, Peter Horn, Pgk, PhilKnight, Phorner87, Phreed100, Piano non troppo, Picaroon, PierreAbbat, Pissant, Pit, Plasticup, Pollinator, Pollypollypollywee, Potaaatos, Prashanthns, Proyster, Quadell, QuantumEleven, Quidprowhat, Quinobi, Rak716, RandomCritic, RedSoxFan7, RedWolf, Reyk, Rich257, RifeIdeas, Ripples101, Rjstott, Rmhermen, Rmt2m, Rnb, Rocastelo, Rpvdk, Rrburke, Saebjorn, Sam Hocevar, SamH, Samnelsonnn, Sannse, Satori Son, Sciurin, Scott Ritchie, ScottDavis, Scoty6776, Seanatyeo, Sempersububi, SidneyWeston, Sigma 7, Sigmundg, SimonP, Skpperd, SlayerK, Smjg, Snek01, Soliloquial, Solitude, Soup man, Spaceout man, Spartian, Spenelson, Sprintstar, SpuriousQ, Steven J. Anderson, Studerby, Stwalkerster, Sunderland06, Supersmarty, Svetovid, Switchercat, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Teles, Tellyaddict, TenPoundHammer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Themfromspace, Thomas Larsen, Three-quarter-ten, Tide rolls, Timtrent, Tmaull, Tomcrisp7, Tompkin2k9, TractorMania, Tractornewman, Traumrune, Trevort2012, Uhhhhhh, Useight, Vegaswikian, Vegetaman, Veinor, WFWW?, Webenner3, West wikipedia, Whoiskennedy, WikHead, Wikipelli, Wizard191, Woohookitty, XalD, Xiahou, Xowets, Yoganate79, ZeBoxx, Zephyrnthesky, Zereshk, Zzorse, Zzuuzz, , , , , , 655 anonymous edits
75
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
76

File:Flag of Japan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Australia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of Germany.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Italy.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Sweden.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Sweden.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Spain.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: special commission (of code): SVG version by cs:-xfi-. Colors according to Appendix No. 3 of czech legal Act 3/1993. cs:Zirland. File:Flag of South Korea.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:Flag of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of Romania.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: AdiJapan File:Flag of Pakistan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abaezriv, AnonMoos, Badseed, Dbenbenn, Duduziq, F. F. Fjodor, Fry1989, Gabbe, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Juiced lemon, Katarighe, Klemen Kocjancic, Mattes, Minna Sora no Shita, Mollajutt, Neq00, Pumbaa80, Rfc1394, Srtxg, TFCforever, ThomasPusch, Trelio, Zscout370, 9 anonymous edits File:Flag of Canada.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 Recode by cs:User:-xfi- (code), User:Shizhao (colors) File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Bulgaria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: SKopp File:Flag of Malaysia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: 555, Bestalex, Bigmorr, Denelson83, Ed veg, Gzdavidwong, Herbythyme, Isletakee, Kakoui, Kallerna, Kibinsky, Mattes, Mizunoryu, Neq00, Nickpo, Nightstallion, Odder, Pymouss, R.O.C, Reisio, Reuvenk, Rkt2312, Rocket000, Runningfridgesrule, Samwingkit, Sasha Krotov, Shizhao, Tabasco, Vzb83, Wrightbus, ZooFari, Zscout370, 72 anonymous edits Image:Benz-velo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benz-velo.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Softeis Image:2000cardistribution.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2000cardistribution.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Nevetsjc Image:World vehicles per capita.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World_vehicles_per_capita.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: TastyCakes (talk) Image:CarlBenz.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CarlBenz.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:1885Benz.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1885Benz.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Buch-t, Infrogmation, Jaranda, Milkmandan, Saforrest, Semnoz, Taisyo File:Berthabenzportrait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Berthabenzportrait.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bhler, Mannheim Image:Olds2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Olds2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Karrmann at en.wikipedia Image:Henry ford 1919.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henry_ford_1919.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hartsook, photographer. Image:Late model Ford Model T.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Late_model_Ford_Model_T.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rmhermen File:2011 Nissan Leaf WAS 2011 1040.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2011_Nissan_Leaf_WAS_2011_1040.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz File:Car crash 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Car_crash_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jaranda, MB-one, Thue, 1 anonymous edits File:Hands-free Driving.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hands-free_Driving.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: Steve Jurvetson File:Three body styles with pillars and boxes.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Three_body_styles_with_pillars_and_boxes.png License: Public Domain Contributors: 842U (talk). Original uploader was 842U at en.wikipedia File:Wagon and sedan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wagon_and_sedan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 842U (talk) File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Mirithing, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 13 anonymous edits File:Chevrolet Impala in light blue.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chevrolet_Impala_in_light_blue.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Felix I. File:Magazine41PlymouthBackRight.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magazine41PlymouthBackRight.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Infrogmation of New Orleans File:Opel Kadett B Automatic Heck.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Kadett_B_Automatic_Heck.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Robotriot File:1958 Ambassador 4-d hardtop.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1958_Ambassador_4-d_hardtop.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:CZmarlin File:2004-2005 Chevrolet Malibu MAXX LS.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2004-2005_Chevrolet_Malibu_MAXX_LS.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:Luxury Car 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Luxury_Car_2.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: BrendelSignature, 2 anonymous edits File:Sedan-chair.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sedan-chair.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chepry, Crux, Darwinius, Infrogmation, Kneiphof, Olivier2, Ranveig File:Dkw-schnellaster-bus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dkw-schnellaster-bus.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was DKW-Schnellaster-Freund at de.wikipedia File:Kia Carnival front 20071031.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kia_Carnival_front_20071031.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rudolf Stricker File:Fiat 600 Multipla.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiat_600_Multipla.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: CLI File:Samba(1).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Samba(1).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Voogd075 at nl.wikipedia File:1986 Dodge Caravan Smithsonian National Museum of American History.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1986_Dodge_Caravan_Smithsonian_National_Museum_of_American_History.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: CZmarlin, Daderot, Navigator84, Theodulf File:MHV Lloyd LT600.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MHV_Lloyd_LT600.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: MartinHansV File:Renault Espace First Iteration Blois 1984.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Renault_Espace_First_Iteration_Blois_1984.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Charles01 File:91PlymouthGrandVoyagerLE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:91PlymouthGrandVoyagerLE.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hkw2121 File:Citroen Evasion front.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_Evasion_front.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Luc106, Para, Thomas doerfer

