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Table of Content

The effect of culture in the relationship between WOM and purchase intentions

difference in purchase intention between Dutch-Moroccan en Dutch consumers in the reaction to eWOM and traditio

Master Thesis Name: Sara Moers ID: i6025189 Thesis Supervisor: Katrin Hussinger

Abstract

Introduction Word-of-Mouth (hereinafter WOM) is the communication between consumers about a product, service, or a company in which the sources are considered independent of commercial influence(Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008)Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008. WOM has been acknowledged for many years as a major influence on what people know, feel and do. The majority of research (Engel, Blackwell et al. 1969; Herr, Kardes et al. 1991)Engel, Blackwell et al. 1969Herr, Kardes et al. 1991 generally support the claim that WOM is more influential on consumer behavior than other marketer-controlled resources. WOM has been exposed to affect a variety of conditions such as perceptions, awareness, attitudes, expectations, behavioral intentions, and behavior (Brown and Reingen 1987; Buttle 1998)Brown and Reingen 1987Buttle 1998. Personal sources such as Word-of-Mouth have a more decisive influence on the purchase decision than commercial sources of information PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5NYW5nb2xkPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+ MTk4NzwvWWVhcj48 UmVjTnVtPjI3PC9SZWNOdW0+PERpc3BsYXlUZXh0PihCcm9va3MgMTk1Nzsg TWFuZ29sZCAxOTg3 OyBEaWNodGVyIDIwMDA7IEdvbGRzbWl0aCBhbmQgSG9yb3dpdHogMjAwNik 8L0Rpc3BsYXlUZXh0 PjxyZWNvcmQ+PHJlYy1udW1iZXI+Mjc8L3JlYy1udW1iZXI+PGZvcmVpZ24ta2 V5cz48a2V5IGFw cD0iRU4iIGRiLWlkPSJhOXJ3ZWEwcGcwcnNhYmVkcmFzcDBkcGd4MnBkc3A5

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1957; Mangold 1987; Dichter 2000; Goldsmith and Horowitz 2006)Brooks 1957Mangold 1987Dichter 2000Goldsmith and Horowitz 2006. Earlier research as in Stern (1994) states that WOM involved the exchange of ephemeral oral or spoken messages between a contiguous source and a recipient who communicate directly in real life. However, nowadays in the current electronic age, WOM does not need to be

face-to-face and can be performed virtually (Buttle 1998)Buttle 1998. The arrival of the Internet and the growth of the World Wide Web, have given consumers a complete new world in which they can communicate and thus influence each other. It provides numerous of settings for consumers to share their opinions, preferences, and experiences with others (Trusov, Bucklin et al. 2009)Trusov, Bucklin et al. 2009 developing a written form of Electronic-Word-of-Mouth (hereinafter eWOM) which has higher credibility than marketer sources of information on the Internet (Bickart and Schindler 2001)Bickart and Schindler 2001. eWOM is a form of WOM, defined as a: statement made by potential, actual, or former customers about a product or company, which is made available to a multitude of people and institutions via the Internet (Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004)Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004.Therefore, WOM can be divided into traditional WOM (hereinafter tWOM) that exists out of face-to-face communication and eWOM that involves online communication between consumer who have never met before (Gruen, Osmonbekov et al. 2006)Gruen, Osmonbekov et al. 2006. Through eWOM consumers can deploy great influence over the products and brands considered for purchase (Riegner 2007)Riegner 2007. As the impact of eWOM on the consumer decision process is increasing, further investigation is needed on the relation between eWOM and the eventual purchase intentions of consumers.

Consumers can communicate through different forms of online communication tools such as email & instant messaging, blogs, forums and social network sites, which are all different forms of eWOM

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Gwinner et al. 2004; Goldsmith 2006; Brown, Broderick et al. 2007; Riegner 2007)Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004Goldsmith 2006Brown, Broderick et al. 2007Riegner 2007. According to Riegner (2007) consumer review and rating sites, blogs, and discussion boards are expected to have higher source of influence on consumer behavior than other sources such as instant messaging or chat rooms. These platforms are defined as user-generated content/sources (hereinafter UGC) or online communities (Brown, Broderick et al. 2007; Riegner 2007)Brown, Broderick et al. 2007Riegner 2007. Online communities, where the consumers develop the content themselves mainly represent WOM networks where people with an interest in a product category interact for information such as purchase advice, or to share

complaints or compliments (Kozinets 1999)Kozinets 1999.In this study the focus will be on user-generated sources as they represent one of the main platforms for eWOM.

Buttle (1998) proposes that culture is an extrapersonal condition, which impacts WOM behaviors. WOM has been shown to vary across cultures but the degree to which these differences apply to the online environment has been researched to a limited extent. Most research that includes the effect of culture on WOM is focused on tWOM such as a study conducted by Schumann, Wangenheim, Stringfellow, Yang, Blazevic, Praxmarer, Shainesh, Komor, Shannon & Jimnez (2010) which claim that cultural values moderate the positive effect of received WOM on a companys products/service among existing customers. The findings of Money, Gilly et al. (1998)1998 show that national culture has a strong effect on the number of referral sources consulted and that Japanese companies use more WOM than comparable American companies do. More recently studies have started to explore and analyze the effect of cross-cultural differences in eWOM (Fong and Burton 2008; Wang and Sun 2010)Fong and Burton 2008Wang and Sun 2010. For example Chu and Chois (2011) paper is one the first cross-cultural study on eWOM in SNSs by examining social relationship variables between the United States and China. The authors find that national culture plays a significant factor that affects consumers engagement in eWOM in social network sites (SNSs) in both countries (Chu and Choi 2011)Chu and Choi 2011. Although the marketing literature has addressed the crosscultural effects on tWOM or eWOM, there has been no earlier investigation into (sub)-cultural differences regarding the usage of both tWOM and eWOM. Studies either deal with the effect of culture on tWOM or eWOM. This will be the first study that investigates whether different cultures might use either of these WOM streams more heavily. The proposed research will analyze and compare the usage of both

tWOM and eWOM (especially UGC) and the influence on the purchase intentions across consumers of two different cultures within one country. As the Netherlands is a country that includes many different ethnic groups (Sleegers 2007)Sleegers 2007, it provides an ideal environment for a cross-cultural comparison study of consumer offline and online behavior. One of the largest non-western ethnic groups within the Netherlands are Moroccans (Praag 2006)Praag 2006. Although Morrocans live in the Netherlands they are heavily influenced by their ethnic background and feel a strong connection to their home country and culture (Kwok and Uncles 2005)Kwok and Uncles 2005. Moroccans, in contrast, are culturally very different from the Dutch consumers. This makes it interesting to analyze and compare the effect of cultural differences on the usage of tWOM and eWOM and the eventual influence on the purchase intention among these different cultural groups. By comparing the online and offline behavior of consumers from different cultural backgrounds, this research contributes to the literature on cross-cultural analysis and extends the consumer behavior literature. The study will furthermore enrich the academic knowledge on both streams of WOM within specific (sub) cultural groups. Additionally, the knowledge of marketers will be enhanced, since this research provides insights into consumers behavior, which will improve targeting and responsiveness to customers coming from different backgrounds. The results of this research will give marketers a better understanding of how consumers from different cultures use WOM and how susceptible they are to personal WOM and eWOM . Marketers will be able to focus their attention on the WOM stream that has the most influence on the purchase intention of these consumers, in order to overcome obstacles to customer choice. Enhancing marketers skills in effectively managing WOM can improve firms brand or product reputation and preference among consumers from different cultural groups.

This research paper is structured in different parts. It will start by giving an overview of the literature relating to the topic. Based on the literature review and background information, hypothesis will be developed followed by a conceptual model outlining the proposed relationships. The third section clarifies the methodology and research design. The fourth chapter shows the results of the research and the outcomes of the specific hypothesis. Finally, a discussion of the outcome and implications will be discussed followed by recommendations for future research. 2. Literature review 2.1 WOM 2.1.1 Definition of Word-of-Mouth WOM is a prevalent and fascinating phenomenon. The process of WOM, gives consumers the opportunity to share opinions and information that stimulates customers behavior towards specific brands, products and services (Hawkins, Best et al. 1998)Hawkins, Best et al. 1998. Research on WOM has begun in the 1960s and since then different definitions have evolved over time (Carl 2006)Carl 2006. One of the earliest studies into the influence of tWOM on consumer behavior has been performed by Arndt (1967)1967. The researcher viewed tWOM as an oral, face-toface communication between a recipient and a communicator whom the receiver observes as non-commercial, regarding a product, brand or service (Arndt 1967)Arndt 1967. This was one of the first researchers that tried to conceptualize the area of tWOM. A similar definition was developed by Bone (1992)1992, though the author addresses a main difference which is that WOM can be a group phenomenon: an exchange of comments, thoughts, and ideas among two or more individuals in which none of the individuals represent a marketing source (p. 579). Westbrook (1987)1987 described WOM more generally as :all informal communications directed at other consumers about the ownership, usage, or characteristics of

particular goods and services or their sellers. He did not define the exact meaning of informal communication but his writing style clearly shows that interpersonal communications are meant, contrary to mass media channels. Stern (1994)1994 based her definition of tWOM by drawing on its exclusivity from advertising. The author defines tWOM as conversational exchanges in which both parties participate in sending and receiving messages with fixed or determinate meanings regarding consumption and product issues (Stern 1994)Stern 1994. However, tWOM does not need to be essentially product, brand or service related. It can also include communications that are organization concentrated (Buttle 1998)Buttle 1998. Besides, Buttle (1998)1998 states that WOM does not need to be face-t-face and can be performed electronically. He also noted that organizations might pay or reward individuals to generate and spread WOM across consumers. Not all of the above definitions mention the only distinguishing feature of WOM, which is that WOM messages should come from sources that are perceived independent of corporate influence (Buttle 1998)Buttle 1998. For the purpose of this paper a clear distinction will be made between the definition of WOM, tWOM and eWOM. WOM in general will follow the definition of Williams and Band (2004)2004 which state that WOM is: Interpersonal communication between individuals within networks that either explicitly or subconsciously identify preferences. Traditional WOM will be defined as the face to face communication between consumers about a product, service, or a company in which the sources are considered independent of commercial influence (Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008)Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008.-->Motivate why choose for these definitions

