QHX Da ZT 9 CJ Ag

Slais Above, Eailh Below
A Guide lo Aslionomy in lhe Nalional Paiks

Tylei Noidgien
5tars Above, arth
8e|ow
A Guide lo Aslionomy in lhe Nalional Paiks
Published in associalion wilh
Piaxis Publishing
Chicheslei, UK
Di Tylei Noidgien
Univeisily of Redlands Aslionomei
Redlands
Califoinia
USA
SPRINGER-PRAXIS BOOKS IN POPULAR ASTRONOMY
SUBJECT ADVISORY EDITOR: John Mason, M.B.E., B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.
ISBN 978-1-4419-1648-8 Spiingei Beilin Heidelbeig New Yoik
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Copyiighl, 2010 Piaxis Publishing Lld.
The use of geneial desciiplive names, iegisleied names, liademaiks, elc. in lhis publicalion does
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Covei design: Jim Wilkie
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Contents
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxv
How to use thls book xxvii
1 Come see the Mllky Way 1
Our placc n thc Galaxy
(YosemiIe, Big Bend, and all NaIional Farks and MonumenIs)
2 Black hole 5un 3S
Solar cclpscs, hlacl holcs, anJ gravty
(Crand TeIon and Chaco CulIure NaIional HisIorical Fark)
3 On the shores of the cosmlc sea 6
TJcs on Larth, moons, stars, anJ galaxcs
(Acadia and all coasIal NaIional Farks)
4 Worlds of flre and lce 10S
Volcanocs n thc Solar Systcm
(YellowsIone and all volcanic NaIional Farks)
5 Red rock planet 147
Mars
(Arches and all NaIional Farks o Ihe Eour Corners Region)
6 Claclers and Coldllocks: a tale of three planets 187
Clmatc changc on Vcnus, Larth anJ Mars
(Clacier and all glacial NaIional Farks)
7 Autumn Moon 227
Thc Moon anJ mctcor showcrs
(CreaI Smoky MounIains, Acadia, and all easIern NaIional Farks)
S Our cosmlc connectlon 271
Stars anJ archacoastronomy
(Chaco CulIure NaIional HisIorical Fark)
9 Worlds wlthout number 317
The search or exIrasolar planeIs
(Rocky MounIain, and all NaIional Farks o Ihe mounIain wesI)
10 Far away and long ago: the Unlverse before you 3S7
Cosmology
(Crand Canyon NaIional Fark)
11 5tarry sky natlonal park 37
Lght polluton anJ our nght sly hcrtagc
(Bryce Canyon, NaIural Bridges, and all NaIional Farks and
MonumenIs)
Index 437
5tars Above, Earth Below
Preface
In Ihe spring o 200S I wenI camping in YosemiIe NaIional Fark. ThaI nighI, aIer
a day o amazing hiking, I Iook parI in a Iime-honored IradiIion o Ihe parks and
wenI Io see Ihe evening ranger program. As luck would have iI, iI was an
asIronomy Ialk and whaI I saw IhaI nighI would lead me, over Ihe nexI our
years, Io work wiIh Fark Rangers rom Denali in Alaska Io Acadia in Maine, and
Big Bend on Ihe Rio Crande Io Clacier on Ihe Canadian border.
I'm an asIronomer - I love asIronomy - and as I saI in Ihe ouIdoor
amphiIheaIer IhaI nighI I looked around and saw IhaI I was ar rom alone. There
musI have been 60 or 70 people Ihere in Ihe audience wiIh me and every one o
Ihem was absoluIely mesmerized by Ihe ranger Ialking abouI whaI we could see
in Ihe dark skies above America's naIional parks. In acI, we learned he was parI
o a small group o Fark Rangers acIively engaged in measuring jusI how dark
Ihose skies were so IhaI parks like Ihe one we were in could help preserve Ihe
views aI nighI IhaI were such an inIegral parI o 'sleeping under Ihe sIars.'
SiIIing Ihere in Ihe audience, I realized IhaI Ihe sIarry oases o Ihe naIional
parks were a naIural ouIleI or proessional asIronomers, like mysel, Io Ialk Io
Ihe public abouI our laIesI discoveries. Eor virIually everyone in Ihe audience
IhaI nighI Ihe Milky \ay is someIhing no longer visible rom home. A Iruly dark
sky wiIh our Calaxy arching overhead is as sIrange and exoIic as Ihe glaciers,
waIeralls, and geysers IhaI draw visiIors rom all over Ihe world Io America's
parks. And everyone Ihere was dying Io know more abouI whaI Ihey could see
whaI Ihey'd been missing. I knew IhaI nighI IhaI Ihe parks were Ihe place Io
answer Iheir quesIions.
AIer Ihe Ialk I inIroduced mysel Io 'Dark Ranger' Kevin Foe, who himsel was
visiIing rom Bryce Canyon NaIional Fark in Ihe hearI o UIah's Iruly dark sky
counIry and began Ihe process o learning more abouI Ihis small group o
dedicaIed rangers and asIronomers, a group I am now honored Io be a parI o:
The NaIional Fark Service's NighI Sky Team.
\iIh Iheir help, I began a projecI in Ihe summer o 2007 Io visiI a dozen
naIional parks over Ihe course o 14 monIhs working wiIh Ihe public and Fark
Rangers Io educaIe boIh abouI all Ihe ways IhaI Ihe parks are a naIural seIIing Io
learn more abouI our Universe. In visiIor cenIers, park lodges, and campground
amphiIheaIers I Ialked abouI how Ihe sIars we see overhead are our window inIo
Ihe larger Universe around us. BuI I also helped show people how asIronomy
doesn'I end wiIh Ihe dawn. BeneaIh us is Ihe EarIh, a planeI wiIh ormaIions and
eaIures similar Io eaIures and ormaIions on oIher planeIs. \hile by nighI we
can see Mars shining blood-red in a prisIine sky, by day we can walk amongsI red
rock eaIures IhaI proclaim our connecIion beIween Ihe Red FlaneI and
ourselves. And asIronomy isn'I new, Ihere've been asIronomers on EarIh, and
in Ihe parks, observing Ihe Sun, Moon, and sIars or as long as Ihere have been
people.
This book is Ihe resulI o IhaI year in Ihe parks. II's wriIIen or anyone who
simply wanIs Io enjoy Ihe nighI sky, know whaI Ihey're looking aI, and know
whaI iI means. Every chapIer was wriIIen speciically abouI whaI you could see
or yoursel when visiIing Ihe parks. So Ihis book is yours: a personal guide Io Ihe
sIars above, and Ihe EarIh below, in America's naIional parks.
Tyler Nordgren
Eebruary 2010
Acknowledgments
Eour years o planning and working on Ihe Iravels and wriIing IhaI led Io Ihis
book could noI be done alone. Eor IhaI reason Ihere is a long (and mosI likely
sIill incompleIe) lisI o people I wanI Io Ihank and wiIhouI whom you would noI
be holding Ihis book. Louis Eriedman and The FlaneIary SocieIy supplied
invaluable assisIance in geIIing me ouI Io Ihe public in Ihe parks. To be
supporIed by Ihe socieIy Carl Sagan co-ounded Io promoIe Ihe public's
involvemenI in space exploraIion is an enormous honor. I would also like Io
Ihank Evelyn and Bill Rowland whose gracious giI Io Ihe UniversiIy o Redlands
helped me reach ouI Io Ihe public wiIh our muIual love o asIronomy. To keep
Ihis lisI rom becoming longer Ihan Ihe book leI me briely oer my Ihanks, in
Ihe approximaIe order o Ihe chapIers wiIh which Ihey helped: DusIin LeaviII,
Nick Myrman, Yvonne Elack, Susan SIolovy, Ihe Rangers o Big Bend NaIional
Fark, Bill HunIly, Eanna Elanagan, Ihe Rangers o Acadia NaIional Fark, Rick
Creenberg, Jim Halpenny, Terry Hurord, John Spencer, Ihe Rangers o
YellowsIone NaIional Fark, Ihe sIa o Lowell ObservaIory, Jim Bell, Je
Moersch, Marjorie Chan, Sierra Coon, Nancy Holman, Ihe Rangers o Arches
NaIional Fark, Megan Chaisson, Dan Eagre, Don Banield, Mark \agner, MaII
Craves, Ihe Rangers o Clacier NaIional Fark, Jay Melosh, Nick Schneider, Ihe
Rangers o CreaI Smoky MounIains NaIional Fark, Kim Malville, Russ Bodnar, CB
Cornucopia, Ihe Rangers o Chaco CulIure NaIional HisIorical Fark, Bill
Cochran, Je VanCleve, Je Maugans, SIeve and Irene LiIIle, Ihe Rangers o
Rocky MounIain NaIional Fark, Danny Dale, Chuck \ahler, David SmiIh, Judy
Hellmich-Bryan, Ihe Rangers o Crand Canyon NaIional Fark, SIory Musgrave,
Kevin Foe, Corky Hayes, Ihe Rangers o NaIural Bridges NaIional MonumenI,
Chad Moore, Dan Duriscoe, FeIer Lord, Richard Blake, Chris Luginbuhl, Ihe
Rangers o Bryce Canyon NaIional Fark, David BaIch and Abrams FlaneIarium,
FeIer Lipscomb and Cene Nordgren, my dad. In addiIion, Ihere are our people
who were wiIh me rom Ihe beginning, every word o Ihe way: ElizabeIh Dodd,
Angie Richman, Amy Sayle, and Julie RaIhbun, I couldn'I have done iI wiIhouI
you our.
LasIly, I would like Io dedicaIe Ihis book Io Ihe all Ihe Rangers in America's
Farks.
You are our ambassadors Io Ihe world.
How to use thls book
This book is a personal guide, showing you Ihe reader, Ihe asIronomical
phenomena IhaI you can see or yoursel when visiIing Ihe U.S. NaIional Farks.