File:Fiat ulysse bj94.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiat_ulysse_bj94.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Thomas Langer File:1st Ford Windstar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1st_Ford_Windstar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:Seat Alhambra Facelift 20090706 front.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seat_Alhambra_Facelift_20090706_front.JPG License: Attribution Contributors: Matthias File:96-00 Dodge Grand Caravan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:96-00_Dodge_Grand_Caravan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:96-98 Mercury Villager -- 12-26-2009.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:96-98_Mercury_Villager_--_12-26-2009.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:Opel Sintra front 20071011.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Sintra_front_20071011.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rudolf Stricker File:1st Honda Odyssey.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1st_Honda_Odyssey.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:Citroen Xsara Picasso front 20080103.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_Xsara_Picasso_front_20080103.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rudolf Stricker File:Opel Meriva A 1.8 Cosmo Facelift rear-2 20100716.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Meriva_A_1.8_Cosmo_Facelift_rear-2_20100716.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: S 400 HYBRID File:Renault Espace black r.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Renault_Espace_black_r.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: 1-1111, Jamieli, Stahlkocher File:02-04 Honda Odyssey.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:02-04_Honda_Odyssey.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:2002-05 Short Wheelbase Pontiac Montana.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2002-05_Short_Wheelbase_Pontiac_Montana.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bull-Doser File:SeatAlteaXL.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SeatAlteaXL.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Thomas doerfer File:SsangYong Rodius 270 Xdi front 20100719.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SsangYong_Rodius_270_Xdi_front_20100719.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: S 400 HYBRID File:Honda Elysion (first generation) (front), Serdang.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Honda_Elysion_(first_generation)_(front),_Serdang.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: User:Two hundred percent. File:Zafirona b.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zafirona_b.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Ecogarf File:Citron C4 Grand Picasso front-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citron_C4_Grand_Picasso_front-1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Luftfahrrad File:Kia Carnival front - 2006.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kia_Carnival_front_-_2006.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Matthias93 File:Ford C-MAX.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ford_C-MAX.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Thomas doerfer File:Citroen C4 Picasso rear 20071025.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_C4_Picasso_rear_20071025.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Rudolf Stricker File:2009-2010 Toyota Innova Ph.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009-2010_Toyota_Innova_Ph.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Mike384 File:Citroen C3 Picasso Tendance Thoriumgrau.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Citroen_C3_Picasso_Tendance_Thoriumgrau.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Thomas doerfer File:Proton Exora.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Proton_Exora.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Paultantk File:Opel Meriva B ecoFlex.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Opel_Meriva_B_ecoFlex.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Thomas doerfer File:VW Sharan (1).JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VW_Sharan_(1).JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: El monty File:Chevrolet Orlando LTZ 1.8 Frontansicht, 16. April 2011, Hilden.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chevrolet_Orlando_LTZ_1.8__Frontansicht,_16._April_2011,_Hilden.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: M 93 File:2009 Dodge Journey.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009_Dodge_Journey.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:Fiatpalioadventure2010.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiatpalioadventure2010.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lozowski File:07-Saturn-Outlook-XR.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:07-Saturn-Outlook-XR.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: IFCAR File:Arriva T6 nearside.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arriva_T6_nearside.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Arriva436 File:Keiseibus-twinbus-20071013.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keiseibus-twinbus-20071013.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Linearcity File:WA Police Booze Bus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WA_Police_Booze_Bus.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Nachoman-au Image:Omnibus - Project Gutenberg eText 16943.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Omnibus_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16943.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: .:Ajvol:., Kersti Nebelsiek, Kneiphof, Mu, Tagishsimon, Wst File:Stagecoach in Newcastle bus 19442 Alexander Dennis Trident 2 Enviro 400 NK58 FNG in Newcastle 25 April 2009.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stagecoach_in_Newcastle_bus_19442_Alexander_Dennis_Trident_2_Enviro_400_NK58_FNG_in_Newcastle_25_April_2009.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Ultra7 File:Praha, DOD 2006 Hostiva, Ploina autobusu Karosa pro invalidy.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Praha,_DOD_2006_Hostiva,_Ploina_autobusu_Karosa_pro_invalidy.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: A7036, Aktron, Jagro, Juiced lemon, Look2See1, Marek Banach, J File:Ride On 5312 at Glenmont.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ride_On_5312_at_Glenmont.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ben Schumin File:NYC Transit New Flyer 840.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NYC_Transit_New_Flyer_840.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Adam E. Moreira File:First Student IC school bus 202076.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Student_IC_school_bus_202076.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Adam E. Moreira File:KuwaitSCbusak.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KuwaitSCbusak.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Ahmadalshami at en.wikipedia File:Ryujinbus 62.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ryujinbus_62.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Rsa File:Viverolugobus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Viverolugobus.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: unknown File:GMBus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GMBus.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: dave_7 File:Red truck USA.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_truck_USA.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: PRA File:NW 1st lorry2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NW_1st_lorry2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Gwafton File:Truck carrying a large load in Indore (front view).JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truck_carrying_a_large_load_in_Indore_(front_view).JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Prateek Karandikar File:Inside Mack Granite.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inside_Mack_Granite.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Panoha File:Amo f 15 3.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amo_f_15_3.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Kneiphof, Panther, 1 anonymous edits File:Scania R470 topline.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scania_R470_topline.JPG License: unknown Contributors: FAEP, Ferdinand Porsche, Kneiphof, Liftarn, MB-one, Morio, Thomas Blomberg, Zaphod, 1 anonymous edits
77