2.1.2 Importance of WOM

WOM is believed to be more influential than other marketer controlled resources (Engel, Blackwell et al. 1969; Herr, Kardes et al. 1991)Engel, Blackwell et al. 1969Herr, Kardes et al. 1991 and is considered one of the most powerful sources in the market place (Reichheld 2003)Reichheld 2003. It so powerful because consumers usually trust other consumers more than they trust marketers or advertisers and is therefore considered more trustworthy and credible (Sen and Lerman 2007)Sen and Lerman 2007 . Herr (1991)1991 found that WOM can be more persuasive than neutral printed sources. This is also confirmed by a study conducted by Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955)1955 which shows that WOM is the most influential source in the purchase of food products and household goods. His research proves that WOM is seven times as effective as newspapers and magazines, four times as effective as personal selling, and twice as effective as radio advertising in influencing consumers to switch brands. Not only is WOM one of the most powerful sources it especially plays an important role in forming consumers behaviors and attitudes (consumer behavior) (Brown and Reingen 1987; Eliashberg, Jonker et al. 2000)Brown and Reingen 1987Eliashberg, Jonker et al. 2000. Consumers actively pursue advice of friends and family when shopping for products and services (Walker 1995;Rogers 1995). This is confirmed by Mangolds (1987)1987 investigation of the impact of WOM in the professional services context, which claims that WOM has a more determined influence on the purchasing decision of consumers than other sources of influence. Additionally, research has revealed that some products/services are highly receptive to WOM communications, including professional services (Smith and Meyer 1980)Smith and Meyer 1980, innovations (Rogers 1995)Rogers 1995, travel or vacation destinations (Nolan 1976; Gitelson and Crompton 1984)Nolan 1976Gitelson and Crompton 1984, automobiles (Swan and Oliver 1989)Swan and Oliver 1989, and

movies (Mizerski 1982; Liu 2006)Mizerski 1982Liu 2006. It can be concluded that tWOM communication is an important, common, realistic source of information that has a major influence on the behavior of consumers, and thus the purchase intentions. As can be read there are many different studies on the usefulness and power of tWOM, however little empirical research examines the effect of tWOM on the receivers purchase intentions (Brown and Reingen 1987)Brown and Reingen 1987. This research will contribute to the literature by examining the effect of WOM on the receivers purchase intentions.--> continue here about purchase intention 2.2 Electronic Word-of-Mouth (eWOM) Buttle (1998)1998 was one of the researchers to claim that WOM does not necessarily need to be face-to-face but can be performed electronically. With the arrival of the World Wide Web and the changing nature of how people communicate, the internet has become a highly important source for electronic word-of-mouth (Lee and Youn 2009)Lee and Youn 2009. eWOM is defined as a: statement made by potential, actual, or former customers about a product or company, which is made available to a multitude of people and institutions via the Internet (Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004)Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004. Not only are consumers able to voice themselves to a large amount of people, but also for an extended period of time. The importance and power of WOM have been addressed extensively, however with the advent of the web, the power of WOM has increased extremely, which is why interest in eWOM has surged in recent years

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cGVyaW9kaWNhbD48ZnVsbC10aXRsZT5Kb3VybmFsIG9mIEludGVyYWN0aXZl IE1hcmtldGluZzwv ZnVsbC10aXRsZT48L3BlcmlvZGljYWw+PHBhZ2VzPjM4LTUyPC9wYWdlcz48d m9sdW1lPjE4PC92 b2x1bWU+PG51bWJlcj4xPC9udW1iZXI+PGRhdGVzPjx5ZWFyPjIwMDQ8L3llY XI+PC9kYXRlcz48 aXNibj4xNTIwLTY2NTM8L2lzYm4+PHVybHM+PC91cmxzPjwvcmVjb3JkPjwvQ 2l0ZT48L0VuZE5v dGU+AG== (Bickart and Schindler 2001; Dellarocas 2003; Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004)Bickart and Schindler 2001Dellarocas 2003Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004. tWOM and eWOM might seem similar regarding the fact that they are usually information sources that are not manipulated by marketers and their selling intentions. However, the main unique characteristics that distinguishes eWOM from tWOM is that eWOM takes place in an online environment which can be accessed, searched and linked (Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008)Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008. It is considered an anonymous source and mostly occurs between people who have minimal or no prior relationship with each other (Dellarocas 2003)Dellarocas 2003Goldsmith 2006; Sen and Lerman 2007). The anonymity that the internet provides consumers with gives them the opporunity to easily share their opnions and views with fellow consumers without exposing their own idenity (Goldsmith 2006)Goldsmith 2006. Nevertheless, the anonymous character of eWOM can make it challenging for consumers to decide upon the quality and credibility of eWOM sources. Companies might compensate individuals of blogs to positively write about their products or company name (Chatterjee 2001)Chatterjee 2001. The anomity of online consumers might intentionally cause misleading messages (Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008)Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008. These are the

main differences between tWOM and eWOM that have to be taken into account when researching both topics and their effect on consumer behavior.

2.2.1 Previous research on eWOM eWOM research has emerged during the last ten years. The topic on online word-ofmouth is still an understudied research area as its relatively new (Cheung 2010)Cheung 2010. Research on eWOM has taken various directions. Some studies focused on the motivations of consumer to engage in eWOM and the spreading of eWOM PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Nb29yZTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIw MDQ8L1llYXI+PFJl Y051bT4xMDk8L1JlY051bT48RGlzcGxheVRleHQ+KEhlbm5pZy1UaHVyYXUgY W5kIFdhbHNoIDIw MDM7IE1vb3JlIGFuZCBNb29yZSAyMDA0OyBQYXJrLCBMZWUgZXQgYWwu IDIwMDcpPC9EaXNwbGF5 VGV4dD48cmVjb3JkPjxyZWMtbnVtYmVyPjEwOTwvcmVjLW51bWJlcj48Zm9y ZWlnbi1rZXlzPjxr ZXkgYXBwPSJFTiIgZGItaWQ9ImE5cndlYTBwZzByc2FiZWRyYXNwMGRwZ3g ycGRzcDl0d3JycyI+ MTA5PC9rZXk+PC9mb3JlaWduLWtleXM+PHJlZi10eXBlIG5hbWU9IkpvdXJuY WwgQXJ0aWNsZSI+ MTc8L3JlZi10eXBlPjxjb250cmlidXRvcnM+PGF1dGhvcnM+PGF1dGhvcj5Nb29yZ SwgUi48L2F1 dGhvcj48YXV0aG9yPk1vb3JlLCBNLjwvYXV0aG9yPjwvYXV0aG9ycz48L2Nvbn RyaWJ1dG9ycz48 dGl0bGVzPjx0aXRsZT5DdXN0b21lciBpbnF1aXJpZXMgYW5kIGNvbXBsYWlud

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Walsh 2003Moore and Moore 2004Park, Lee et al. 2007. Other research investigated eWOM from a strategic perspective (Graham and Havlena 2007; Niederhoffer, Mooth et al. 2007)Graham and Havlena 2007Niederhoffer, Mooth et al. 2007. The impact of eWOM has been studied in various context such as, movies (Liu 2006)Liu 2006, hospitality and tourism (Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008)Litvin, Goldsmith et al. 2008 and online books (Chevalier and Mayzlin 2003)Chevalier and Mayzlin 2003. Though, these studies that researched the impact of eWOM in different context tend to focus on the effect of eWOM on sales, rather than on purchase intentions.

The majority of eWOM literature is written from a consumer behavior perspective such as Garbarino & Strahilevitz (2004)2004 and Awad & Ragowsky (2008)2008 whom measured the effect of gender on tendency to engage in eWOM. Other articles reviewed the expected results of participating in eWOM (Sen and Lerman 2007)Sen and Lerman 2007. Bickart & Schindler (2001)2001 found that online forums do not specifically effect purchase intentions and the amount of money the consumer expects to spend. However, they did find that the use of online discussion groups/online forums could increase consumers probability of passing from attention to interest in the stages to product purchase. This is one of the few studies that examined the effect of eWOM on the purchase intention. The drawback of this study is that it contained an exploratory study of limited scope. It included a relatively small sample of 60 marketing students who evaluated specific topics relating to specific products group. This research is not applicable to a general group and the measurement of purchase intention has to be improved. Nevertheless, it still proves that eWOM has a significant influence on consumer behavior. Consumers can use different online platforms to express their opinion or to seek product/service information such as email & instant messaging, personal blogs, product review websites, retailers website, forums and

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c3A5dHdycnMiPjYz PC9rZXk+PC9mb3JlaWduLWtleXM+PHJlZi10eXBlIG5hbWU9IkpvdXJuYWwgQ XJ0aWNsZSI+MTc8 L3JlZi10eXBlPjxjb250cmlidXRvcnM+PGF1dGhvcnM+PGF1dGhvcj5CaWNrYXJ0 LCBCLjwvYXV0 aG9yPjxhdXRob3I+U2NoaW5kbGVyLCBSLk0uPC9hdXRob3I+PC9hdXRob3JzPj wvY29udHJpYnV0 b3JzPjx0aXRsZXM+PHRpdGxlPkludGVybmV0IGZvcnVtcyBhcyBpbmZsdWVudG lhbCBzb3VyY2Vz IG9mIGNvbnN1bWVyIGluZm9ybWF0aW9uPC90aXRsZT48c2Vjb25kYXJ5LXRpd GxlPkpvdXJuYWwg b2YgSW50ZXJhY3RpdmUgTWFya2V0aW5nPC9zZWNvbmRhcnktdGl0bGU+PC9 0aXRsZXM+PHBlcmlv ZGljYWw+PGZ1bGwtdGl0bGU+Sm91cm5hbCBvZiBJbnRlcmFjdGl2ZSBNYXJrZ XRpbmc8L2Z1bGwt dGl0bGU+PC9wZXJpb2RpY2FsPjxwYWdlcz4zMS00MDwvcGFnZXM+PHZvbHV tZT4xNTwvdm9sdW1l PjxudW1iZXI+MzwvbnVtYmVyPjxkYXRlcz48eWVhcj4yMDAxPC95ZWFyPjwvZ GF0ZXM+PGlzYm4+ MTUyMC02NjUzPC9pc2JuPjx1cmxzPjwvdXJscz48L3JlY29yZD48L0NpdGU+PC9 FbmROb3RlPn== (Bickart and Schindler 2001; Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004; Goldsmith 2006; Brown, Broderick et al. 2007; Riegner 2007)Bickart and Schindler 2001Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004Goldsmith 2006Brown, Broderick et al. 2007Riegner 2007. Not all of these online platforms have the same influence on consumer behavior. A study conducted by Lee (2009)2009 claims that personal blogs and consumer generated product-reviews especially have an impact on consumers