Each chapIer Iies a speciic asIronomical phenomenon Io a parIicular NaIional
Fark or Iype o park. \hile iI was wriIIen wiIh Ihe IhoughI IhaI you would read
Ihis all Ihe way Ihrough, I know IhaI when I'm visiIing someplace special I like Io
read someIhing speciic Io IhaI locaIion. As a resulI, Ihe chapIers can be read in
any order. Eor Ihose o you who would like Io skip around based upon whaI park
you are aI, or a speciic asIronomical objecI you'd like Io see, Ihe Table o
ConIenIs includes whaI parks are associaIed wiIh each chapIer and whaI Iopic o
asIronomy iI includes.
Since Ihe guiding principle or Ihis book is whaI you can see, each chapIer
concludes wiIh a 'See or yoursel' secIion IhaI shows you how Io see Ihe planeIs,
sIars, nebulae, moons, eIc. IhaI are described wiIhin IhaI chapIer. They are
acIiviIies IhaI almosI always require noIhing buI your own eyes, maybe a pair o
binoculars, and rarely a small Ielescope.
Eor Ihose chapIers where iI helps Io have a sIar map Io locaIe Ihese objecIs,
Iwo have been provided, each map is separaIed by six monIhs so IhaI no maIIer
whaI Iime o year you may be ouI, you will have a decenI chance o being able Io
use one o Ihe maps. The sky maps progress in order o Ihe calendar Ihrough Ihe
book, beginning and ending wiIh Eebruary and AugusI in chapIers 1 and 10, so
IhaI Ihe enIire year is covered. I you do choose Io read Ihe book in IhaI order,
you can see Ihe slow progression o Ihe sky and whaI ollows whaI.
Each sIar map shows Ihe sky as iI looks during Ihe evening abouI an hour or
Iwo aIer sunseI when Ihe lasI o evening IwilighI has aded. To orienI Ihe map
wiIh Ihe sky, hold Ihe book over your head wiIh Ihe Iop o Ihe page poinIed
norIh. You will noIice IhaI while Ihe posiIions o 'EasI' and '\esI' on Ihe maps
appear backwards when looking down on Ihe book, when held over your head
wiIh Ihe Iop o Ihe page poinIed norIh, Ihey now accuraIely relecI Ihe correcI
direcIions. AnyIhing along Ihe perimeIer o Ihe sky map will Ihereore be ound
along Ihe correcI horizon, while Ihe cenIer o Ihe map represenIs whaI is direcIly
overhead. Depending on exacIly whaI Iime o nighI, or whaI Iime o year you are
ouI, Ihe sIars you see may be a liIIle Io Ihe easI, or a liIIle Io Ihe wesI o whaI is
shown in Ihe sIar map, in each case Ihough, Ihe paIIerns o Ihe consIellaIions are
Ihe same and once you ind one, all Ihe resI should snap inIo place.
List of Star Maps (by month)
]anuary - ChapIer , page 3S4
Fcbruary - ChapIer 1, page 31 and ChapIer 10, page 32
March - ChapIer 3, page 101
AgrI - ChapIer 4, page 143
May - ChapIer 7, page 26
]unc - ChapIer 8, page 313
]uIy - ChapIer , page 3SS
Auguxt - ChapIer 1, page 30 and ChapIer 10, page 33
Scgtcmbcr - ChapIer 3, page 100
Octobcr - ChapIer 4, page 142
Novcmbcr - ChapIer 7, page 268
Occcmbcr - ChapIer 8, page 312
A few UsefuI Terms
Zcnth - The poinI in Ihe sky direcIly overhead.
Arcxccond - An arcsecond is an angle. \hen we look aI Ihe sky we appear Io be
looking aI Ihe inside o a gianI celesIial sphere. DisIances beIween Iwo objecIs (or
Ihe apparenI size o an objecI) on Ihis sphere is measured in angles. Erom Ihe
horizon Io Ihe zeniIh is 0 degrees. One degree is divided inIo 60 arcminuIes,
while one arcminuIe is divided inIo sixIy arcseconds. Eor reerence, Ihe Moon is
30 arcminuIes in diameIer.
Star {or xtcIIar} magntudc - Numbers are used Io describe a sIar's brighIness:
Ihe smaller Ihe number, Ihe brighIer Ihe sIar. A 1sI magniIude sIar is 2.S Iimes
brighIer Ihan a 2nd magniIude sIar. A 3rd magniIude sIar is 2.S Iimes brighIer
Ihan a 4Ih magniIude sIar. The brighIesI sIars in Ihe sky are Iypically 1sI
magniIude. FlaneIs IhaI are even brighIer have negaIive values (Venus can be -4Ih
magniIude). The ainIesI sIars Iypically visible wiIh Ihe naked eye are 6Ih Io 7Ih
magniIude.
1
Come see the Mllky Way
Thc clcarcst way nto thc Unvcrsc s through a jorcst wlJcrncss.
John Muir
Come see Ihe Milky \ay. Come Io Ihe mounIains, come Io Ihe oresIs, come Io
Ihe naIional parks and see or yoursel our Calaxy's power Io inspire. IIs
glisIening band across a jeI black sky is Ihe suresI sighI IhaI we are parI o a vasI
and complex Universe awaiIing our discovery. And while each year Ihere are
ewer places where we can sIill hope Io see Ihe Milky \ay, IonighI, aI leasI, I
know I will be in one o Ihem.
Febbles and griI crunch beneaIh my booIs on Ihe Irail IhaI carries me up inIo a
clear blue sky over YosemiIe
NaIional Fark. Above me iI's a deep
aquamarine, almosI Ihe color o
lapis. As I lower my eyes I run
Ihrough a virIual color wheel o
blues unIil aI Ihe horizon I reach
pasIel. Blue all Ihe way down.
TonighI is deiniIely going Io be a
good nighI Io Ihe see Ihe Milky
\ay.
LocaIed in Ihe Sierra Nevada
mounIains o norIhern Caliornia,
YosemiIe is only a seven-hour drive
rom my home aI Ihe souIhern end
o Ihe sIaIe. Back Ihere in Los
Angeles Ihe blue rarely makes iI Io
Ihe horizon. There is no color o
lapis. \haI blue Ihere is, maybe a
lighI powder blue aI besI, has given
way Io whiIe, Ihen grey and inally
brown long beore reaching down
Io Ihe mounIains and palm Irees.
Every grain o dusI, every parIicle o
smog, and (or Ihose wiIh more
humid weaIher Ihan we Calior-
nians) every drop o waIer vapor
Ihe aImosphere holds, scaIIers and
figure 1.1 Clear blue summer skies alohg Lhe
lahorama 1rail above osemiLe valley ahd Half-
Dome (1. Nordgreh).
relecIs Ihe lighI rom Ihe Sun unIil Ihe very sIu we breaIhe becomes an opaque
curIain hanging beIween us and Ihe real sky beyond. AI nighI Ihe Sun's lighI is
replaced by arIiicial ciIy lighIs IhaI shine upwards, Iheir lighI scaIIering o Ihe
air iIsel Io bounce around amid Ihose parIicles o haze and dusI. UlIimaIely,
enough o IhaI lighI is redirecIed back down Io us on EarIh IhaI Ihe sky iIsel
appears Io glow (and in acI iI does) drowning ouI Ihe much more disIanI glow o
Ihe sIars.
\ill IhaI be a problem in YosemiIe IonighI7 \hile Ihis polluIion by arIiicial
lighI respecIs no ciIy limiIs, Ihe nearesI ciIies are sIill airly remoIe. No, Ihe
largesI eecI on whaI I'll see IonighI will be Ihe clariIy o Ihe air iIsel. As a
simple rule o Ihumb, look Io Ihe horizon, iI's Ihere IhaI we always look Ihrough
Ihe greaIesI amounI o air Iowards Ihe Universe beyond. I iI's blue by day, you
will be able Io see ainI sIars by nighI.
ThaI's why Ihe clean air o Ihe mounIains, which rejuvenaIes me during Ihe
day, is whaI brings me here Io sIay aI nighI. \hen Ihe Sun seIs and Ihe irsI pin-
pricks o lighI break Ihrough Ihe IwilighI glow, I know IhaI Ihere is going Io be as
liIIle beIween me and Ihe sIars as our aImosphere will allow. ThaI's a reason why
Ihe asIronomers puI Iheir observaIories on disIanI plaIeaus and mounIain Iops.
Yes, IonighI is going Io be a good nighI.
This nighI, beside my IenI, ar rom any ciIy, I will geI a chance Io see Ihe sky
as very ew see iI now ouIside one o America's naIional parks. In Ihe lasI ew
generaIions humaniIy has creaIed an arIiicial daylighI IhaI blinds and blankeIs
Ihe sIars in Ihe same way Ihe smog and haze o LA someIimes blow in Io quieIly
engul Ihe beauIy o Ihe Crand Canyon in Arizona. On Ihose days when Ihe
NorIh Rim disappears, visiIors Io Ihe SouIh Rim know exacIly whaI Ihey are
missing. Sadly, Ihere are very ew Ioday who remember whaI Ihe sky is supposed
Io look like aI nighI, and Ihose who do remember have grown used Io Ihe idea
IhaI iI's jusI Ihe way Ihings are now. The U.S. NaIional Fark Service's mission Io
preserve our naIural beauIy on Ihe ground has become Ihe greaIesI means or iIs
preservaIion overhead as well.
The Sun is seIIing. Soon iI is gone and along Ihe easIern horizon Ihe dusky red
BelI o Venus rises. In some quirk o nomenclaIure iI has noIhing Io do wiIh Ihe
planeI Venus, buI raIher iI's Ihe pinkish lighI o sunseI relecIed back o Ihe
gasses in Ihe sky. Below iI and above Ihe horizon is Ihe dark gray-blue o Ihe
EarIh's shadow casI on iIs own aImosphere. As Ihe Sun sinks lower below Ihe
wesIern horizon Ihe belI rises higher in Ihe easI while iIs colors dim as Ihe lighI
o sunseI ades. Slowly Ihe sky darkens. UlIramarine changes Io slaIe changes Io
black. The irsI sIars appear overhead. Any 'sIars' visible aI Ihis Iime close Io Ihe
easIern or wesIern horizons are almosI always planeIs as only Ihey are brighI
enough Io be seen Ihere while Ihe sky is sIill lighI.