File:Cummins Engine (LKW).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cummins_Engine_(LKW).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: selbst File:Rear axles tandem.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rear_axles_tandem.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Panoha File:Eaton Autoshift.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eaton_Autoshift.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Panoha File:A truck chassis section.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_truck_chassis_section.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Panoha File:truck.car.transporter.arp.750pix.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truck.car.transporter.arp.750pix.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User Arpingstone on en.wikipedia File:Isuzuelf6.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Isuzuelf6.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ypy31 File:Actros182201.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Actros182201.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Klodo6975 File:Iveco_Stralis_ITOY_2003.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iveco_Stralis_ITOY_2003.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denis1992, Klever, Morio File:Renault Magnum-Palifor (B)-2004.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Renault_Magnum-Palifor_(B)-2004.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Klever, Liftarn, Morio File:Quon-tractor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Quon-tractor.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ypy31 File:Dutro130MDLXtreme.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dutro130MDLXtreme.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Celica21gtfour File:Truck Sisu Kuorma-auto H4446 C.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Truck_Sisu_Kuorma-auto_H4446_C.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Anneli Salo File:Traktor na oranju.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Traktor_na_oranju.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Petar Miloevi File:Harrison Machine Works 1882 tractor.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Harrison_Machine_Works_1882_tractor.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Bill Whittaker (talk) File:1903 Tractor.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1903_Tractor.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Billertl Image:field marshall.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Field_marshall.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Grim... File:Volvo T 25.1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volvo_T_25.1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Erik Christensen Image:Modern-tractor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern-tractor.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Solitude Image:Wheat Planting Rig May 2007.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wheat_Planting_Rig_May_2007.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Elcajonfarms Image:OlderModelTractor.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OlderModelTractor.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: KVDP File:John Deere 3350 tractor cut.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Deere_3350_tractor_cut.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Kozuch Image:Modern John Deere Tractor IMG 0401.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modern_John_Deere_Tractor_IMG_0401.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Elcajonfarms Image:Tractor3pointhitchDubMay04.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractor3pointhitchDubMay04.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jesster79 Image:TractorPTOshaftMay04.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TractorPTOshaftMay04.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jesster79 Image:Benin brown tractor 600.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benin_brown_tractor_600.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of State Image:Tractorrearturnover.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractorrearturnover.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Bdk, MB-one, Mac, 1 anonymous edits Image:RogerTractorLarge.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RogerTractorLarge.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bdk, Jeanot, Zaphod File:JDTractor chisel-plough.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JDTractor_chisel-plough.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Jesster79 Image:TractorWithMountedRototiller.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TractorWithMountedRototiller.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: KVDP Image:TractorPoweringWaterpump.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TractorPoweringWaterpump.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: KVDP Image:Ueberladewagen (jha).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ueberladewagen_(jha).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Hinrich Image:Chelyabinsk tractor factory 1930s.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chelyabinsk_tractor_factory_1930s.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Augiasstallputzer, FrancisTyers, Man vyi, Vizu Image:tractor fanguejant.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractor_fanguejant.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Shinxenius Image:Backhoe and loader.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Backhoe_and_loader.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Fir0002, High Contrast, LosHawlos Image:Farm Tractor vs CUT vs Garden Tractor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farm_Tractor_vs_CUT_vs_Garden_Tractor.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Melensdad Image:1subsoil1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1subsoil1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Melensdad Image:Herd Seeder.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herd_Seeder.jpeg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Melensdad Image:JD 71 Flexi Planter, 2 Row.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JD_71_Flexi_Planter,_2_Row.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Melensdad File:Oliver60RowCrop1944.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oliver60RowCrop1944.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jdhoyes File:Farmall regular web.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Farmall_regular_web.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Caster23 File:Ford epa tractor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ford_epa_tractor.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Per Larssons Museum File:Volvo at Power Big Meet 2005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volvo_at_Power_Big_Meet_2005.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: ChiemseeMan, Konstantin, Liftarn, MB-one, MartinHansV, Warrakkk, 4 anonymous edits File:Duett-EPA-rear.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Duett-EPA-rear.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Liftarn Image:Backing it in 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Backing_it_in_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User Gbleem on en.wikipedia Image:UP Diesel 4453.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UP_Diesel_4453.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:SreeBot Image:Komsom 05.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Komsom_05.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Bukvoed, Joonasl, 2 anonymous edits Image:Trackmobile.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trackmobile.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Morven Image:PushbackCargolux.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PushbackCargolux.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ruud de Vries, http://www.ruudonline.com Image:Tractor-powered Roadroller.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tractor-powered_Roadroller.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: AshLin Image:Wladimir Gawriilowitsch Krikhatzkij - The First Tractor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wladimir_Gawriilowitsch_Krikhatzkij_-_The_First_Tractor.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alexandrin, BLueFiSH.as, Daniel Barnek, Edward, Goldfritha, Liftarn, MartinHansV, Mikkalai, Pauk, Wst, 3 anonymous edits Image:Trator.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trator.JPG License: unknown Contributors: -
78
License
79
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported //creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/