buying decisions. Likewise, Riegner (2007)2007 found that consumer review and rating sites, blogs, and discussion boards are expected to have higher source of influence on purchase behavior than other sources of influence. Consumer generated reviews are consumer generated opinions that are published on the Internet by websites that are specialized in publishing consumer reviews (including revenge websites) (Schindler and Bickart 2005)Schindler and Bickart 2005. Consumer can exchange their opinion on specific products or services. Another important online social venue that allows consumer to search for product information, opinions and recommendations that can help them with purchase decisions are social network sites (hereinafter SNSs) (Hsiao, Lin et al. 2010)Hsiao, Lin et al. 2010. These SNSs such as Facebook, Twitter and MySpace provide consumers with several features such as discussion topics and chatting to share their own consumption-related

recommendations and experience (Kim and Srivastava 2007)Kim and Srivastava 2007. In this research online platforms such as consumer review website, personal blogs, forums and SNSs are referred to as online communities. These online communities are considered trust worthier to consumers than retailers website or marketers who are paid to positively promote the product (Bickart and Schindler 2001)Bickart and Schindler 2001. Most of the research deals with tWOM or eWOM separately and is especially focused on how consumers use these forms of WOM. Little research is focused on the effect of both forms of WOM on purchase intentions. This research will analyze the effect of both online and offline sources (especially online communities) on purchase intentions of consumers and will compare these.

Knowledge of product performance, attributes, price and availability can influence a consumers buying behavior (Clemons 2008)Clemons 2008. From the above literature it can be concluded that consumers can gain this knowledge through tWOM and

eWOM. Both sources have an important influence on consumers buying behavior. These forms of WOM are separated into different sources that customers can consult. Consumers can gain information or recommendations on products through friends, colleagues, online forums, blogs and SNSs and many more. These sources again represent certain weak and strong ties that consumers have with the communicator. This tie strength (the strength of the relationship between a communicator and a receiver) is one of the most unique differences between tWOM and eWOM (Chatterjee 2001)Chatterjee 2001. This research will distinguish between strong and weak ties within tWOM and strong and weak ties within eWOM as these are considered different and can have a dissimilar influence on the decision process of the consumer.

2.3 Strong and weak ties within WOM The strength of an interpersonal tie is defined as: a combination of the amount of time, the emotional intensity, the intimacy (mutual confiding), and the reciprocal services which characterize the tie(Granovetter 1973)Granovetter 1973. Since WOM is a social occurrence, characteristics of social relations likely play a vital role in both offline and online WOM behavior (Granovetter 1973)Granovetter 1973. Social relationships are usually a vital source for information flow and referral behavior. A consumer can have strong and weak ties with a communicator and these differ between tWOM and eWOM. A study conducted by Brown and Reingen (1987)1987 found that strong ties are more influential than weak ties while previous studies conclude the contrary such as Granovetter (1973)1973. Thus, these studies above show that both sources (strong and weak ties) have an influence on consumer behavior. If the sender of the information, opinion or recommendation is identified as a relative or friend of the receiver, then the tie is classified as strong. When the

communicator has a strong tie with the sender then they usually have a prior relationship with each other. If the sender is classified as simply an acquaintance or neighbor, then the tie is identified as weak (Granovetter 1973; Brown and Reingen 1987)Granovetter 1973Brown and Reingen 1987. In this sense a communicator with weak ties is someone who has no or little prior relation with the receiver (e.g. fellow consumer or stranger). A factor that is very important in these social relationships is trust. It has been found that trust enables the use and exchange of information, especially when the sender of information is trusted in a social relationship. This is because the credibility of information is perceived higher since the consumer trusts the sender (Robert Jr, Dennis et al. 2008)Robert Jr, Dennis et al. 2008. In tWOM the consumer has a direct face-to-face connection with the sender of information in both strong and weak ties, which can reduce the trust concerns. It can be assumed that especially in strong ties the trust is higher as the consumer knows the sender of information. Within eWOM trust can be an enormous issue, which makes strong and weak ties more difficult to define. The strength of the ties between the senders and receivers of eWOM is most often weak since everybody can post their experience, opinion and recommendation on products online without revealing their true identity (Chatterjee 2001)Chatterjee 2001. Consumers might feel less responsible for their postings online, as they are unknown to the readers and have no prior relationship with them (Granitz and Ward 1996)Granitz and Ward 1996. Consequently it might be tough for consumers to determine the credibility of these online postings about products as the information posted online might be incorrect (Bailey 2004)Bailey 2004. Despite these disadvantages, the weak ties within eWOM have certain benefits to consumers. The weak ties within eWOM can have more potential for decisionmaking (Friedkin 1982)Friedkin 1982, the information obtained from the internet is more diverse, and consumers can gain higher quality input as consumers have access

to a wide variety of people with more expertise on certain topics (Constant, Sproull et al. 1996)Constant, Sproull et al. 1996. Thus, the key difference between tWOM and eWOM is the strength of ties between consumers who exchange information. The relative strength of the ties within eWOM varies between the different forms of eWOM (Schindler and Bickart 2005)Schindler and Bickart 2005. Similar as in tWOM, one can expect to find both strong and weak ties among the exchange of eWOM messages. Based on the preceding literature, this research claims that in eWOM consumer generated product reviews represent weak ties, as the consumer has no prior relationship with the sender of information like in tWOM. Anyone can post a review on a website and the consumer does not know the sender of the information. The only characteristic that they have in common is that the sender of information is usually a fellow consumer (Lee and Youn 2009)Lee and Youn 2009. The WOM information posted in these online reviews are important referable sources for individuals (Schindler and Bickart 2005)Schindler and Bickart 2005. Overall the Internet includes mostly weak ties, as consumers online normally have no prior relationship with each other. However, with the rise of SNSs strong ties have evolved within the Internet as well. SNSs sites are a unique feature of the Internet as consumers can choose their own network with whom they would like to communicate. Consumers can quickly and simply exchange product-related information with their personal contacts (Boyd and Ellison 2008)Boyd and Ellison 2008. WOM messages that are exchanged on SNSs are not between strangers or consumers who have never met before. The messages that are exchanged are usually between participants who have some offline connection (Haythornthwaite 2005)Haythornthwaite 2005. On the greatest SNSs such as Facebook members are not necessarily networking or searching to meet new people. Rather they are mainly communicating with people who are already part of their own offline social network

(Boyd and Ellison 2008)Boyd and Ellison 2008. On Facebook, participants usually add their best friends, family classmates and colleagues or other people they have met before. This research will focus on Facebook, as consumers are able to choose their own contacts and usually exchange WOM messages with people with whom they have a previous relationship. From the forgoing literature it can be concluded that the credibility and trustworthiness of WOM messages on Facebook is perceived higher since the sender of information is from the users personal network; which is why SNSs aids as a valuable source for eWOM and product information among consumers (Chu and Choi 2011)Chu and Choi 2011. Within Facebook it is possible that consumers have strong and weak ties (Chu and Choi 2011)Chu and Choi 2011. However, this study will not take this separately as it would be a topic worthy of a separate research. Thus, in eWOM consumer generated review websites represent weak ties, as the sender and receiver of information are generally complete strangers to each other. Consumers on Facebook represent strong ties as the sender and receiver of information usually have a prior relationship and the sender of information is able to form his or her own social network with contacts that they previously know from their offline network. Numerous researchers have proposed that these social relationships (strong and weak ties) and communications that occur between consumers depend mainly on the dominant cultural orientation of their society (Singelis 1994)Singelis 1994. Literature proves that culture significantly affect a consumers decisions making process and especially product purchase decisions (Lu, Rose et al. 1999)Lu, Rose et al. 1999. Moreover, it is also suggested that the online behavior of consumer is culturally shaped, reflecting the dominant cultural values of a consumer society (Fong and Burton 2008; Wang and Sun 2010)Fong and Burton 2008Wang and Sun 2010 From a cultural perspective, these social relationships (strong and weak ties) offline and online may differ from culture to culture and have a

different influence on an individuals purchase intentions. These social ties are expected to serve as major variables in the consumers offline and online behavior and to deploy different influences across various cultures (Chu and Choi 2011)Chu and Choi 2011.