The sIars overhead shine all day long wiIh Ihe same inIensiIy. Our abiliIy Io
see Ihem depends only on Iheir conIrasI wiIh Ihe surrounding sky. During Ihe
day Ihey are losI in Ihe Sun's glare and Ihe blue lighI scaIIered by our
aImosphere, buI as Ihe daylighI diminishes Ihey begin Io come ouI as darkness
alls. EirsI, only Ihe brighIesI sIars can be seen againsI Ihe background sky and so
2 5tars Above, Earth Below
figure 1.2 1he sLarry highL sky over osemiLe valley as seeh from Clacier loihL. 1he
NaLiohal lark Service NighL Sky 1eam is a small group of park rahgers ahd asLrohomers
workihg Lo measure ahd mohiLor Lhe darkhess of Lhe sky above Lhe haLiohal parks. 1he
lighLs of campgrouhds ahd lodges ih Lhe valley floor lighL Lhe lahdscape (D. Duriscoe}
NlS NighL Sky 1eam).
only Ihe well-known consIellaIions are visible. BuI Ihen Ihe ainIer sIars appear,
sIars o Ihird, ourIh, and iIh magniIude.
1
EvenIually Ihe amiliar consIellaIions
ill in wiIh sIars noI seen on Ihe simple charIs sold in Ihe park's giI shop. Now
IhaI Ihe consIellaIions have become busy I begin Io see a ainI uzziness
overhead in Cygnus, Ihe Swan, a wisp o 'cloud' where beore Ihe sky was clear.
BuI Ihis 'cloud' doesn'I move, insIead iI grows lengIhwise rom norIheasI Io
souIhwesI. Low on Ihe horizon above SagiIIarius anoIher wisp appears, growing
upward Iowards Cygnus Io join iI in a single pale band. The luminous haze seems
1
One way IhaI sIars can be classiied is based upon how brighI Ihey are. The magniIude scale
in use since Ihe ancienI Creeks idenIiies Ihe brighIesI sIars as having a magniIude o one.
SIars Iwo-and-a-hal Iimes ainIer Ihan Ihese are o second magniIude, while Ihose an
addiIional Iwo-and-a-hal Iimes ainIer sIill are o magniIude Ihree. Thus, Ihe higher Ihe
magniIude Ihe ainIer Ihe sIar. I Ihis sounds backwards, Ihink abouI which is easier:
idenIiying Ihe very brighIesI sIar in Ihe sky and calling iI irsI magniIude, or inding Ihe very
ainIesI sIar visible and calling iI irsI. Modern asIronomy has expanded Ihis scale Io include
negaIive numbers and zero or Ihe very brighIesI objecIs and decimal values or more precise
measuremenI. \iIh paIience and Iraining Ihe human eye can see as ainI as magniIude 7.7 or
7.8 under Ihe very darkesI condiIions.
Come see the Mllky Way 3
figure 1.3 1here are mahy places wiLhih Lhe maih valley of osemiLe NaLiohal lark
where you cah sLop ahd see Lhe sky. Ehquire aL Lhe osemiLe valley visiLor CehLer Lo fihd
ouL whaL evehihg asLrohomy programs are beihg offered (NaLiohal lark Service).
brighIer Ihe darker Ihe sky becomes. TwilighI's gone aI lasI and now Ihe park's
oIher marvel is on display. This is Ihe Milky \ay.
I like me, you're ouIside in a park aIer Ihe sIars come ouI, lie down on a
picnic Iable bench or spread ouI in Ihe grass. LeI Ihe sky ill your enIire ield o
view. Typically by Ihe Iime Ihe Sun has been down or an hour-and-a-hal your
eyes and Ihe sky cooperaIe and Ihe landscape hidden by Ihe lighI o Sun and
civilizaIion is ully revealed.
In Ihe norIhern hemisphere, summer's Ihe besI Iime Io be doing Ihis. The
Milky \ay is aI iIs highesI and brighIesI Ihen and IemperaIures are jusI righI Io
leI olks sIay ouI laIe wiIhouI discomorI. In summer, Ihe souIhern horizon will
be dominaIed by Iwo gianI consIellaIions: Scorpius and SagiIIarius. Those o us
born in Ihe laIe all and winIer recognize Ihese as consIellaIions having
someIhing Io do wiIh our horoscopes. As Ihe EarIh moves around Ihe Sun, Ihe
consIellaIion Ihe Sun appears in ronI o (and Ihus Ihe consIellaIion IhaI's noI
visible aI nighI) slowly changes wiIh Ihe seasons. Erom November Ihrough early
January iI's Scorpius and SagiIIarius IhaI Ihe Sun obliIeraIes in Ihe daylighI's
glare.
2
Six monIhs earlier, however, Ihe Sun is hal way around Ihe sky and so is
down while Ihese consIellaIions are up. Eor an amaIeur sIargazer Ihey're
wonderul consIellaIions because Ihey acIually look like someIhing recognizable.
Unlike one o Ihose oIher consIellaIions where our ainI sIars in a 'Y' are
2
Erom November 30Ih Io December 17Ih, Ihe Sun acIually passes Ihrough a corner o Ihe
consIellaIion o Ophiuchus locaIed beIween Scorpius and SagiIIarius. SIrangely Ihere are no
Ophiuchan horoscopes.
figure 1.4 1he Milky Way ih Scorpius ahd SagiLLarius. 1he brighL orahge sLar Lo Lhe
righL is AhLares. OLher promihehL haked eye hebulae ahd clusLers are showh (1.
Nordgreh).
supposed Io be Cancer Ihe Crab, Scorpius really looks like a scorpion. The
brighIesI sIar in Scorpius, and Ihus Ihe irsI sIar I see, is Ihe dying and bloaIed,
brighI orange-red sIar AnIares: Ihe Rival o Mars, so named or iIs similariIy in
brighIness and color Io Ihe Red FlaneI, Mars.
EasI o Scorpius is Ihe gianI IeapoI asIerism aI Ihe hearI o SagiIIarius.
3
The
IeapoI pours downwards onIo Ihe Iail o Scorpius while magniicenI clouds o
celesIial 'sIeam' billow beIween Ihem beore rising high inIo Ihe sky. This 'sIeam'
is Ihe Milky \ay and iI's Ihe reason I eagerly look or Ihese consIellaIions each
summer. The ribbons o vapor rise norIhward rom Ihe IeapoI on Ihe souIhern
horizon all Ihe way Io Ihe zeniIh where iI orks in Iwo and Ihen ades away Io Ihe
ar norIheasIern horizon. I you're lucky enough Io be in Ihe souIhern hal o Ihe
counIry Ihe irsI pus rom Ihe spouI are Ihe brighIesI parI. As you Iravel norIh
inIo Oregon or Fennsylvania, SagiIIarius and Scorpius begin Io disappear inIo Ihe
Ihick air o Ihe souIhern horizon. The greaI mass o air Ihrough which we look
scaIIers Ihe ainI sIarlighI (and is also responsible or dimming Ihe ierce glare o
3
An asIerism is a collecIion o sIars made up rom parIs o a single consIellaIion or rom sIars
rom dierenI consIellaIions. The Big Dipper, or insIance, is an asIerism o Ihe ar larger and
less obvious consIellaIion o Ursa Major, Ihe CreaI Bear.
Ihe Sun aI sunseI) and Ihis parI o
Ihe Milky \ay loses much o iIs
glory. In Hawaii, by conIrasI, Ihis
parI o Ihe sky is even higher and
summer sIargazers on Ihe beach are
rewarded wiIh more Ihan jusI a hinI
o iIs Irue magniicence.
Beore Ihere were arIiicial lighIs
aI nighI Io draw away our aIIenIion
and drown ouI Ihe ainIness o Ihe
evening sky, Ihe Milky \ay was a
nighIly occurrence wiIh which
everyone was amiliar. There have
been almosI as many sIories abouI
whaI Ihe Milky \ay is as Ihere have
been civilizaIions on Ihis planeI Io
see iI. E. C. Krupp o CriiIh
ObservaIory has documenIed many
such legends and myIhs, including
Ihose o quiIe a ew NaIive Amer-
ican Iribes. One local Iribe is Ihe
Luiseno people o Ihe Los Angeles
basin.
In a shallow canyon boIIom,
now surrounded by expensive sub-
urban homes, Ihere is sIill a cool
creek lowing beIween green Irees.
Above Ihis creek is a jumble o large boulders now isolaIed rom Ihe resI o Ihe
local geography. On Ihe shadowed underside o one large boulder, where one is
sIill aorded a view o Ihe easIern sky, Ihere is painIed a curious neIlike paIIern.
This paIIern is reminiscenI o a neI woven rom milkweed ibers IhaI is eaIured
in a Luiseno sIory relaIed by Krupp in his compilaIion o sIar myIhs and legends
BcyonJ thc Bluc Horzon:
They sIreIched Ihe neI ouI upon Ihe ground, puI Ihe Sun in Ihe
middle o iI, and wiIh magic chanIs and gesIures bounced him inIo
Ihe heaven. AI irsI Ihe Sun wenI Io Ihe norIh, buI everyone agreed
IhaI was noI righI. They puI Ihe Sun back down on Ihe neI and Iried
again. This Iime Ihe Sun wenI souIh, buI he came back again. So Ihey
made anoIher aIIempI Io launch him inIo Ihe proper orbiI. This Iime
he wenI a liIIle biI Io Ihe wesI and reIurned once more. AnoIher snap
o Ihe neI senI Ihe Sun inIo Ihe sky again, and Ihis Iime Ihey goI him
in Ihe easI where he belonged. \iIh a liIIle more eorI, Iheir songs
puI Ihe Sun on a yearly course IhaI never ollowed a sIraighI line buI
carried him souIh and norIh in dierenI seasons.
figure 1.5 NaLive Americah picLograph
showihg Lhe Milky Way as a celesLial heL of
milkweed (1. Nordgreh).
