CHAPTER- 2 BONDING

Standard Level
 A chemical bond is formed when outer-shell electrons of different atoms come close enough to each other to interact and re-arrange themselves into a more stable arrangementone with a lower overall chemical potential energy. All chemical bonds are based on the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative particles. When two or more atoms approach one another to form a bond, it is their outer-shell electrons that generally interact. Outer-shell electrons are so important in the generation of chemical bonds that they are given a special namevalence electrons.  There are three kinds of bondsa. Metal atoms and Non-Metal atoms combine to form ionic bonds b. Metal atoms and Metal atoms combine to form metallic bonds c. Non-Metal atoms and Non-Metal atoms combine to form covalent bonds  Bond dissociation enthalpy can be defined as the enthalpy required to break the bonds between 1 mole of bonded atoms. The larger the value, the stronger the bond. 1. IONIC BONDING METALS Metals tend to be shiny, have high melting and boiling points, and are generally good conductors of heat and electricity. Metal atoms tend to have low numbers of electrons (usually one or two) in their valence shells and, for this reason, have a tendency to lose these electrons so as to gain an outer-shell octet of electrons. NON-METALS Non-metals are generally poor conductors of electricity and heat. They have low melting points, and several are gases at room temperature. They have high numbers of electrons in their valence shells and will readily accept further electrons in order to reach the desired outcome of eight outer-shell electrons.

Ionic bonding occurs as the result of a metal atom donating its valence electron(s) to a non-metal atom. As the metal atom loses electrons, it will gain an overall positive charge, becoming a positively charged ion (a cation). Similarly, the nonmetal atom accepts electrons, becoming a negatively charged ion (an anion). The positive and negative ions are attracted to each other by electrostatic attraction, producing a neutral compound.The ionic compound formed is hard and brittle and is often described as a salt. Eg. Sodium reacts explosively with chlorine gas to produce the white crystalline solid sodium chloride. Sodium is a highly reactive metallic element in group 1 of the periodic table. It has an electron arrangement of 2,8,1. The one valence electron is lost when sodium forms a bond and the sodium ion, Na+, is formed. Chlorine has 17 electrons and an electron arrangement of 2,8,7. Chlorine has a strong affinity (or attracting power) for electrons and will readily accept one additional electron to fill its valence shell, resulting in the chloride ion, Cl.

The size of the positive sodium ion is smaller than the parent ion because one electron is lost and thus it looses one energy level. In the case of chlorine, the addition of one electron has completed the octet and made it a negative ion. The presence of extra electron adds to the greater repulsion and thus the anion is bigger than the neutral atom.
4.1.2: Determine which ions will be formed when metals in groups 1, 2 and 3 lose electrons. The formation of ions is a process that makes the atoms electronic structure more stable. Metal atoms form groups 1, 2 and 3 lose all of their outer shell electrons when forming ions. As each electron corresponds to a negative charge then the loss of one electron produces a positive ion with one positive charge. The loss of two electrons produces a positive ion with two positive charges. Etc Group 1 metals form single positive ions Group 2 metals form double positive ions Group 3 metals form triple positive ions

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4.1.3: Determine which ions will be formed when elements in groups 6 and 7 gain electrons. Non-metals gain just enough electrons to fill their outer shells. It may be seen from the electronic configuration of group 6 elements that their outer shells with 6 electrons need another two electrons to be filled. Each electron gained corresponds to a negative charge and so group 6 non-metals form double negative ions. Sulphur (2,8,6) --> [sulphide ion (2,8,8)]2Similarly group 7 elements need only one electron for a full outer shell and so form single negative ions. Chlorine (2,8,7) --> [chloride ion (2,8,8)]4.1.4: State that transition metals can form more than one ion. Restrict examples to simple ions eg Fe2+ and Fe3+. - Variable ion formation As stated above the normal 'rules' do not apply to the transition metals as they can form more than one type of ion. The reason for this lies in the electronic configuration, which involves electrons from the 3rd level called 'd' electrons. Examples Fe2+ and Fe3+ In these two ions the Iron atoms have lost either two electrons (in the case of Fe2+) or three electrons (in the case of Fe3+). This type of behaviour is possible for all of the transition metals. Iron II compounds (containing Fe2+ ions) are usually pale green in colour whereas Iron III compounds (containing Fe3+ ions) are usually yellow, orange or red.

Cu2+ and Cu+ These two copper ions have lost two electrons and one electron respectively. Copper II compounds (containing Cu2+ ions) are blue or green and soluble whereas copper I compounds (containing Cu+ ions) are white and insoluble.