2.4 Culture One of the first definitions of culture was developed by anthropologist Kluckhohn (1962, p.25), he defined culture as the part of human makeup that is learned by people as the result of belonging to a particular group, and is that part of learned behavior that is shared by others. More recently culture expert Hofstede defined culture as the collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one human group from another (Hofstede and Bond 1984). These definitions propose that consumers obtain culture from their society or the group they belong to and that learned behavior becomes part of the consumers own behavior (Lam, Lee et al. 2009)Lam, Lee et al. 2009. Culture covers a system of shared values and meanings which forms consumers perception and actions (Trompenaars 1994; Liu, Furrer et al. 2001)Trompenaars 1994Liu, Furrer et al. 2001. Therefor this research expects that consumers from different cultures are generally expected to choose different channels of communication to affect WOM messages and the eventual behavior of consumers (Kale 1991; Chow, Deng et al. 2000)Kale 1991Chow, Deng et al. 2000. The majority of research that is conducted has studied WOM within a single country, limited attention is given to cultural influences on WOM communications (Money, Gilly et al. 1998; Lam, Lee et al. 2009)Money, Gilly et al. 1998Lam, Lee et al. 2009. One of the few researchers that examined the affect of culture on WOM was conducted by Money, Gilly and Graham (1998)1998 who found that national culture

impact buyers WOM referrals and the usage of certain WOM channels. However, this research focused on companies and did not examine WOM behavior from the individual consumer perspective. Neither did it examine online WOM sources and the influence culture might have on online behavior. It mainly focused on the usage of WOM rather than on the effect is has on the purchase intention. When analyzing cultural differences and the effect on WOM, the main stream research use Asian nationalities and American nationalities as their

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iBBIENyb3NzLUN1 bHR1cmFsIFN0dWR5IG9mIHRoZSBVbml0ZWQgU3RhdGVzIGFuZCBDaGluYT wvdGl0bGU+PHNlY29u ZGFyeS10aXRsZT5Kb3VybmFsIG9mIEdsb2JhbCBNYXJrZXRpbmc8L3NlY29uZ GFyeS10aXRsZT48 L3RpdGxlcz48cGVyaW9kaWNhbD48ZnVsbC10aXRsZT5Kb3VybmFsIG9mIEdsb2 JhbCBNYXJrZXRp bmc8L2Z1bGwtdGl0bGU+PC9wZXJpb2RpY2FsPjxwYWdlcz4yNjMtMjgxPC9wY Wdlcz48dm9sdW1l PjI0PC92b2x1bWU+PG51bWJlcj4zPC9udW1iZXI+PGRhdGVzPjx5ZWFyPjIwMT E8L3llYXI+PC9k YXRlcz48aXNibj4wODkxLTE3NjI8L2lzYm4+PHVybHM+PC91cmxzPjwvcmVjb3 JkPjwvQ2l0ZT48 L0VuZE5vdGU+ (Money, Gilly et al. 1998; Schumann, v. Wangenheim et al. 2010; Chu and Choi 2011)Money, Gilly et al. 1998Schumann, v. Wangenheim et al. 2010Chu and Choi 2011. Little attention has been paid to subcultural influences within one country on both offline and online behavior. One of the few studies that studied consumer behavior between different ethnic groups is performed by Kwok and Uncles (2005)2005. However this study focused on price promotion effects and paid no attention to WOM. It is expected that subcultures might react differently towards certain WOM messages coming from strong and weak WOM channels. This research investigates and compares the effect of WOM on purchase intentions between one subculture within one country versus the national country culture.

2.4.1 Cultural differences

Cultures in general can be divided into smaller groups by their different values and norms that are dissimilar from the mainstream culture. These subcultures are often based on origin, religion, race or ethnic differences. Hedbige (1979)1979 defines subculture as a set of people with a distinct set of behavior and beliefs that differentiate them from a larger culture from which they are part. The Netherlands is a country that includes various ethnic groups that can be differentiated from the mainstream Dutch culture (Sleegers 2007)Sleegers 2007. One of the largest nonwestern ethnic groups are Moroccan immigrants. In 2010 the Netherlands counts 349.000 Moroccan immigrants (Praag 2006)Praag 2006. This ethnic group is expected to become the largest non-western ethnic group in 2015 (CBS,1991) and is considered a large consumer group. Although Morrocans live in the Netherlands they are heavily influenced by their ethnic background and feel a strong connection to their home country and culture (Praag 2006)Praag 2006. The relationship between ethnicity and consumer decision making is particularly important among the Ductch-Moroccan population as the Morrocan ethnicity is considered to have a stonger effect on individual behavior compared to other ethnic groups is the Netherlands. (Praag 2006)Praag 2006. From the subcultures within the Netherlands, Dutch-Moroccans are the ethnic group that are most introverted and are focused on members of their own group (Dagevos 2007)Dagevos 2007, which is why it can be assumed that especially in this group clear possible cultural differences will emerge .

Handbook of Marketing Scales (Beardon et al., 1993). The combined index was used to measure: length of time in the USA, strength of Sabbath observance, participation in Jewish cultural events, language spoken at home, place of birth, identification with cultural groups.

2.4.2 Individualism & Collectivisim

Individualism versus collectivism is the most regularly accepted and used measurement of cultural differences. The majority of researchers

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XI+PGRhdGVzPjx5ZWFy PjIwMDk8L3llYXI+PC9kYXRlcz48aXNibj4xMDY5LTAzMVg8L2lzYm4+ PHVybHM+PC91cmxzPjwv cmVjb3JkPjwvQ2l0ZT48L0VuZE5vdGU+AG== (Kagitcibasi 1997; Fong and Burton 2008; Lam, Lee et al. 2009)Kagitcibasi 1997Fong and Burton 2008Lam, Lee et al. 2009 paid most attention to these dimenstions developed by Hofstede (1984)1984. Hofstede and Bond insert reference have classified culture into four dimensions: individualism-collectivism, power distance, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidence index. This research only takes the individualism and collectivism dimension into account as this explains the degree to which a culture or society values individual freedom or group norms (Hofstede and Bond 1984)Hofstede and Bond 1984. It will leave the other dimensions out as these are not of value to this research. In in an individualistic society in which the ties between individuals are weak and loose: people are expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate families. In these cultures a strong I concept is valued. People consider themselves different from others and value notions such as self-reliance,

independence,

freedom

and

distance

from

in-groups

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WFyPjwvZGF0ZXM+ PGlzYm4+MTA2OS0wMzFYPC9pc2JuPjx1cmxzPjwvdXJscz48L3JlY29yZD48L0N pdGU+PENpdGU+ PEF1dGhvcj5Gb25nPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAwODwvWWVhcj48UmVjTnVtP jYxPC9SZWNOdW0+ PHJlY29yZD48cmVjLW51bWJlcj42MTwvcmVjLW51bWJlcj48Zm9yZWlnbi1rZXl zPjxrZXkgYXBw PSJFTiIgZGItaWQ9ImE5cndlYTBwZzByc2FiZWRyYXNwMGRwZ3gycGRzcDl0d 3JycyI+NjE8L2tl eT48L2ZvcmVpZ24ta2V5cz48cmVmLXR5cGUgbmFtZT0iSm91cm5hbCBBcnRpY 2xlIj4xNzwvcmVm LXR5cGU+PGNvbnRyaWJ1dG9ycz48YXV0aG9ycz48YXV0aG9yPkZvbmcsIEouP C9hdXRob3I+PGF1 dGhvcj5CdXJ0b24sIFMuPC9hdXRob3I+PC9hdXRob3JzPjwvY29udHJpYnV0b3JzP jx0aXRsZXM+ PHRpdGxlPkEgY3Jvc3MtY3VsdHVyYWwgY29tcGFyaXNvbiBvZiBlbGVjdHJvbm ljIHdvcmQtb2Yt bW91dGggYW5kIGNvdW50cnktb2Ytb3JpZ2luIGVmZmVjdHM8L3RpdGxlPjxzZ WNvbmRhcnktdGl0 bGU+Sm91cm5hbCBvZiBCdXNpbmVzcyBSZXNlYXJjaDwvc2Vjb25kYXJ5LXRp dGxlPjwvdGl0bGVz PjxwZXJpb2RpY2FsPjxmdWxsLXRpdGxlPkpvdXJuYWwgb2YgQnVzaW5lc3MgU mVzZWFyY2g8L2Z1 bGwtdGl0bGU+PC9wZXJpb2RpY2FsPjxwYWdlcz4yMzMtMjQyPC9wYWdlcz48d m9sdW1lPjYxPC92 b2x1bWU+PG51bWJlcj4zPC9udW1iZXI+PGRhdGVzPjx5ZWFyPjIwMDg8L3llYX

I+PC9kYXRlcz48 aXNibj4wMTQ4LTI5NjM8L2lzYm4+PHVybHM+PC91cmxzPjwvcmVjb3JkPjwvQ 2l0ZT48Q2l0ZT48 QXV0aG9yPkNodTwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTE8L1llYXI+PFJlY051bT4xM zY8L1JlY051bT48 cmVjb3JkPjxyZWMtbnVtYmVyPjEzNjwvcmVjLW51bWJlcj48Zm9yZWlnbi1rZXlz PjxrZXkgYXBw PSJFTiIgZGItaWQ9ImE5cndlYTBwZzByc2FiZWRyYXNwMGRwZ3gycGRzcDl0d 3JycyI+MTM2PC9r ZXk+PC9mb3JlaWduLWtleXM+PHJlZi10eXBlIG5hbWU9IkpvdXJuYWwgQXJ0a WNsZSI+MTc8L3Jl Zi10eXBlPjxjb250cmlidXRvcnM+PGF1dGhvcnM+PGF1dGhvcj5DaHUsIFMuQy48 L2F1dGhvcj48 YXV0aG9yPkNob2ksIFMuTS48L2F1dGhvcj48L2F1dGhvcnM+PC9jb250cmlidXRv cnM+PHRpdGxl cz48dGl0bGU+RWxlY3Ryb25pYyBXb3JkLW9mLU1vdXRoIGluIFNvY2lhbCBOZ XR3b3JraW5nIFNp dGVzOiBBIENyb3NzLUN1bHR1cmFsIFN0dWR5IG9mIHRoZSBVbml0ZWQgU3 RhdGVzIGFuZCBDaGlu YTwvdGl0bGU+PHNlY29uZGFyeS10aXRsZT5Kb3VybmFsIG9mIEdsb2JhbCBNY XJrZXRpbmc8L3Nl Y29uZGFyeS10aXRsZT48L3RpdGxlcz48cGVyaW9kaWNhbD48ZnVsbC10aXRsZ T5Kb3VybmFsIG9m IEdsb2JhbCBNYXJrZXRpbmc8L2Z1bGwtdGl0bGU+PC9wZXJpb2RpY2FsPjxwY Wdlcz4yNjMtMjgx PC9wYWdlcz48dm9sdW1lPjI0PC92b2x1bWU+PG51bWJlcj4zPC9udW1iZXI+PGR