The inIeresIing connecIion beIween Ihis sIory and whaI we see above is IhaI
over Ihe course o Ihe year Ihe noonIime Sun really does move norIh and souIh
in Ihe sky. In summer monIhs, especially in souIhern Caliornia, Ihe Sun aI noon
is almosI direcIly overhead while in Ihe winIer monIhs Ihe midday Sun is ar Io
Ihe souIh and shadows are longer. In addiIion, Ihe slow paIh Ihe Sun Iakes
againsI Ihe background consIellaIions crosses Ihe Milky \ay rom our
perspecIive in Iwo places. The irsI is in Ihe viciniIy o SagiIIarius and occurs
during Ihe Sun's souIhernmosI poinI in iIs moIion, while six monIhs laIer Ihe
Sun is aI iIs norIhernmosI poinI and crosses Ihe Milky \ay again near Ihe
consIellaIion o Cemini. BeIween Ihese daIes, year aIer year, one can imagine
Ihe Sun bouncing back and orIh rom season Io season beIween Ihe Milky \ay's
neI.
Civen all Ihe myriad explanaIions each culIure has had or Ihe Milky \ay, Ihe
amazing acI remains IhaI or all buI Ihe lasI 400 years o human hisIory Ihere
was no evidence or any one explanaIion over any oIher. \as Ihe Milky \ay a
neI7 \as iI a seam in Ihe abric o Ihe heavens7 \as iI liIerally Ihe milk rom Ihe
goddess Hera's breasI (hence Ihe name mlly way)7 \hile some ideas may have
been more plausible Ihan oIhers, especially Io European Ihinkers in Ihe midsI o
figure 1. Durihg summer weekehds local amaLeur asLrohomy clubs seL up Lelescopes
oh Lhe heighLs of Clacier loihL above Lhe osemiLe valley. 1hey come each year Lo show
visiLors Lhe beauLy of a Lruly dark sky. Oh moohless highLs Lhe glories of Lhe Milky Way
are revealed sLreLchihg from horizoh Lo horizoh ahd archihg high overhead (1.
Nordgreh).
Ihe Renaissance, no evidence supporIed any one guess over any oIher. Imagine
Ihen Ihe joy o discovery when or Ihe irsI Iime since Ihe very irsI human being
looked up wiIh wonder inIo a dark sIarry sky, Calileo Calilei poinIed a Ielescope
aI Ihe Milky \ay and inally saw whaI iI really was: Ihe combined lighI o
innumerable sIars unknown and invisible Io everyone's sighI buI his. These sIars
are simply so ar away IhaI Io Ihe naked eye Ihey blur inIo one diaphanous glow
like individual aspen Irees melding inIo one conIinuous golden drapery on a
disIanI hillside in all.
Look up, leI noIhing impede your view o Ihe sky. To my eye, Ihe Milky \ay's
brighI clouds appear Io hang in ronI o Ihe disIanI darkness as my brain
inIerpreIs increasing ainIness as increasing disIance away rom us. In my mind a
Iwo-dimensional sky becomes illed wiIh Ihree-dimensional depIhs. Erom high
overhead down Io Ihe souIhern horizon Ihe Milky \ay's band is laid ouI like a
sIrange and exoIic mounIain range seen rom above. BrighI regions become, Io
my mind's eye, mounIains o pearly luorescence IhaI melI inIo dimmer plaIeaus
and darker valley loors. SIrange dark holes, sIreaks, and clouds, seI among Ihe
sIellar brilliance become silky jords, bays, inleIs and rivers o darkesI jeI beIween
clis o pale lighI.
4
\haI would iI be like Io walk among Ihe specIral landscape o Ihe Milky \ay,
Io hike Ihrough SagiIIarius and see Ihese dark rivers and brighI mounIains o Ihe
imaginaIion made maniesI abouI me7 Above Ihe amiliar IeapoI o SagiIIarius
Ihere's a small brighI concenIraIed cloud, a veriIable MaIIerhorn in Ihe
mounIain range o Ihe nighI. This is Ihe Lagoon Nebula. Nchula is rom Ihe
LaIin or misI or cloud. II is in acI a cloud o mosIly hydrogen gas hanging
beIween Ihe sIars, abouI 100 lighI-years across and S,200 lighI-years away. A
lght-ycar is Ihe disIance lighI Iravels in a year. Eor comparison, Ihe EarIh is a liIIle
more Ihan 8 lighI-minuIes rom Ihe Sun, and Ihe nearesI sIar sysIem Io ours,
alpha CenIauri, is jusI over our lighI-years away. So now imagine a cloud o
gasses much like a puy whiIe cloud o waIer vapor in a summer sky buI
4
You won'I see Ihese aI irsI, your eyes will need Io adjusI. In Ihe summer, when sunlighI is
inIense and we have been ouIside in Ihe brighI lighI, your eyes can Iake several hours Io
become really dark adapIed. As Ihey do, look closely aI Ihe brighIesI parI o Ihe Milky \ay in
SagiIIarius. Try looking aI iI ouI o Ihe corner o your eye and see whaI pale knoIs and clumps
jump ouI aI you only Io disappear i you look sIraighI aI Ihem. This is a Irick known Io
amaIeur asIronomers called averIed-vision. The opIic nerve leaves or your brain rom Ihe
cenIer o your reIina where you have very ew cells sensiIive Io lighI. During Ihe day when
lighI is plenIiul and your eye moves back and orIh over brighIly liI scenes your brain doesn'I
noIice Ihis spoI. AI nighI when lighI condiIions are low and you Iry Io ix your gaze inIenIly
on one small poinI, Ihe deIails always seem Io be jusI ouI o reach. One word o warning, a
single glance aI a brighI car headlighI will seI your nighI vision back Io square one. I you
should need a lighI, use a dim red lighI such as a cellophane-covered lashlighI or bicycle rear
lamp. Keep iI dim Ihough, you'll be surprised how liIIle lighI your dark-adapIed eyes will
acIually need.
figure 1.7 visiLor map of Lhe summer Milky Way showihg hills (brighL gaseous
hebulae ahd sLar clusLers) wiLh deep alpihe lakes (dark dusL clouds) lyihg alohg Lhe
plahe of Lhe Calaxy (1. Nordgreh).
ballooning across space unIil sIars like our Sun are no more Ihan small birds
driIing Ihrough iIs expanse. In Ihese clouds sIars are born ouI o Ihe hydrogen
gas and Ihe ulIravioleI lighI Ihey give o (like IhaI rom Ihe Sun which gives us
sunburn) lighIs up Ihe gas in a celesIial 'neon lighI show'.
MosI o Ihe oIher Iiny knoIs and clouds IhaI I see wiIh Ihe naked eye in Ihis
parI o Ihe sky are in acI clusIers o newborn sIars, wiIh hundreds packed inIo a
space only a dozen lighI-years across. The nighI sky seen rom a planeI around a
sIar in one o Ihese clusIers would be illed rom horizon Io horizon wiIh sIars as
Come see the Mllky Way
brighI as Ihe very brighIesI we can see here on EarIh. BuI we would likely be
alone in seeing Ihem. These sIars and any planeIs Ihey have would be no more
Ihan a couple hundred million years old, only one iIieIh Ihe age o our own
planeI. On such a world iI is unlikely IhaI any lie would yeI have arisen aI all,
much less evolved Io Ihe poinI o sIargazing.
As my eye Ireks Ihe Milky \ay norIh, I leave Ihe heighIs o SagiIIarius, cross
low mounIain passes and climb again as I enIer Ihe hills o Aquila, Ihe Eagle,
marked by Ihe brighI sIar AlIair. AlIair is one corner o Ihe summer Triangle, an
asIerism o Ihree nearly equally brighI sIars, each rom a dierenI consIellaIion.
AlIair in Aquila, Deneb in Cygnus (Ihe Swan or NorIhern Cross) norIh along Ihe
Milky \ay and Vega in Ihe consIellaIion o Lyra, Ihe Lyre (or Harp), jusI o Ihe
Milky \ay Io Ihe wesI. \hile all Ihree sIars look virIually Ihe same Io Ihe eye,
each is revealed by modern asIronomy Io have a remarkable hidden beauIy.
AlIair is an average sIar like Ihe Sun. II's a biI more massive, a liIIle biI hoIIer, a
liIIle biI brighIer, and a liIIle less yellow. In one way Ihough, iI is quiIe dierenI:
AlIair spins so asI IhaI iI bulges ouI aI Ihe equaIor as i iI were in danger o
linging iIsel aparI. UIIerly hidden rom sighI beore Ihis cenIury, asIronomers
have acIually seen Ihis roIaIional bloaIing wiIh Ihe laIesI generaIion o
Ielescopes.
Vega is like AlIair in IhaI iI Ioo spins rapidly, buI Ihis Iime wiIh iIs pole
projecIed righI aI us so IhaI we can'I see IhaI iI is aIIer aI iIs equaIor Ihan aI iIs
poles. BuI unlike AlIair, Vega is a young sIar, less Ihan 400 million years old and
in Ihe lasI decades o Ihe 20Ih cenIury iI was one o Ihe irsI sIars around which
asIronomers observed a swirling disk o gas and dusI. An enIire solar sysIem sIill
in iIs inancy lies around IhaI sIar in our sky.
figure 1.8 1he Lagooh Nebula
(M8) as drawh Lhrough ah
amaLeur Lelescope. NoLice Lhe
dark dusL lahes ahd clusLer of
hewborh sLars visible Lhrough
eveh a small Lelescope (1.