Polyatomic ions are combination of several atoms with an overall charge. These ions are called polyatomic ions. Polyatomic ions are usually made up of non-metal atoms, although a few include metal atoms. Examples of some polyatomic atoms are SO42, CO32, PO43, OH, NO3, NH4+ and H3O+. State the formula of common polyatomic ions formed by non-metals in periods 2 and 3? Naming an Ion An empirical formula is the lowest whole number ratio of the atoms in a compound. RULES 1. When naming an ionic compound, the positive ion is generally written first, followed by the negative ion. For example, NaCl is called sodium chloride. 2. As compounds do not carry an overall charge, it is necessary to balance the charges of the anion and cation components, for example NaCl 3. If more than one of each ion is required to balance the overall charge, an subscript is used to indicate the number of each species required, for example H2SO4. 4. In the case of some polyatomic ions, it may be necessary to use brackets to ensure no ambiguity is present Cu(OH)2 5. For metals that are able to form ions of different charges, Roman numerals are used to indicate the relevant charge on the ion; for example, FeCl2 would be named as iron(II). 6. The name of the ion depends on its composition. For example, the ending -ate for a polyatomic ion indicates the presence of oxygen; the ending ide indicates that the ion is made up of a single atom with a negative charge such as sulfi de, S2, chloride, Cl. 7. The name of the ion often gives a clear indication of the atoms present. The hydroxide ion is made up of hydrogen and oxygen, OH. Structure of Ionic Compounds: Ions that make up ionic compounds arrange themselves into a regular pattern, a lattice structure (an ionic lattice), containing many millions of ions that extend in all three dimensions. No fixed number of ions is involved, but the ratio of cations to anions is constant for a given compound and is shown in the empirical formula. The most stable arrangement of ions for any particular ionic compound will be the one in which the positively charged ions are packed as closely as possible to the

negatively charged ions, and the ions with the same charge are as far apart as possible. This arrangement serves to maximize the electrostatic attraction between the positive and negative ions and minimize the repulsion between like charged ions, thus lowering the overall chemical potential energy of the lattice. Sodium chloride provides a good example of an ionic lattice. Each positive sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions, and each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. A sodium chloride crystal is cubic in shape.

METALLIC BONDING Metal ions, formed when atoms lose their valence electrons, are arranged in a threedimensional lattice. This array of ions is surrounded by freely moving electrons that form a sea of mobile electrons. These electrons are said to be delocalized, as they are not confined to a particular location but can move throughout the structure. Electrons are attracted to positively charged ions. This electrostatic attraction holds the lattice together, and prevents the ions pushing each other apart due to the electrostatic repulsion of like charges. This type of bonding is called metallic bonding.

Why do the metal atoms release their valence electrons to form the sea of electrons? Metal atoms achieve greater stability by releasing their valence electrons. Without their valence electrons, the metal atoms achieve a noble gas configurationan outershell octet of electrons. When non-metals are present, these valence electrons are transferred to the non-metal atoms, giving rise to the ionic bonding. PROPERTIES OF METALS Conductivity- The electrical conductivity of metals can be explained by the presence of the sea of delocalized electrons that surrounds the lattice of positive metal ions. In the solid state these electrons can move freely and will respond to the application of a

potential difference. When a metal is connected to a power supply, electrons enter one end of the metal (the end connected to the negative terminal). The same number of electrons then exits from the other end of the metal (moving towards the positive terminal). Delocalized electrons move freely through the structure, but metal ions vibrate, causing a barrier to the smooth flow of electrons. Some energy is therefore lost, causing the metal to heat as current passes through it.

Malleability The malleability of a metal is its ability to be beaten or bent into shape without breaking. Once again the sea of delocalized electrons is responsible for this property of metals. When a metal is bent, its lattice of positive ions is displaced and there is a possibility of positive ions coming into contact with other positive ions and repelling each other. The constant movement of the delocalized electrons prevents this from occurring, so the metal bends without breaking.

COVALENT BOND Covalent bond involves the sharing of one or more electrons so that each atom n the molecule achieves an inert gas configuration. The simplest covalent molecule is hydrogen. Each hydrogen atom has one electron in its outer shell. The 2 electrons are shared and attracted electro-statically by both positive nuclei resulting in a directional bond between the 2 atoms to form a molecule. When one pair of elections is shared the resulting bond is known as a single covalent bond. Another example of a diatomic molecule with a single covalent bond is chlorine.

Describe the covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between a pair of electrons and positively charge nuclei? Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a result of electron sharing?