hdGVzPjx5ZWFy PjIwMTE8L3llYXI+PC9kYXRlcz48aXNibj4wODkxLTE3NjI8L2lzYm4+PHVybH M+PC91cmxzPjwv cmVjb3JkPjwvQ2l0ZT48L0VuZE5vdGU+AG== (Fong and Burton 2008; Lam, Lee et al. 2009; Chu and Choi 2011)Fong and Burton 2008Lam, Lee et al. 2009Chu and Choi 2011. On the opposite you have collectivistic cultures in which we in stead of I is valued. These cultures value social norms, harmony, connectedness and in-group membership (Singelis 1994)Singelis 1994. In collectivist societies group goals have a higher importance over individual goals (Lam, Lee et al. 2009)Lam, Lee et al. 2009. The way individuals behave in a collectivist culture depend to a large extent to beliefs, thought, feelings and actions of others (Markus and Kitayama 1991)Markus and Kitayama 1991. Previous studies in the field of culture and consumer behavior showed that the decision making process is generally more influenced by people from a collectivist cultures as opposed to people from an individualistic culture (Kim and Drolet 2003; Savani, Markus et al. 2008)Kim and Drolet 2003Savani, Markus et al. 2008. The influence others have on decision making is much more powerful in a collectivist culture (Lam, Lee et al. 2009)Lam, Lee et al. 2009. According to the cultural model of Hofstede, the Moroccan culture is clearly different from the Dutch regarding this dimension. On the individualism versus collectivism axis, there is a clear difference between both cultures. The netherlands shares a fourth place in terms of individualism, whereas Arab countries including Morocco share the 26th place. Many Ducth-Moroccans are thus raised in an environment where the individuals identity derives from a collectivist culture. A comparison can be made with the chinese culture or other Asian cultures which are highly collectivist cultures according to the Hofstde model. Collectivist cultures have shown to present various differences from individualistic cultures in consumer behavior. An offline study conducted by Doran (2002)2002 found that chinese

consumer were more likely to rely on personal sources of information than American consumers. Doran (2002)2002 showed that Chinese which represent a collectivist culture are less likely to make individual decisions and are more likely to let reference groups influence their choices. This is because the use of this information is seen as relationship-enhancement behavior. The information gained from in-groups is also considered more trustworthy. On the contrary Americans were more individualistc and less influenced by reference groups. In individualistic cultures qualitative sources which are usually weak ties (Brown and Reingen 1987)Brown and Reingen 1987 are more important than sources that are known or familiar to them. Furthermore, research suggest that tie-strength is greater in collectvist cultures than in individualistic culture e.g., Japanese companies were more likely to depend on strong ties in the purchase of industrial services and Americans were more likely to depend on weak ties (Money, Gilly et al. 1998)Money, Gilly et al. 1998. Thus ,the strength of the reaction to strong and weak ties, meaning the variation in purchase intention of the consumer is related to the dominant cultural orientation of the individuals society. As is previously mentioned Dutch-Moroccans are similar to the Asian collectivist cultures such as Japan/China and Dutch resemble individualistic Western countries such as America. Strong ties highlight the beneficial nature of social relationships and are narrowly connected with bonding social capital. Bonding social capital stress the importance of shared norms and emotional support gained through these strong ties (Chu and Choi 2011)Chu and Choi 2011. Thus, it is reasonable to believe that DutchMorrocans have more intimate and strong relationships and are more likely to depend on strong ties within traditional WOM such as friends and relatives for their decision to buy a product or not. Dutch-Moroccans consider these strong ties as more trustworthy compared to weak ties or other sources of information. The following hypothesis is proposed based on the preceeding literature:

H1: Strong ties within tWOM have a higher influence on the purchase intention of Dutch-Moroccan consumers than Dutch consumers

Unlike Dutch-Moroccan consumers, Dutch consumers resemble an individualistic culture. Consumers with a high level of individualism are more likely to feel that they can evaluate qualitative information themselves and thus are inclined to use weak-tie sources. Researchers have claimed that there is a greater likelihood of finding qualitative information among weak-tie sources (Duhan, Johnson et al. 1997)Duhan, Johnson et al. 1997. In weak ties consumers can find individuals that are less similar to each other and a greater possibility exist to find different and qualititative informations. It is expected that compared to Dutch-Moroccan consumers, the effect of weak ties within tWOM on the purchase intention is stronger among Dutch consumers. Dutch-Moroccan consumers are less likely to trust people that are not from their own social network and the effect of weak ties on their purchase intention is expect to be lower compared to Dutch consumers. Therefore, the following hypothesis is put forth:

H2: Weak ties within tWOM have a higher influence on the purchase intention of Dutch consumers compared Ducth-Moroccan consumers

Whether these cultural differences discussed in other studies apply to the online environment have been investigated to a limited extent. A few studies have proposed that the online behavior of consumers is culturally shaped (Pfeil, Zaphiris et al. 2006; Fong and Burton 2008)Pfeil, Zaphiris et al. 2006Fong and Burton 2008. To further enhance the knowledge of the effect of culture on online WOM, exploring how

culture is related to online tie strength is needed. Like traditional WOM, the preceding literature has suggested that WOM messages are also exchanged online. This research has differentiated between offline and online ties. Facebook is considered a strong tie within eWOM as consumers are connected to individuals they previously know. A study by conducted by Chu & Choi (2011)2011 have found that within Facebook Chinese (considered a collectivist culture) hold more strong ties compared to Americans whom represent an individualistic culture. Based on these findings it is expected that these online strong ties have a stronger effect on the purchase decisions of Dutch-Moroccan consumers compared to Dutch consumers. Especially since

consumers from a collectivist culture value trust. Dutch-Moroccan consumers may evaluate the value of product information or recommendations based on honesty, sincerity, and congeniality that are important aspects of trust (Moorman, Deshpande et al. 1993)Moorman, Deshpande et al. 1993. These aspects are more likely to be found in individuals which are previously known to the consumers or with whom they have an offline connection. SNSs are the only online communities that represent these characteristics. This can increase the likelihood of consumers from an individualistic culture adhering to recommendations on Facebook when making a purchase decision. Therefore it is expected that especially the effect of WOM messages on Facebook will have a higher effect on the purchase intention of Dutch-Moroccan consumers compared to Dutch consumers. The following hypothesis is proposed:

H3: Strong tie within eWOM has a higher influence on the purchase intention of Dutch-Moroccan consumers than Dutch consumers.

Unlike Facebook, consumer recommendations on consumer review website are posted by independent individuals which are unknown to the receiver of the

information. These individuals are not part of the consumers social circle nor do they have an offline connection, which is why consumer review websites are considered a weak tie with in eWOM. The goal of these websites is usually to help consumers make informed buying decisions. Consumers share their product experiences and opinions with others. The WOM messages on consumer review website are far more voluminous in quantity compared WOM messages coming from strong ties and the chance of finding experienced individuals is higher. With the cultural orientation of individualism, Dutch consumers may value WOM messages on consumer review websites more than Dutch-Moroccan consumers. Dutch-Moroccan consumers may not trust the WOM messages coming from total strangers so the effect of WOM messages on consumer review website on the purchase intention is expected to be much lower compared to Dutch consumers. Dutch-Moroccan consumers may look after other members of their social groups in exchange for trust and loyalty. These social relationships cannot be established within consumer review websites. Dutch emphasize self-achievement and only look after themselves. A Dutch consumer may assign an higher value to a WOM message on a consumer review website compared to Dutch-Moroccan as the WOM message does not necessarily need to come from someone they know or have prior relationship with. The next hypothesis is outlined as follows:

H4: Weak ties within ewOM have higher influence on the purchase intention of Dutch consumers compared to Ducth-Moroccan consumers. In summary, the literature does not provide clear guidance on the differences between offline strong and weak ties and online strong and weak ties between consumers from an individualistic and collectivist culture. It only gives clear directions, on offline strong and weak ties. However, based on the characteristics of an individualistic

culture and collectivist culture it can be expected that the effect of strong ties whether offline or online on the purchase intentions is higher among Ducth-Moroccans compared to Dutch. On the other hand the influence of weak ties whether offline or online on the purchase intention will be stronger on Ducth consumers compared to Dutch-Moroccans. With the increasing importance of WOM and the growing number of consumers using the internet for product information and recommendations to assist them with their purchasing decision, understanding cross-cultural differences in consumer behavior will become very important for marketers active in societies where multiplt cultures live.

3. Methodology 3.1 Sample group This research is undertaken in order to test the hypotheses that are proposed based on the literature review. The sample that is chosen for this study is taken from the Dutch population that makes use of the internet. In order test the effect of cross-cultural differences on the relation between WOM and consumer behavior the sample group of this study consists out of Dutch consumers and Dutch-Moroccan consumers. These groups are chosen based on Hofstedes model of individualism vs. collectivism. Dutch consumers clearly represent an individualist culture and Dutch-Moroccans a

collectivist culture. More background information on this sample group is included in the literature review.

The questionnaire has been sent to 469 consumers. All of these 469 consumers are approached to participate in this research. Eventually, 179 respondents have completed the questionnaire. From these 179 respondents, 6 filled in questionnaires did not meet the requirement of being Dutch or Moroccan. These respondents are deleted from the analyses, as they are not relevant for this research. This leaves 173 questionnaires that can be used for the analyses. In table.an overview is given of demographical characteristics..
Ethnic background Frequency 87 86 173 Percent 50.3 49.7 100.0 Valid Percent 50.3 49.7 100.0 Cumulative Percent 50.3 100.0

Valid

NL MA Total

From these 172 respondents 55 per cent is female and 45 per cent male. Table blab la shows that 87 of the respondents are Dutch and 86 Dutch-Moroccans. Within the Dutch group men are somewhat overrepresented, while in the Moroccan group women are overrepresented.

Crosstab Gender male female Total Count % within Ethnic background Count % within Ethnic background Count % within Ethnic background Ethnic background NL MA 48 29 55.8% 33.7% 38 57 44.2% 66.3% 86 86 100.0% 100.0% Total 77 44.8% 95 55.2% 172 100.0%

The chi-square test is used to explore the relationship between gender and ethnic background. First, the minimum expected cell frequency assumption has to be

checked to see whether the results are valid. The minimum expected count per cell has to be 5. In this case, the minimum expected count is 38.50, which means that this assumption is not violated. Since there is a 2 by 2 table the value of the continuity correction is used, which is 7.618 with 1 df and a p value of 0.006. This significance level is smaller than the required 0.05 value. Therefore it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between the proportions of gender versus ethnic background.