Nordgreh).
figure 1.9 1he Lagooh Nebula imaged by Lhe .S. Naval
ObservaLory's 40-ihch diameLer Lelescope ih llagsLaff,
Arizoha. 1he porLioh of Lhe hebula seeh here shows Lhe
ihher porLioh of Lhe hebula drawihg (SLepheh Levihe, .S.
Naval ObservaLory).
figure 1.10 1he Summer 1riahgle as seeh from Lhe valley view LurhouL wiLhih
osemiLe valley. vega is aL Lop, while Deheb resLs Lo lefL above Lhe grahiLe cliff of El
CapiLaih, ahd AlLair is Lo Lhe righL above 8ridal veil lalls (1. Nordgreh).
figure 1.11 A model of AlLair as iL would appear
relaLive Lo Lhe Suh. NoLice LhaL AlLair is darker ahd
cooler arouhd iLs bulgihg equaLor compared Lo iLs
poles. lor comparisoh, Lhe EarLh is abouL Lhe size
of ohe of Lhe small suhspoLs visible hear Lhe
cehLer of Lhe Suh's surface (Deahe leLersoh
(SN SLohybrook) 200, Astrcphysiccl jcurncl,
vol. 33, pp 1048, keproduced by permissioh of
Lhe AAS).
Deneb's hidden beauIy lies in Ihe acI IhaI Io Ihe eye iI looks similar Io Vega
and AlIair. II's Ihis nearly common brighIness o Ihe Ihree sIars IhaI has made
Ihe Summer Triangle a avoriIe o sIargazers who regularly greeI iIs appearance in
Ihe summer sky each year. A sIar's brighIness depends noI only on iIs own
luminosiIy, buI also on iIs disIance rom Ihe EarIh. AlIair and Vega are nearby
sIars in our own liIIle neighborhood. LighI rom AlIair Iakes abouI 17 years Io
make Ihe Irip Io our eyes each summer. Deneb, however, is close Io 1,S00 lighI-
years away. The lighI you see IonighI leI Ihe surace o IhaI sIar during Ihe age o
King ArIhur (or raIher Ihe hisIorical period o baIIles beIween BriIons and Anglo-
Saxon invaders IhaI would laIer give rise Io Ihe legend o ArIhur). To appear as
brighI as Vega and AlIair, Deneb musI be 8,000 Iimes more luminous Ihan Ihey
are. Deneb is a supergianI sIar dwaring AlIair, Vega and our Sun jusI as a beach
ball dwars cherries. Ear more massive Ihan Ihe oIher Iwo sIars Deneb is
consuming iIs available nuclear uel so asI IhaI, while sIill much younger Ihan
even Vega, iI will die wiIhin Ihe nexI ew million years in a caIasIrophic
explosion or a while more luminous Ihan Ihe resI o Ihe sIars in Ihe Milky \ay
combined.
And Ihese are jusI Ihree o Ihe sIrange and beauIiul sIars IhaI make up Ihe
hundreds o billions o sIars in our Calaxy, Ihe Milky \ay.
To walk urIher up Ihe hills rom AlIair Io Deneb is Io walk Ihe easIern edge o
a greaI bay, Ihe Cygnus Void, a celesIial counIerparI Io San Erancisco Bay o Io
Ihe wesI o YosemiIe. In Cygnus and Aquila Ihe ghosIly hills and valleys o Ihe
Milky \ay ork and wrap around an empIiness where Ihe wesIern peninsula
evenIually breaks o and provides an ouIleI Io Ihe nighIIime sea.
\here are Ihe disIanI sIars in Ihis void7
\haI Io our eyes appears as an absence o sIars is in realiIy Ihe shadow o an
invisible presence. In addiIion Io Ihe luminous clouds like Ihose in SagiIIarius
Ihere also exisI dark black clouds which give o no lighI o Iheir own IhaI can be
figure 1.12 DusL clouds ih Lhe Cyghus void from Deheb oh Lhe lefL Lo SagiLLarius oh
Lhe righL. AhLares is Lhe brighL orahge sLar Lo Lhe upper righL, while |upiLer is Lhe brighL
ob|ecL aL Lhe boLLom. 1he dark shadows Lo righL are Lrees (1. Nordgreh).
seen wiIh Ihe human eye. RaIher we only see Ihem because o Iheir conIrasI wiIh
Ihe surrounding glow o Ihe Calaxy. These are Ihe dusI clouds IhaI hang beIween
Ihe sIars, so dense IhaI no lighI rom disIanI objecIs can be seen behind Ihem.
Those sIars one does see in Ihe hearI o Ihe void are only Ihose sIars IhaI lie
beIween iI and our Sun. \here Ihere are sIars buried wiIhin Ihese clouds, any
planeI around one would be compleIely shuI o rom Ihe ouIside Universe and
iIs nighI sky would be as dark and empIy as a closed room aI nighI. Tomorrow
when I drive home Io Los Angeles and all Ihese sIars disappear rom my
nighIIime sky, I can'I help buI Ihink I will know whaI iI would be like Io live on
one o Ihose depressing worlds.
NorIh o Cygnus, Ihe Milky \ay grows quickly dim and paIchy as I walk down
rough slopes inIo broad rolling hills on my galacIic hike. JusI norIh o Deneb is
Ihe dark caviIy o Ihe NorIhern Coal Sack Nebula. \iIhouI Ihe glorious brighI
heighIs o SagiIIarius wiIh which Io give iI conIrasI, iI is only visible rom Ihe
darkesI locaIions. There are a ew brighI areas here buI noIhing as grand as Ihe
glories o Ihe souIh. I iI is all and you sIay up laIe you may noIice IhaI Ihe Milky
\ay conIinues ainIly across Ihe norIhern sky and down pasI Orion. There iI is
noIhing more Ihan a low ridgeline IhaI evenIually ades back inIo Ihe gloom o
Ihe souIhern horizon.
I Ihe EarIh were IransparenI you'd see IhaI Ihe Milky \ay's band orms a
ragged ring enIirely around iI. As Ihe celesIial sphere slowly roIaIes wiIh new
sIars rising in Ihe easI and seIIing in Ihe wesI, dierenI parIs o Ihe ring are
visible aI dierenI Iimes o nighI. In addiIion, as Ihe EarIh goes around Ihe Sun,
dierenI parIs o Ihe ring slip behind Ihe Sun's obscuring lighI, and so every
nighI we see a parIicular parI o Ihe band a liIIle earlier Ihan Ihe nighI, week, or
monIh beore. Thus, as summer gives way Io all, Ihe glories o Ihe summer Milky
\ay slowly ade inIo Ihe wesI aIer sunseI. As iI does so, Ihe cold, sIark, Milky
\ay in Orion, visible laIe aI nighI in all, gradually rises earlier each nighI unIil
evenIually iI becomes Ihe pale evening Milky \ay we associaIe wiIh winIer. NoI
unIil summer comes again do we once more see Ihe high majesIy o Scorpius and
SagiIIarius in Ihe evening sky.
I am noI alone in my dream o hiking along Ihe Milky \ay's Irail.
S
Eor many
culIures, including many American Indian Iribes, Ihe Milky \ay has always been
a road, river, or bridge Iaken by Ihose who've died. Eor Ihe Navajo in Ihe
American souIhwesI, Ihe Milky \ay is a paIh o corn pollen or Ihe deparIed IhaI
brings balance beIween day and nighI, while or Ihe Hopi and Fueblo Indians o
Ihe region, iI as a ladder IhaI leads rom Ihis world inIo Ihe nexI. Eor Ihe
Chumash o Ihe cenIral Caliornia coasI, near here, Ihe Milky \ay is a paIh
Iaken by Ihe souls on Iheir way Io Shimilaqsha, Ihe Land o Ihe Dead.
In Ihe early 120s, long aIer Ihe Chumash culIure was broken up and
S
The word 'way' iIsel has iIs origins in Middle English where iI was used or 'road,' 'paIh,' or
'rouIe.'
assimilaIed by wesIern civilizaIion, Ihe eIhnographer J.F. HarringIon recorded
oral narraIives o Ihose ew remaining Chumash elders who could remember Ihe
sIories o Iheir youIh. These Iales have been compiled by Thomas C. Blackburn in
his book Dcccmhcr's ChlJ and in NarraIives 12 and S we hear a Iale Iold by
Maria Solares, an elderly Inezeno Chumash, o Ihe paIh Iaken by Ihe soul o a
new bride, accidenIally killed by her young husband in a momenI o
carelessness.
HearIbroken, Ihe young man vowed Io hide himsel by where his bride was
buried so IhaI he could ollow her wherever she wenI. \hen aI lasI she arose, he
ollowed her Ihrough Ihe nighI Io Ihe land called \iI, where new souls are
greeIed by orever youIhul widows.
\hen dawn came he could see only her heels and whaI looked like
misI, buI when evening came again he began Io see her more and
more clearly as i she were alive. She Iold him Io go back and said,
''You have killed me, and now you are keeping me rom my
desIinaIion.'' The man replied, ''II makes no dierence, I will go
even i I perish.''
Fassing Ihrough Ihe Land o \idows, Ihe Iwo enIered a deep ravine where Ihe
Irail is cuI up and worn by Ihe passage o so many dead. Here in Ihe land called
'Ayaya, Iwo huge sIones conIinually parI and clash, crushing anyone IhaI is
caughI beIween Ihem. Here Ioo, enormous ravens pluck ouI Ihe people's eyes
which Ihe soul replaces wiIh poppies IhaI grow plenIiully along Ihe road, Ihus
resIoring Iheir sighI. Upon leaving Ihe ravine Ihe paIh crosses Ihe home o La
TonaJora, Scorpion \oman, who sIings unorIunaIe souls wiIh her Iail i Ihey
sIop Io Ialk. AIer inally passing Ihrough all o Ihese dangers, Ihe young wie and
husband came aI lasI Io Ihe edge o a deep dark waIer wiIh Ihe enIrance Io
Shimilaqsha on Ihe oIher side.