ABC of Automotive Industry

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ABC of Automotive Industry

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

ABC of Automotive Industry

World motor vehicle production

2009 61,791,868 -12.4% [19] 2010 77,857,705 26.0% [20]

Top vehicle manufacturing groups (by volume)

Subsidiary Subsidiary Division Division Division

Division Division Division Division Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary

Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary

Global Global Global Global Global

Global Global, except Mexico

Global North America, Middle East, Japan, South Korea

Global, except Japan, South America and Africa Global

North America, China Global

India, Middle East, South America Global

Subsidiary Division Subsidiary

Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary

Division Subsidiary Division Division

Division Division Division Division

Division Division Subsidiary

Global Global Global

People's Republic of China)

China, South Africa, Europe

Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary Division Subsidiary

Europe Global Global Global, except North America South Korea

People's Republic of China)

Division Subsidiary Subsidiary Division Subsidiary Subsidiary Subsidiary

China China China China China China China

Division Division Subsidiary

China, Russia, North Africa China Global

Division Division Division

China, Africa, South East Asia, Russia China China

People's Republic of China)

Global, except North America and Portugal Russia

Global, except North America

28. Anhui Jianghuai Automobile Company, Ltd ( JAC

People's Republic of China)

People's Republic of China)

China, North Africa China

People's Republic of China)

China, South Africa, Russia, North Africa, Australia Europe

People's Republic of China)

Subsidiary Division Division Division

China, United Kingdom, Chile, Argentina China China China

North America North America Global, except Japan Global

People's Republic of China)

People's Republic of China)

People's Republic of China)

Division Division Division

China China China

People's Republic of China)

People's Republic of China)

People's Republic of China)

Minor automotive manufacturers

Passenger cars in 2000

Karl Benz, the inventor of the modern automobile

Portrait of Henry Ford (ca. 1919)

Ford Model T, 1927, regarded as the first affordable American automobile

Fuel and propulsion technologies

Costs and benefits

Future car technologies

Open source development

Alternatives to the automobile

1958 AMC Ambassador hardtop sedan

Chevy Malibu Maxx hatchback sedan