More than half of the respondents (53%) are between 21 and 25 years, 17 % is between 14-20 years and 20 % is between 26 and 30 years old. This means that the majority of respondents are young consumers. Over half of the respondents (54%) have a monthly income between 0-1000. There are slightly less respondents within the Moroccan group who have an income between 0-500 and 8 more respondents who have an income between 2500-3000. Three quarters of the respondents have a higher educational level of applied science (HBO) or academic science (WO). The only difference between ethnic background and education level is that are a 10 % less Moroccan respondents who have an applied science degree (HBO). However, there are no large differences between the Dutch and Moroccan respondents on both income and education

3.2 Variables 3.2.1 Dependent variable Purchase Intention: this study has the option of choosing two different approaches of measuring purchase intention. One of the measurement scales is based on Bone and Ellen (1992)1992 who developed 3 questions by which purchase intention is measured: (1)What is the probability that you will buy the advertised brand?

Answers have to be given on a scale of 1 to 11, 1 being no chance (0 in 100 chances) and 11 being virtually certain (99 in 100 chances) (2) Whats the likelihood of you purchasing the advertised brand the next time you buy a TV? Consumers have to answer this question on a 9 point likert-scale ranging from extremely unlikely to extremely likely (3) The next time I purchase a TV, I will buy the brand in the advertisement Answers to the final question are given on a 9 point likert-scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. This measurement is not chosen as these three questions come after every manipulation, which will add up to too many questions. The purchase intention among the respondents is measured using two items that are frequently used in the marketing literature (Park, Lee et al. 2007)Park, Lee et al. 2007. The corresponding questions are: (1) How likely is it that you would buy this product? (2) How likely is it that you would recommend this product to your friends? The actual measurement range from 1, representing extremely unlikely to 6, representing extremely likely. However, this measurement is changed to ratio scale measurement. Consumers have to divide 100 points (numeric score) over two brands/products. They have to state their preference for one product over the other. It is more convenient to use a ratio scale measurement compared to a likert-scale when you are interested in measuring the variation in purchase intention.

3.2.2 Independent variables The independent variables are the type of WOM (tWOM & eWOM) and the strength of the ties (strong or weak). In this research the independent variables are manipulated. Basically four situations (manipulations) are sketched starting with the ties of tWOM and afterwards the ties of eWOM. The first tie represents a best friend giving a negative recommendation on brand B. Second, representing a WOM message from an individual with whom the consumer has no prior relationship. Third

manipulation is a Facebook post that includes a WOM message coming from a Facebook friend. The last manipulation is a consumer review from Kieskeurig.nl which is a consumer website. More detailed information will be provided in the research design. This research only considers negative WOM. Because, if positive and negative WOM is used interchangeably, it is not possible to analyze whether the difference between strong and weak ties has the effect on the purchase intention or positive or negative WOM. The length of the situation is controlled to maximum 5 lines because it can affect the perception of the consumer regarding the recommendation. The information provided by the different ties contains the same basic information and negative recommendation, but formulated differently. The manipulations are only about brand B. Otherwise there could be other factors for which it is not feasible to control. In the pilot test the respondents were asked on how they perceive the WOM messages from all ties. The content of the messages is adapted based on the comments.

3.2.3 Control variables To account for the effects of extraneous variables, this research included age, gender, income, education level, and Television and Internet usage as control variables.

The first control variable in this study is age. Age is a vital influence on peoples behavior and attitudes (Beatty and Smith 1987)Beatty and Smith 1987. As people get older, they become more cautious and want more certainty in their (purchase) decisions (Botwinick 1973)Botwinick 1973. It is possible that older people are more susceptible to eWOM from weak ties compared to younger people. Younger people make more use of the Internet so the effect of eWOM ties on purchase intention might differentiate among age groups (Riegner 2007)Riegner 2007. Age is a factor that has

an on influence purchase decisions. Age was measured on an ordinal scale. Different age categories are provided ranging from younger to 14, 14-20, 21-25 etc.

The second control variable is gender; several studies on consumer behavior propose that females and males vary in their processing of information (Palmer and Bejou 1995)Palmer and Bejou 1995. It is proven that males and females respond differently to stimuli and consuming tasks. There are also gender differences in the use of message cues and judgments (Meyers-Levy and Sternthal 1991)Meyers-Levy and Sternthal 1991Men are engaged in more risk taking than women, and rely more on them themselves for decision-making (Lewellen, Lease et al. 1977)Lewellen, Lease et al. 1977. This might effect the way male and females respond to WOM deriving from different ties which influence their intention to buy a product or not.

Income is also concluded in this research as a control variable as it is expected that people with a higher income are willing to spend on the purchase of a product. The

Research in marketing show that higher educated consumers have greater ability to evaluate information and that less educated consumers have a lower ability (Murthi and Srinivasan 1999)Murthi and Srinivasan 1999. It might be that consumer with a high education level are less influenced by strong ties, as they have a greater ability to evaluate product information themselves. However, the effect of education on purchase intention also depends on the product being used in the research. More complicated products require a greater ability to evaluate the information. Education is measured through an ordinal scale.

One of the most important control variables of this study is Acculturation. Acculturation is the modification of a group by adapting or sometimes borrowing traits from another culture (Padilla, Wagatsuma et al. 1985)Padilla, Wagatsuma et al. 1985. Several researchers have suggested a relationship between the level of ethnicity and acculturation to the consumers purchase intention/decision(Ganesh 1997)Ganesh 1997. Such as in Podoshen (2006)2006 who explored the difference between JewishAmerican consumers and non-Jewish consumers in the use of word of mouth and brand loyalty in response to the purchase of durable goods. The study showed no significant difference in WOM between all American non-Jews and American Jews. However, an interesting finding is that there is a significant difference between highly acculturated American Jews and low-acculturated American Jews. Thus the effect of the ties on the purchase intention might differentiate between highly acculturated Moroccans and low acculturated Moroccans. Acculturation in this study is measured based on a scale developed by Valencia (1985)1985, who created an index to measure Hispanicness. The scale can be found in the Handbook of Marketing Scales (Bearden and Netemeyer 1999)Bearden and Netemeyer 1999. The reliability coefficient of this scale is 0.73, which means that is a consistent measurement for acculturation. The scale is adapted in order to make the scale appropriate to the Dutch Moroccans. The first question was on strength of ethnic identification. A 5-point likert scale was provided ranging from very weak to very well. Second question was on place of birth (and length of stay in the Netherlands for respondents born in other countries). The Dutch language ability is left out as it is expected that the majority of Dutch-Moroccans speak Dutch at a reasonable or good level. Instead questions are provided on Arabic/Berber language ability and the Arabic/Berber language usage at home. A 4-point likert scale is provided ranging from not at all

to very well and from not at all to always. The last question is on language preference.

Television and Internet usage are included in this research as two control variables. The stimulus material in this research is a Television. Research has shown that users are more likely to adapt a related new products if they have experience of using a similar product (Dickerson and Gentry 1983)Dickerson and Gentry 1983. If a consumer makes more use of a television, the willingness to buy a television might be higher. Being an intensive Internet user might influence the relationship between eWOM and purchase intention. If a person makes no use of the Internet, the affect of eWOM ties on purchase intention might be less significant. Two questions per variable are provided to the respondent in order to measure TV and Internet Usage. The frequency (days) and usage (hours) of television and Internet usage is measured.

3.3 Research design This study has chosen for a digital survey as a primary data collecting approach as it has a higher geographical reach than other methods. Moreover, the use of the survey method allows (1) ease of administration (2) Standardization (3) suitability to statistical analysis. A survey also gives respondents more time to think about questions, as there is no time limitation to this survey. The anonymous character of the survey, gives the respondents a comfortable feeling to answer the questions honestly (Blumberg 2008)Blumberg 2008. As the present study is interested in examining the purchase intention rather than actual buying behavior that cannot be observed, adopting the survey method is more suitable .The questionnaire is

conducted in Dutch, as it is likely that the sample group will feel more comfortable with the Dutch language than the English language

3.3.1 The Survey The respondent is directed to a welcome message once the link is opened via the email. Below in figure... a graphical overview is provided of the steps the consumer has to take in order to complete the questionnaire.

On the introduction page the respondent is explained that the questionnaire is anonymous and that the information is treated confidentially. In addition it is clarified that it will take around 10 minutes to finish the survey. Via the navigation button at the bottom of the page, the respondent is able to continue to the pre-test (control group). In the pre-test a situation is sketched where the dependent variable is measured without the occurrence of the manipulation of independent variables. The respondent is asked to imagine a situation in which he or she is looking for a new

television (hereinafter TV) and is able to choose between brand A and B. The reason for choosing a TV in this study can be justified. The influence of WOM on the purchase intention of consumers is likely to differ among various product groups (Riegner 2007)Riegner 2007. WOM is mostly influential among tech-electronics because these items are more complex and highly coveted (Riegner 2007)Riegner 2007. A TV is considered a technological product with high consumer involvement (Sridhar 2007)Sridhar 2007. Additionally, consumers rely on comments from previous users because electronic products are more complicated (Park, Lee et al. 2007)Park, Lee et al. 2007. Both televisions that are shown to the respondent rarely differentiate on design. Pictures of both TVs are provided. No brand names are shown to eliminate a brand preference or previous experience with a brand. The brand effect in this case is removed. Below the pictures of both TVs an advertising message is posted about the general functions of the TV. Both messages contain the same neutral information except the sentences are structured differently and in another order. Both TVs are priced the same to remove price effects. The respondent is required to study both TVs. Afterwards a statement is shown asking which brand the consumer prefers and to answer the questions regarding the purchase intention: (1) How likely is it that you would buy this product? (2) How likely is it that you would recommend this product to your friends? The respondent has to divide 100 points per question among brand A and brand B. An example of this is shown in the questionnaire to illustrate what is intended. When finished, the consumer is able to click on the navigation button to continue to the next page of the survey. On the next page a short instruction is given which states that the consumer should imagine that the advertisement shows that both TVs are basically the same except for the brand name. The respondent is then requested to judge the following situations independent of each other. Each manipulation is provided on an independent page, as these have to