They reached Ihe place and Ihere was a long pole IhaI kepI rising and
alling, Iouching Ihe gaIe o Shimilaqsha and Ihen rising unIil iI
brushed Ihe sky. The wie said, ''I will hurry and pass Ihe gaIe. Be
careul, Ihere are Iwo animals in Ihe waIer IhaI will Iry Io righIen
you.'' These animals emerge on each side o Ihe pole and shouI, and i
a bad soul is passing iI alls inIo Ihe waIer and perishes buI a good soul
passes by saely. . ..
EirsI one, Ihen Ihe oIher crossed and enIered Shimilaqsha. Here Ihe road
orked and Ihe wie, who had died Iook one paIh, while Ihe husband who hadn'I
was orced Io Iake Ihe oIher up Io Ihe CrysIal House where Old Man lived. There
in Ihe CrysIal House, Old Man challenged Ihe young husband Io sIay awake or
Ihree nighIs wiIh his wie wiIhouI sleeping. I Ihis he could do, Ihen Ihe Iwo
would be permiIIed Io reIurn alive Io Iheir village. Eor Iwo nighIs he succeeded,
buI on Ihe Ihird nighI, no maIIer how much his wie shook him and pinched
him Ihe young man ell asleep. Eor his ailure he was banished Io reIurn home
alone where orever aIer he sadly Iold o whaI he had seen.
Like so much o NaIive American culIure, we know very liIIle o whaI Ihis
sIory may have meanI Io Ihe Chumash. Their culIure was already scaIIered and
suppressed when Solares was born and Ihose asIrologer-priesIs wiIh knowledge o
Ihe symbolism and IradiIion o Ihese narraIives were gone and unable Io pass on
Ihe meaning behind Ihem. One is Ihen leI, like a deIecIive, Io piece IogeIher
hinIs and inerences, disparaIe pieces o inormaIion and, yes, guess and
conjecIure, Io undersIand whaI is now losI. FuIIing Ihese pieces IogeIher Io
undersIand Ihe relaIionship beIween culIure and Ihe heavens is Ihe goal o Ihe
inIerdisciplinary ield o eIhno-asIronomy. In Crystals n thc Sly, Travis Hudson
and ErnesI Underhay lay ouI Ihe sIory o Maria Solares and ind wiIhin iI Ihe
inIriguing possibiliIy IhaI in Ihe sIory o Ihe unhappy souls is a map o Ihe Milky
\ay iIsel.
As Ihe EarIh revolves around Ihe Sun, Ihe sIars overhead in Ihe evening sky
slowly change and rom nighI Io nighI gradually sink wesIward inIo Ihe lighI o
Ihe seIIing Sun. In laIe December, as Ihe Sun begins Io move in ronI o Ihe
consIellaIion o SagiIIarius, Ihe ainI Milky \ay Iowards Orion is rising and Ihe
orked band around Ihe Cygnus Void arches down Io Ihe wesIern horizon where
one inds AlIair glowing in Ihe evening IwilighI. II is here over Ihe wesIern
horizon IhaI Ihe Chumash believed Ihe soul ound Shimilaqsha.
DirecIly overhead aI Ihis Iime o year is Ihe consIellaIion o Cassiopeia which
figure 1.13 1he ''laLhs of Lhe Dead'' arch over Half-Dome ahd Lhe Ahwahhee Meadow
ih osemiLe valley. 1he lighLs of campers illumihaLe Lhe valley walls as a meLeor shooLs
overhead beheaLh Lhe lighL of |upiLer (1. Nordgreh).
siIs along Ihe Milky \ay like an enormous leIIer '\' and is Ihe mosI conspicuous
consIellaIion along Ihis porIion o Ihe Calaxy's band. As Ihe gaIeway Io Ihe world
above, Ihis may be Ihe irsI sIop on Ihe soul's journey: Ihe Land o Ihe \idows.
JusI Io Ihe wesI, moving opposiIe Io Ihe direcIion I walked in my Iravelogue
beore, one comes Io Ihe region o Ihe Milky \ay norIh o Cygnus. The ainI,
scaIIered and chaoIic naIure o Ihe Milky \ay in Ihis place would be
wonderully described by Ihe Ireacherous boulders and ravens o 'Ayaya.
Fassing Ihrough Ihis region one comes Io our consIellaIion o Cygnus, Ihe
Swan. Here i one imagines Ihe Iail o Ihe cross arcing up and wesI Io Ihe sIar
Vega in Ihe consIellaIion Lyra we may in acI be gazing on Ihe long ago
Chumash consIellaIion o Scorpion \oman. There she siIs acing easI Io Ihe
approach o oncoming souls as she guards Ihe Cygnus Void where long ago
sIargazers may have seen Ihe Milky \ay's diverging paIhs as a pole over dark and
oreboding waIers.
AI Iheir end is Ihe sIar AlIair, which Ihe Chumash would see in winIer
hanging over Ihe wesIern horizon as Ihe celesIial marker or Shimilaqsha iIsel.
Many sIories like IhaI Iold above include a orked Irail or a 'Y' in Ihe road or Ihe
souls o Ihe dead. I can imagine a Iime long ago when on a dark nighI wiIh Ihe
figure 1.14 Chumash lhdiah legehds speaks of a Scorpioh Womah, Lc !cncdcrc, who
guards Lhe edge of a dark waLer LhaL musL be crossed Lo reach Shimilaqsha, Lhe
Chumash Lahd of Lhe Dead. lL is LhoughL by some eLhho-asLrohomers LhaL Lhese
correspohd Lo feaLures alohg Lhe Milky Way (showh ih blue) ahd LhaL Loday we may fihd
Lhem wiLhih Lhe bouhdaries of Lhe moderh Summer 1riahgle (1. Nordgreh afLer a
diagram by 1. Hudsoh ahd E. hderhay).
Milky \ay high overhead, a young bride Iook Ihe paIh Io AlIair while her
husband was doomed Io Iake Ihe orked, lesser paIh, away rom her.
Many oIher Iribes in Caliornia, including Ihe Miwok o YosemiIe, had similar
sIories o husbands ollowing Iheir dead wives' spiriIs inIo Ihe sky. Laying on my
back among Ihe grasses in Ihe ields o Ihe valley loor iI isn'I diiculI aI all Io see
Ihe Milky \ay as a specIral bridge joining IogeIher Ihe enormous graniIe clis Io
norIh and souIh. \haI power Ihis sighI musI have had Io people who could look
up and liIerally see Ihe road Iaken by Iheir ancesIors, and Ihus presumably Ihe
paIh Ihey Ihemselves would one day Iake.
\heIher Ihese sIories really were meanI Io be Iaken liIerally or simply as
analogy or allegory is noI clear. BuI whaI Ihey all succeed in doing is Io provide
Ihe lisIener wiIh some rame o reerence in which Io make sense o a mysIerious
and oIen complex inIeracIion beIween celesIial objecIs and evenIs, and doing so
is a Iime honored IradiIion IhaI conIinues Io Ihis day.
So Ihe Milky \ay's band is sIars and clusIers, glowing gasses and piIch-black
dusI clouds, rapidly roIaIing sIars, and young sIars wiIh dusIy disks where
planeIs are waiIing Io happen. And all o Ihis is arrayed in a circular band across
Ihe sky. How does Ihis all iI IogeIher7 JusI whaI s Ihe Milky \ay7
The Milky \ay is our Calaxy. AlmosI everyIhing you see aI nighI wiIh your
naked eye is in our Calaxy. The band o Ihe Milky \ay is simply Ihe more disIanI
parIs o iI grown ainI and blurred IogeIher wiIh greaI disIance. Imagine Ihe sIars
are Ihe Irees o an enormously large oresI. All around me I see Irees. Above me I
see Ihe widely scaIIered green Iree Iops buI as my gaze alls lower Io Ihe horizon,
perspecIive and disIance cause Ihe number o Irees I see Io increase. \hen aI lasI
my sighI reaches Ihe horizon I see a band all around me o Irees merging IogeIher
and overlapping wiIh disIance. \haI on Ihe ouIside is simply a oresI growing
over a laI plaIeau, rom Ihe inside maniesIs iIsel dierenIly. \e are Irapped
inside our Calaxy, so our view o iI is likewise disIorIed and incompleIe.
I we could sIep ouIside iI and look down upon iI, whaI would iI look like7
\illiam Herschel, one o Ihe pre-eminenI asIronomers o Ihe eighIeenIh
cenIury, was Ihe irsI scienIisI Io Iry jusI IhaI in a sysIemaIic way.
6
\hen you
look aI Ihe nighI sky, one o Ihe irsI Ihings you noIice is IhaI some sIars are
brighIer Ihan oIhers. \hy is Ihis7 One reason could be IhaI Ihe dimmer sIars are
jusI arIher away. \e see Ihis every nighI wiIh sIreeIlighIs and car headlighIs.
Our brains even do a biI o subconscious calculaIion because we have a guI
eeling or how brighI a car's headlighI really is. I we know IhaI, and we can see
6
Frior Io abouI 12S Ihe more-or-less Iypical view o Ihe universe was IhaI iI was jusI large
enough Io hold our single galaxy. As a resulI, when asIronomers like Herschel in Ihe
eighIeenIh and nineIeenIh cenIuries soughI Io measure Ihe properIies o Ihe Milky \ay, or
Ihem Ihis was synonymous wiIh measuring Ihe properIies o Iheir universe. NoI unIil 12S
when Edwin Hubble, or whom Ihe space Ielescope is named, proved IhaI Ihe Andromeda
'Nebula' musI lie ouIside our Milky \ay, did Ihe idea o galaxies as islands o sIars scaIIered
IhroughouI a universal ocean o empIiness really caIch on.
figure 1.15 Herschel's map of Lhe Milky Way for a paper ehLiLled, ''Oh Lhe
CohsLrucLioh of Lhe Heavehs,'' from Lhe lroceedihgs of Lhe koyal AsLrohomical SocieLy,
1785. His map shows Lhe posiLioh of Lhe Suh represehLed by a large sLar hear Lhe cehLer
of Lhe Calaxy (Dr |eremy 8urgess}lhoLo kesearchers, lhc.).
jusI how dim Ihe lighI looks, we have a decenI eeling or how ar away a car is
and wheIher or noI we have Ihe Iime Io cross a sIreeI. Herschel made Ihe same
calculaIion or sIars. He assumed Ihey all had Ihe same inIrinsic brighIness as Ihe
winIer sIar Sirius which is Ihe brighIesI sIar in Ihe sky. Based on Ihis sIar he Ihen
calculaIed how many Iimes arIher away every oIher sIar in Ihe sky was. I you
know Ihis disIance rom EarIh, and you know where on Ihe sky Ihe sIar is, you
can consIrucI a Ihree-dimensional map o Ihe Calaxy.
Herschel's map looks like Ihe laIIened bug splaIIer on a car's windshield wiIh
our Sun near Ihe cenIer. You can see where Ihis laIness comes rom or yoursel.
The Milky \ay looks like a band across Ihe sky. I we lived inside a gianI
spherical ball o sIars Ihen Ihere should be virIually Ihe same number o sIars in
all direcIions and no reason or a band. And i we were o cenIer o Ihe ball, we'd
see Ihe majoriIy o sIars gaIhered over Io one side o Ihe nighI sky, and again,
Ihere would be no band. BuI we don'I see Ihis, we live in a disk and so like our
hiker in Ihe woods we see Irees all around Io Ihe sides buI very liIIle above and
below.
The reason Ihe Sun is so near Ihe cenIer in Herschel's map is because in one
very imporIanI way Herschel was compleIely wrong. \hile iI is cerIainly Irue
IhaI some parIs o Ihe Milky \ay are hrghtcr Ihan oIhers, no maIIer which way
Herschel looked in Ihe band Ihe jantcst sIars he could see were always equally
ainI. I Ihe ainIness o sIars was only governed by how ar away Ihey were Ihen
Ihis would imply IhaI Ihe sIars exIend equally ar in all direcIions, and Ihus we
musI be near Ihe cenIer o Ihe Calaxy.
UnorIunaIely, Ihe space beIween Ihe sIars is illed wiIh a vasI invisible misI o
gas and dusI. Today we call Ihis obscuring maIIer Ihe inIersIellar medium. The
arIher away a sIar is, Ihe more o Ihis medium is presenI along Ihe line o sighI
Io Ihe sIar and Ihe more Ihe sIar's lighI is scaIIered or absorbed beore reaching
our eyes here on EarIh. Beyond a ew Ihousand lighI-years Ihere is so much
inIersIellar absorpIion IhaI sIars quickly become invisible Io Ihe naked eye and
evenIually even large opIical Ielescopes. Herschel's map, raIher Ihan being an
accuraIe relecIion o Ihe disIribuIion o sIars in Ihe Milky \ay acIually says
more abouI Ihe disIribuIion o Ihe obscuring dusI and gas wthn our Calaxy.
7
I, in addiIion Io Ihis nearly uniorm obscuraIion, Ihe Milky \ay were also
uniormly brighI in all direcIions (where Ihe hrghtncss o Ihe band is an
indicaIion o Ihe numhcr o sIars along Ihe line o sighI) Ihen you mighI sIill
conclude Ihe EarIh and Sun were in Ihe cenIer o Ihe Calaxy. BuI compare Ihe
brighI, bold Milky \ay o summer wiIh Ihe ainI Ienuous Milky \ay visible in
winIer and you can Iell or yoursel IhaI Ihis is exacIly noI whaI we see. Our Sun
and our Solar SysIem lie somewhere in Ihe galacIic ouIskirIs. I Ihe biggesI and
brighIesI porIion is in Ihe direcIion o SagiIIarius Ihen perhaps IhaI direcIion
poinIs Ihe way Io Ihe galacIic cenIer. BuI i so, how ar away is iI7
The answer lies in Ihe globular clusIers. The biggesI and brighIesI o Ihese
objecIs IhaI is visible Io we norIhern hemisphere observers is Ihe CreaI Clobular
ClusIer in Hercules (also called M13). FoinI even a small Ielescope aI M13 and you
will be rewarded wiIh one o Ihe mosI beauIiul views in Ihe norIhern sky: a
shower o diamonds on a black velveI backdrop. Clobular clusIers are collecIions
o beIween a hundred Ihousand and a million sIars, packed IighIly inIo a ball only
a ew lighI-years across. To be on a planeI orbiIing a sIar in one o Ihese greaI
accumulaIions o lighI would be Io have a sky so ablaze wiIh sIars IhaI even ciIy
dwellers would be unable Io orgeI IhaI Ihere is a larger Universe around Ihem.
There are hundreds o Ihese globular clusIers visible rom EarIh, Ihe majoriIy
in Ihe summer sky, wiIh all buI a dozen Ioo ainI
Io be seen wiIh Ihe naked eye. In Ihe early
IwenIieIh cenIury Harlow Shapley, a young
asIronomer aI Ihe MI. \ilson ObservaIory in
Ihe mounIains above Los Angeles, ound a way
Io measure Ihe disIance Io Ihese objecIs. By
mapping Ihe posiIions o Ihese clusIers, jusI as
Herschel irsI Iried Io map Ihe Milky \ay,
Shapley ound IhaI Ihey are gaIhered in a
spherical halo wrapped around Ihe resI o Ihe
Calaxy we see aI nighI. The cenIer o Ihe halo
shows us Ihe cenIer o our Calaxy. Erom Ihe size
and direcIion o IhaI halo we now know IhaI our
eyes were noI deceiving us. \hen you look
Iowards SagiIIarius, pasI all Ihe sIars, pasI Ihe
brighI nebulae, and pasI Ihe dark dusIy clouds,
you are looking Iowards Ihe cenIer o our Calaxy
nearly 2S,000 lighI-years away.
7
And acIually iI says even less Ihan IhaI because Herschel made one more misIake: in acI, all
sIars are noI equally brighI Io begin wiIh. BuI, in science as in real lie, you have Io sIarI
somewhere.
figure 1.1 M13, Lhe CreaL
Clobular ClusLer ih Hercules,
cohLaihs several huhdred
Lhousahd sLars (N. kedfield, D.
SlaLer, .S. Naval ObservaLory).
There, aI Ihe cenIer o our Calaxy, are billions o old sIars orbiIing in random
orbiIs like a swarm o bees around a hive. These random orbiIs creaIe a greaI
spherical bulge ouI o which appears a laI disk o sIars in which you ind all Ihe
Iypes o Ihings we have jusI seen in our summer sky. BeIween Ihe sIars in Ihe disk
Ihere is Ihe Ihin diuse inIersIellar medium o hydrogen gas and dusI, wiIh Ihe
occasional Ihick dark cloud conIaining carbon dusI grains and organic molecules
such as carbon monoxide, ammonia, meIhanol and even waIer. TogeIher, Ihe
diuse and dense componenIs o Ihe inIersIellar medium are a liIIle like Ihe Ihin
layer o linI and scaIIered dusI-bunnies ound under a bed. In addiIion Io Ihe
dark clouds are Ihe brighI clouds o hydrogen gas liI up by Ihe lighI o hoI young
sIars orming wiIhin. As sIars like Deneb grow old and die, Ihey are replenished
by Ihese new sIars IhaI are born aI a raIe o abouI a hal dozen sIars each year,
every year since Ihe Calaxy ormed around 13.S billion years ago.
Over Ihe lasI cenIury, asIronomers have conIinued Io search or Ihe sIrucIure
o our Calaxy. DierenI invesIigaIions have looked or Ihis sIrucIure in many
dierenI ways. Some measured Ihe disIances Io young sIars and Ihe luminous
figure 1.17 1he hiddeh cehLer of Lhe Milky Way phoLographed usihg Lhe SpiLzer
lhfrared Space 1elescope. 1he exacL cehLer is Lhe brighL area ih Lhe middle of Lhe
phoLograph. 1he disk of Lhe Milky Way cah be seeh ih Lhe brighL horizohLal bahd.
DisLahL sLars hiddeh by ihLervehihg dusL are showh ih blue while dehse sLar formihg
regiohs of gas ahd dusL are showh ih red. 1he area showh spahs 80 lighL-years from
side Lo side (NASA}|lL-CalLech}Susah SLolovy (SSC-CalLech)).
clouds where Ihey orm, oIhers measured Ihe disIances Io older sIars and sIars
IhaI had died. AsIronomers observed IhaI Ihese phenomena are noI ound aI jusI
any disIance rom us, buI raIher are clumped aI cerIain disIances. By connecIing
Ihese doIs we see IhaI are our Calaxy's disk isn'I ormless buI raIher has closely
wrapped arms making many Iurns around Ihe galacIic cenIer. Erom Ihese daIa,
asIronomers can draw a picIure or Ihe irsI Iime, o whaI our Calaxy, our home,
really looks like.
ConIinuing Ihe work irsI seriously begun by Herschel, asIronomers now
survey disIanI sIars using Ielescopes sensiIive Io cerIain wavelengIhs o inrared
lighI. Unlike visible lighI, mid-inrared radiaIion passes easily Ihrough Ihe
inIervening inIersIellar medium. UnorIunaIely, Ihe same mid-inrared IhaI
passes Ihrough dusI and gas is easily absorbed by waIer vapor in our aImosphere
and so Ihis disIanI sIarlighI rom Ihe hearI o our Calaxy is blocked in iIs lasI ew
miles o Iravel and never reaches Ihe surace o Ihe EarIh.