be evaluated independent of each other. The manipulations contain negative WOM messages regarding the functions of the television and personal opinion. The consumer first sees the manipulation of the best friend that shows the subsequent message: Imagine that your best friend tells you the following about brand B: I do not like brand B. The quality of the screen is very poor. The movements of the images on the screen are slow and not sharp enough. My uncle also has TV brand B and is not satisfied with it. After the consumer has studied the message, the questions on the purchase intentions are shown again. The consumer is forwarded to the second manipulation in which the WOM message comes from a weak tie. A message that resembles the previous one is shown except then coming from a weak tie source. The same procedure is followed concerning the questions on purchase intention. The third and fourth manipulation is descended from the weak and strong sources within eWOM. The third manipulation is a Facebook post from a Facebook friend. An image is displayed from an original Facebook post that includes a negative WOM message about brand B. The last manipulation involves an eWOM weak tie source. In this manipulation of the independent variable a consumer review is shown. An image is shown of how the actual consumer review looks like on Kieskeurig.nl. The consumers is expected to imagine that he or she sees this consumer review about brand B on the website. The respondent is requested to judge this review independent of the previous one and to answer both questions on purchase intention. All four manipulations have the same procedure. The consumer is first asked to imagine the situation that is sketched. Afterwards the importance of judging the situations independent of each other is highlighted. Followed by the questions on purchase intention. Once, the respondent is finished with the manipulation, the respondent is directed to the questions on the control variables. On the page after the last manipulation the questions on age, gender, income and education are provided to all

respondents. When these are answered, the question on ethnic background follows. If the respondent states that he or she is Dutch than the respondent is guided to the last questions on TV and Internet usage. When the respondent has an Moroccan ethnic background, the questions on acculturation follow before the last questions on TV and Internet usage are provided. So the questions on acculturation are only appropriate for the Moroccan respondents, the Dutch group will not see these questions. The questionnaire automatically forwards the Dutch respondent to the last questions. The digital survey is closed with an expression of gratitude and a comment section where the respondent can fill in remarks on the questionnaire.

3.1.2 Pilot test Prior to the final survey, the questionnaire was tested among the target sample group to discover any problems or errors in the online questionnaire. Based on the oral and written comments from 10 individuals from the sample group, improvements are highlighted and included. These 10 individuals were eventually excluded from the final study. The ability was given to navigate forward and backward in the questionnaire. This turned out to cause confusion, so this is limited to forward navigation. Next to that, a timeline was added to the questionnaire so that the respondents can keep track on how far they are within the questionnaire. The demographical questions are changed to the end of the questionnaire, as these are easier questions compared to the questions regarding the manipulations. Based on the feedback, 10 questions are reformulated, changed and examples are added to clarify the questions. For example, the researcher asked the respondents how well they speak Arabic, while a major part of the Dutch-Moroccans are Berber and speak the Berber language instead of Arabic. This is added to the questionnaire. The researcher changed the question about income, as this was too personal and hard to answer. The

respondent was now able to choose from different income classes. Furthermore, a text is added to clarify that is very important to judge each manipulation independent of the previous one. More changes are made to the questionnaire based on the comments of the pre-test. Finally, there are some minor technical adjustments made to the questionnaire to avoid confusion and questions that are too long. The final questionnaire exists out of 36 questions.

3.4 Data collection Respondents are informed through an email and invited to participate in this research. A link to the online questionnaire was provided in the email sent to the respondents. In this email the importance of participating in this research is highlighted. Furthermore, the email requested the respondents to forward the link to other Dutch and Dutch-Moroccan consumers. These emails are gathered through the network of the researcher. Next to that, email addresses of Dutch and Dutch-Moroccan consumers are gathered through Facebook, LinkedIn, Marokko.nl and Chaima.nl. Respondents have the opportunity to fill in the questionnaire from the 22nd of November until the 13th of December. Data is gathered within a particular period of three weeks from the perspective of more than one person, which is a cross-sectional research. If respondents did not participate during the first week, a reminder was sent. This is repeated again after the second week.

4. Results This chapter gives an factual overview of the statistical results obtained from the questionnaire. First, descriptive statistics and correlations of the TV usage and Internet usage between the different ethnic backgrounds are provided. Furthermore the realiability of the different scales used are examined. The influence of ties within tWOM and eWOM on the purchase intention is studied with two different models, one using acculturation as a moderating variable. The total sample is divided in three groups Dutch, weak-acculturared Moroccans and strong accultured Moroccans. The second model does not include the moderating variable of acculturation, rather it mainly analyzes the differentce between Dutch and Moroccans in general. A multivariate analyses (MANCOVA) is used to analyze the result of the models.

4.1 Descriptive statistics -Television and Internet usage The respondents are questioned about their television usage on a daily and hourly basis. The results show that the overall majority of the respondents watch television on a daily basis (53%). However, there are more Moroccans who do not watch television on a daily basis compared to dutch consumers. Nearly all respondents (93%) watch television less than three hours a day. There is no large difference on hourly TV usage based on ethnic background.

TABLE TV

Next to TV usage, respondents are questionned about their Internet usage on a daily and hourly basis. The result show that almost all respondents make use of the Internet everyday (90%). The majority of all respondents use the internet for more than two hours a day, that indicates that most respondents are substantial users of the internet. This can explained by the young age of age of the respondents of this digital survey. As young people are heavy users of the internet compared to older inviduals SOURCE. The difference between the internet usage and ethnic background are again neglectable.

TABLE INTERNET

4.1.2 Scale reliability of TV and Internet usage The television usage and Internet usage were measured based on two questions. The first question is related to the frequency (days) of TV and Internet usage. The second question is related to the hourly usage a day. It is important to examine whether the scales used in this study are reliable and whether the scales are internally consistent. This can be checked by looking at the cronbachs alpha. Cronbachs alpha of TV and Internet usage Variable TV usage Internet usage Cronbachs alpha 0.500 0.580 N of items 2 2

As can be seen in the table above the cronbachs alpha for television-and internet usage scales are 0.50 and 0.58 respectively. Ideally researchers suggest that Cronbach alpha coefficient of a scale should be above 0.7 (DeVellis 2003). The reliabilty for both scales is quite weak as the Cronbach alpha coefficient is below 0.7. Since the

scales have less then ten items, it is common to find the reported alphas. Briggs and Cheek (1986) recommend to make us of the inter-item correlation. In their opionion the optimal correlation value should be between 0.2 to 0.4. In order to check positive correlations, the z-scores are calculated for each of the measures of television and internet usage to correct for scale differences. As can be seen from the table /APPENDIX below, the two television usage measures correlate positively r=0.39, with a significant p value of 0.000. As well as the two Internet measures r=0.40 with a significant p value of 0.000. This means that there is a significant positive correlation between the items. So respondents who watch more days of television in a week are considered to also watch more hours of television a day. The same is true for the internet correlation. Therefore two scales are developed instead of four to obtain a more compact measure of television and internet usage. The average of the two zscores is used as an index of usage.

4.2 Accultaration Acculturation was measured for the Moroccan respondents only. Three elements were measured: self assessed Strength of Moroccan affiliation, Place of birth (and length of stay in the Netherlands for respondents born in other countries), and Arabic/ Berber language ability and usage. The degree of acculturation cannot be used as a covariate in the model, because it is unknown for the Dutch respondents. Hence, this research aims to divide the Moroccan respondents in two groups; contrasting relatively strong acculturation to relatively weak acculturation.

The majority (85%) of Moroccan respondents assess the strength of their Moroccan affiliation as (very) well. A similar percentage is born in the Netherlands and/or prefers to speak Dutch. These variables are not very suitable to divide the Moroccan

respondents in the desired strong acculturation / weak acculturation groups. Since, it is expected that strong acculturated Moroccans would prefer to speak one of the Moroccan languages. However, the majority of the Moroccan respondents are born in the Netherlands, are highly educated and well integrated. This may be the reason that these contractding results are observed among strongly acculturated Moroccans who prefer to speak Dutch.

The results of the Arabic/Berber language ability and usage are more promising. The response distributions of the language ability demonstrate a wide range of answer patterns, from no ability at all to very well. This combined with the wide range of answer patterns for the language spoken at home, provides the possibility to divide the Moroccan respondents into different acculturation levels. This is reflected in the correlation matrix which shows the correlations between the language ability and the language spoken at home. The Arabic language ability correlate positively with the Arabic language spoken at home, r=0.57 with n=85 and p<0.001. The correlation between both variables is strong and statistically significant. The items concerning Berber language show a similar result with r=0.84, n=85 and p<0.001. This means that the better you spreak Arabic or Berber, the more the Arabic or Berber language is is spoken at home.

The correlations between Arabic and Berber language ability and usage correlate negatively, which indicates that the respondents tend to use either Arabic or Berbers, and not both. 2 languages

different purposes (e.g., new product concept and copy tests; segmentation and tracking studies) and covering a broad range of products and services. The collection of purchase intention data has become fairly standardized in the sense that one or the other of two basic types of instruments appear to be employed in much of this work, either a five point intention scale (definitely will buy = 5; definitely will not buy = 1) or the eleven point purchase probability scale developed by Juster (1966). Marketing research practice finds theoretical support in social psychological models of attitudes and behavior where intentions are a key construct. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, p. 369) contend that "the best single predictor of an individual's behavior will be a measure of his intention to perform that behavior.

http://www.ssric.org/trd/modules/siss/chapter3 Most often people use both sources ( strong and weak sources)

Because the identity of the eWOM communicators is not constrained by the receivers social circle, researchers have argued that there is a greater likelihood of finding people with product expertise among weak-tie communicators (Duhan et al. 1997)

Limitiation used only negative WOM Limitation- might differ among products with low involvement - make us of paper survey,

A fun- damental principle of human interaction is that people tend to interact with others who are like themselves; thus, it is also known as the like-me principle (Laumann 1966). Some scholars treat the concepts of strength of tie and homophily as synonymous (e.g., Gatignon and Robertson 1985; Rogers 1983
manifests itself in different types of social relations varying in strength (e.g., close friend, acquaintance). Granovetter (1973) suggests that the stronger the tie connecting two individuals, the more similar they tend to be. Direct evidence relating these two constructs to WOM in consumer behavior does not exist as far as is known, but since one would expect weak social ties to be heterophilous, the special significance of hetero- philous communication may be that it facilitates the flow of information between diverse segments of a social system. This may help explain why "heterophilous communication has a special informational potential, even though it may be realized only rarely" (Rogers 1983, p. 175). It is hypothesized that:

Based on the findings of Arndt (1967), Brown et al. (1987), and Henry (1967), this study expects that consumers indeed adhere to the WOM they receive, and adjust their purchase intentions according to the negative or positive WOM they gather. Additionally, the present study expects that the strength of the reaction to WOM, meaning the variation in purchase intention, is dependent on the ethnic background of the consumer

Data was collected from all the "Digital Photography" discussion boards since digital cameras are considered to be a "technological product" with high consumer involvement (Poiescz and deBont

ELECTRONIC WORD-OF-MOUTH: A COMPARISON OF STATED AND REVEALED BEHAVIOR ON ELECTRONIC DISCUSSION BOARDS
1995).-->

John Fong and Suzan Burton

Although there exists much opinion regarding the power(andusefulness)ofWOM,thereissurprisinglylit- tle empirical research that

examines its procedural as- pects. As indicated by many researchers, including Brown and Reingen (1987), there has been surprisingly little re- search conducted that has examined the effects of WOM communications on the receivers purchase

Word-of-Mouth Processes Within a Services Purchase Decision Context

decisions.-->

Harvir S. Bansal
Wilfrid Laurier University

Peter A. Voyer
University of New Brunswick

Traditional WOM might be used more heavily in a collectivist culture as group opinion and perception is more important than ones individual thoughts. In a collectivist culture one might consult members from their social group on products opinions instead of using online sources. Traditional word-of-mouth might be trust worthier for members of a collectivist culture. In individualistic cultures, which are mostly Western countries, eWOM might be used more heavily than traditional WOM since the Internet is considered more anonymous (Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004)Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004 and is heavily used for social interaction. Since no former research has investigated whether different cultures might use either of these WOM streams more heavily, the proposed research will investigate this matter into detail and analyze the influence on the purchase intention of the consumer. Since both streams of WOM (traditional WOM and eWOM) are especially important in the high-tech electronic sector, the suggested research will focus on this sector(Riegner 2007)Riegner 2007. Based on the above arguments of previous literature, this research proposes that the effect of strong ties within traditional WOM will be higher on the purchase intention compared to weak ties among Dutch-Moroccans.

As the Netherlands is increasing as a multicultural society, it becomes even more important for manufactures that focus on the Dutch consumer market to understand the effect of cultural influences on the consumers decision-making process.

Moroccans can be considered a collectivist culture (Hermans 1995)Hermans 1995. Group interests have a higher priority over individual interest. An individual is valued more in terms of his or her social relationships than in terms of his or her own attributes and potentialities(Hermans 1995)Hermans 1995. Based on the abovementioned it can expected that Morrocan people in the Netherlands will make more use of traditional word-of-mouth and consult friends and family for opinions and product information gathering. Consequently, eWOM especially impersonal online sources such as bloggs or brandwebsite will be used less compared to traditional WOM. Traditional WOM will probably have a higher influence on their purchase intention compared to eWOM. Dutch people are considered more individualistic and will find the internet a more comfortabel and easy source for product information gathering. The focus in this research will be on Morrocan and Dutch consumers since they represent different types of cultures. These subcultures will be used to explain the effect of culture on the usage of WOM and the eventual influence on purchase intention.

http://www.aedesnet.nl/content/artikelen/achtergrond/2011/04/Nieuwe-Nederlanders-zoeken-gewone--nieuwbouwwonin.xml

Limitations: - content of the WOM messages posted -Negative WOM -Online

-Young, educational level -Manipulations -Better measurement of acculturation

The mainstream of research is especially focused on the usage of eWOM and the effect on eventual sales. No earlier research has examined the effect of both online and offline WOM on the purchase intentions. Most of the literature that study eWOM from a consumer behavior perspective focus on the usage of eWOM

Do-Hyung, P., Jumin, L. & Han, I. (2007) The effect of on-line consumer reviews on consumer purchasing intention: the moderating role of involvement. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 11, 4, pp. 125148.--> Important!

Strong and Weak ties in EWOM- Facebook and consumer generated reviews Strong and Weak ties in WOM- Friend- collegue

can be defined as Research have become to pay more attention to topic of eWOM

Voor de survey rekening houden met : Belangrijk Manipulatie op het product uitvoeren: Dus alleen merk A en niet ook merk B Geen merk gebruiken bij de TVs Niet teveel verschil tussen de plaatjes (of niet teveel) Eerst pre-purchase intention en dan post intention (met manipulatie) Het bericht moet duidelijk negatief of positief zijn En een begeleidende tekst Duidelijk maken WAAR het staat en van WIE het afkomt Laat ook de random jump checken door netQ Je moet instellen dat je kan zien welke ties de respondent heft gezien (Randomization) Elke respondent zou 1 moeten zien

Previous research on personal influence has been more concerned with the influencers (the opinion leaders) than with those influenced (arndt 1967)

-Definition of tWOM -Importance of WOM (more important than other marketer controlled sources) -Effect of different factors on WOM -WOM researched across different industries and product groups Strong & Weak Ties

def wom, waarom is WOM belangrijk, waarom is WOM belangrijker dan andere marketing controlles sources, opkomst internet (bruggetje naar eWOM) 2.2 tWOM eWOM 2.3 Purchase intentions 2.4 Culture 2.4.1 Individualist Dutch 2.4.1 Collectivist Moroccan

Stong & Weak ties 2.4 Conceptual model 2.6 Control variables ADJUST ALL HEADLINES..

Most published English research has been undertaken in Western economies(Buttle 1998)Buttle 1998. Members of Western societies have an individualistic culture and tend to consider themselves as independent from others and focus on self-reliance, internal attributes, separateness, and distance from in-groups (Markus and Kitayama 1991; Singelis 1994)Markus and Kitayama 1991Singelis 1994. On the other hand, there are cultures that take an interdependent view of personhood, which resembles a collectivistic culture such as in Asian, African, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and Latin American countries. When one experiences interdependence, it sees oneself as a part of an embracing social relation and recognizes that ones behavior is determined, depending on, and to large extent organized by what the actor perceives to be the thoughts, feeling and actions of others in the relationship (Markus and Kitayama 1991)Markus and Kitayama 1991. Altogether it concluded that WOM might be used differently by various cultures.

Practical and theoretical relevance

Layout of thesis The abovementioned proposes that culture affects consumer behavior/purchase intentions, and the latter itself is highly affected by WOM. Culture can be seen as a moderating variable between WOM and purchase intentions. The majority of research that is conducted on culture and WOM only deals with these two factors. No earlier study has dealt with the effect of culture on traditional WOM and eWOM. Traditional WOM might be used more heavily in a collectivist culture as group

opinion and perception is more important than ones individual thoughts. In a collectivist culture one might consult members from their social group on products opinions instead of using online sources. Traditional word-of-mouth might be trustworthier for members of a collectivist culture. In individualistic cultures, which are mostly Western countries, eWOM might be used more heavily than traditional WOM since the Internet is considered more anonymous (Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004)Hennig Thurau, Gwinner et al. 2004 and is heavily used for social interaction. Since no former research has investigated whether different cultures might use either of these WOM streams more heavily, the proposed research will investigate this matter into detail and analyze the influence on the purchase intention of the consumer. Since both streams of WOM (traditional WOM and eWOM) are especially important in the high-tech electronic sector, the suggested research will focus on this sector(Riegner 2007)Riegner 2007.

In the proposed thesis, the following research question will be discussed: What is the difference between Moroccan en Dutch consumers in the usage of eWOM and traditional WOM ?

Practical en theoretical relevance

- INCLUDE SUBQUESTIONS outline of literature review of thesis

The following conceptual model is proposed based on the theoretical background:

From the conceptual model the following hypothesis can be drawn: H1: Moroccan consumers make more use of tWOM compared to Dutch consumers H2: Moroccan consumers' purchase intentions positively correlate with tWOM usage H2: tWOM should have a greater impact on Moroccan consumers purchase intentions compared to eWOM H3: Dutch consumers make more use of eWOM compared to Moroccan consumers H4: Dutch consumers purchase intentions positively correlate with eWOM usage

Sample and Methodology Complemented and defended by existing theoretical information the research question will be answered by online surveys distributed to Moroccan and Dutch consumers. A sample size of 120 consumers is needed, 60 Moroccans and 60 Dutch. A control variable (affinity with culture) will be included to exclude any affinity with another

culture.The online survey will be posted on various online platforms such as Facebook and LinkedIn. Moroccan consumers will be reached through the authors own network. Include measurements terms, how will it be analyzed etc

Practical and Theoretical relevance Research can gain a better understanding of the role of traditional WOM and eWom play in purchase decisions, and how culture affect both streams of WOM. Elaborate on theoretical and practical relevance

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Williams, B. and W. Band (2004). Word of Mouth, Boyd Williams.

Appendix Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955; Liu, 2006; Oliver & Swan, 1989; Anderson, 1998; Bansal & Voyer, 2000; Gitelson & Crompton, 1983; Smith & Meyer, 1980; Chevalier & Mayzlin, 2003

Control variable: affinity with culture-Measure whether dutch and Moroccan people have more affinity with their ethnicity than the country they live in. As the question: do you also feel related to another nationality?

Word-of-Mouth Author
eWOM
Riegner,2007 Trusov et al. 2009 Litven et al. 2008 Money et al. 1998 Chu Chuan et al.2011 x x x x

Purchase intentions

Culture

tWOM
x x x

B2C
x x

B2B

Cross National

National

Sub-cultures

x x x

Handbook of marketing scales:multi-item measures for marketing and consumer behaviour research/Bearden, William O. 2011. SB HF 5415.2 Bibl binnenstad.

Marketing scales handbook: a compilation of mult-item measures. Vol.4/ Gordon C. Bruner II; 2005SB HF 5415.2 Bibl binnenstad