SIarIing in 2003, asIronomers have used Ihe inrared SpiIzer Space Telescope
orbiIing ouIside Ihe EarIh's aImosphere Io peer Ihrough Ihe inIersIellar dusI and
inally map Ihe disIanI sIrucIure o our Calaxy. They do Ihis by counIing Ihe
number o sIars in Ihe Milky \ay's band along lines o sighI aI dierenI angles
rom Ihe galacIic cenIer. \here Ihe number o sIars increases, Ihey know Ihey
ligure 1.18 ArLisL's cohcepLioh of Lhe Milky Way based oh SpiLzer observaLiohs. 1he
posiLioh of Lhe Suh is showh as well as Lhe hames of ahd disLahces Lo Lhe spiral arms
(NASA}|lL-CalLech}k. HurL (SSC-CalLech)).
are looking down Ihe lengIh o a spiral arm. Their new map shows we live in Ihe
ouIskirIs o a vasI pinwheel o Iwo IighIly wound arms IhaI spiral o a cenIral bar
cenIered on Ihe galacIic bulge like a propeller Irailing sIreamers. Frior Io Ihese
observaIions no one knew how many arms our Calaxy even had. Now we know
Ihis gianI whirlpool o sIars, gas, and dusI is nearly 100 Ihousand lighI-years in
diameIer and only abouI six Ihousand lighI-years Ihick. Shrink iI down and our
Calaxy's disk has Ihe same dimensions as Ihe quarIer in your pockeI.
OuI here aI Ihe locaIion o Ihe EarIh and Sun, hal way rom Ihe galacIic
cenIer, Ihe average disIance beIween sIars is abouI seven lighI-years. In Iowards
our Calaxy's bulge Ihe average disIance shrinks Io only one. To geI a sense o
whaI Ihese disIances acIually eel like, ind a single grain o sand and place iI in
Ihe palm o your hand: Ihis is Ihe Sun. Now imagine anoIher grain o sand, jusI
like our Sun, 20 miles (32 kilomeIers) away. This is Ihe separaIion beIween sIars
in our parI o Ihe Calaxy. Now imagine every 20 miles anoIher single grain o
sand unIil you have over a hundred billion grains in a vasI spinning disk
sIreIching rom here Io Ihe Moon. Close Io Ihe galacIic cenIer (hal way Io Ihe
Moon in our 'sand casIle galaxy') Ihe disIance beIween sand grains shrinks Io less
Ihan a mile wiIh Ihousands crammed inIo Ihe inner ew miles o our model. This
is Ihe Milky \ay.
Now look back aI Ihe single grain o sand siIIing in your palm. On Ihis same
scale Ihe EarIh would siI on Ihe Iip o your index inger where iI would be ar Ioo
small Io be seen wiIh Ihe naked eye. LighI, Ihe asIesI Ihing in Ihe Universe,
would Iake a liIIle over eighI minuIes Io Iravel Ihe lengIh o your hand in Ihis
model. EveryIhing we know abouI Ihe Calaxy and Ihe resI o Ihe Universe Iravels
Io us aI Ihis snail's pace. There are around our hundred billion sIars in our
Calaxy, and Ihere are believed Io be around a hundred billion oIher galaxies in
Ihe Universe, and as ar as we know rom Ihe inormaIion broughI Io us by
sIarlighI, ours is Ihe only speck o sand around which lie has arisen Io
conIemplaIe Ihis immensiIy.
EvenIually Ihe summer ades Io all and Ihe olks who came Io Ihe mounIains
and oresIs head back Io work and school. CiIy lighIs Iake our minds away rom
Ihe sky and winIer's cold Iakes away any inal IhoughIs o lingering ouIside
under Ihe sIars. The brighI sIarry shores o Ihe summer Milky \ay have long ago
seI behind Ihe Sun when spring inally rolls around and a special opporIuniIy
begins Io presenI iIsel. Since Ihe EarIh is a sphere, Ihere should be some place on
iI, aI a cerIain Iime o year, where Io sIand uprighI on Ihe EarIh would mean you
were sIanding uprighI in Ihe Calaxy.
8
Think o Ihe globes IhaI used Io siI on your grade school Ieacher's desk. As I
looked aI Ihose globes, I disIincIly remember wondering whaI iI would be like i I
8
SIricIly speaking, since Ihere is no 'up' or 'down' in space, whaI I mean is IhaI you will be
sIanding perpendicular Io Ihe disk o Ihe Calaxy, parallel Io iIs spin axis, wiIh Ihe enIire disk
arrayed around you.
could sIand aI Ihe NorIh Fole and have Ihe enIire EarIh laid ouI beneaIh me
knowing I was sIanding on Iop o Ihe world. I'd know I had accomplished Ihis,
IhaI I had reached Ihe NorIh Fole, i I could look up and see Folaris, Ihe NorIh
SIar, direcIly above me. Folaris is an average looking sIar in our sky, over 400
lighI-years away in deep inIersIellar space, which only by chance is locaIed
direcIly over Ihe norIh pole o Ihe EarIh.
In a similar way Ihere is also a poinI in deep inIergalacIic space IhaI is locaIed
direcIly above Ihe norIh pole o our Calaxy. Erom our vanIage poinI on EarIh,
Ihis NorIh CalacIic Fole is locaIed in Ihe direcIion o Ihe consIellaIion o Coma
Berenices. I we could go Io IhaI place on EarIh where Coma Berenices passes
direcIly overhead Ihen we should see Ihe Milky \ay arrayed ouI around us, iIs
band ringing Ihe horizon, even i jusI ainIly visible Ihrough Ihe obscuring haze
o our aImosphere.
This eecI happens along Ihe line o 27 degrees norIh laIiIude (similarly, Ihe
SouIh CalacIic Fole passes overhead or Ihose aI 27 degrees souIh laIiIude). In Ihe
norIhern hemisphere Ihis passes Ihrough Ihe souIhernmosI exIremiIy o Ihe
conIinenIal UniIed SIaIes. The place where iI does so, wiIh Ihe darkesI skies and
IhaI's reely available Io Ihe public, jusI happens Io be Ihrough Big Bend NaIional
Fark in souIhwesI Texas along Ihe Rio Crande. The Iime o year Io be Ihere and
see Ihis galacIic evenI is rom Eebruary Io April, when Ihe weaIher is cool and Ihe
winds Iypically bring clear skies.
In early March I seI ouI Io visiI Big Bend NaIional Fark and see Ihis evenI IhaI
happens every year buI or which I had never heard anyone describe seeing. The
irsI Ihing I realize on my journey is IhaI Big Bend is on Ihe way Io nowhere.
Erom Ihe nearesI dusIy Iown iI's sIill anoIher hour o sun-baked driving jusI Io
reach Ihe park boundary and rom Ihere anoIher hour sIill Io reach Ihe Iurn-o
figure 1.19 1he galaxy M10 ih Lhe
cohsLellaLioh virgo is cohsidered ah excellehL
cahdidaLe as Lhe Milky Way's Lwih. Nearly a
millioh lighL-years away iL shows how alieh
asLrohomers ih a disLahL galaxy mighL see Lhe
Milky Way (Swahsoh}8lock }AOl}KlNO}NSl).
figure 1.20 NCC 81 is also a galaxy
believed Lo be much like our owh. lh our skies
we see iL edge oh ahd so are LreaLed Lo a view
of iLs disk full of sLars, dark dusL clouds, ahd
brighL blue clusLer of hew formihg sLars
(KlNO}WlN}NSl}NOAO).
figure 1.21 lorLioh of Lhe NaLiohal lark Service map for 8ig 8ehd NaLiohal lark ih
wesLerh 1exas. 1he backcouhLry campsiLes souLh of Lhe Chisos MouhLaihs have perhaps
Lhe darkesL, leasL lighL polluLed skies of ahy park ih Lhe cohLihehLal hiLed SLaLes
(NaLiohal lark Service).
or Ihe place I'm heading. AI every sIep o my Iravels inIo \esI Texas' Back-o-
Beyond Ihe roads have goIIen smaller unIil now I ind mysel Ien miles (16 km)
down Ihe narrow, gravel, backcounIry road IhaI is Ihe inal leg o Ihis expediIion.
My knuckles are whiIe rom negoIiaIing boulders while rocks bang againsI Ihe
underside o my Iruck and dry, prickly ocoIillo branches rake Ihe lengIh o my
Eord as Ihe dirI road geIs narrower sIill. BuI Ihis drive is worIh iI because when
Ihe dusI inally seIIles aI Ihe spoI Ihe park service has Iold me abouI, I have an
uninIerrupIed view o Ihe enIire horizon arIher away rom any lighIs Ihan I
have ever been beore in Ihe conIinenIal U.S.
As Ihe aIernoon Iurns laIe Ihe sky clears o clouds and I am conscious o Ihe
weighI o Ihe brighI blue hemisphere hanging over my head. More imporIanIly,
Ihe sky is once again a solid blue all Ihe way Io Ihe ground. The clariIy o Ihe sky
is a big issue here in Big Bend. Depending upon Ihe direcIion o Ihe wind, Ihe
view here can exIend or whaI seems hundreds o miles or alIernaIely shrink
down Io no more Ihan a dirIy ew as smog rom disIanI ciIies and power planIs
muddies up Ihe sky. BuI Ihe wind is
ouI o Ihe clean, cool norIh Ioday so
Ihere should be very liIIle dusI and
haze Io obscure Ihe sIars as Ihey rise
above Ihe horizon. I have chosen a
nighI when Ihere will be no Moon
Io inIerere wiIh Ihe lighI o Ihe
ainIesI sIars and in Ihis place no
ciIy lighIs should be visible Io my
eyes. These are all imporIanI acIors
because or Ihe evenI I'm here Io
see, Ihe glories o Ihe Milky \ay
will be ound enIirely aI Ihe horizon
where Ihere musI be absoluIely
noIhing Io compeIe wiIh Ihe lighI
o Ihe sIars.
Once Ihe Sun seIs and IwilighI
ades I am noI disappoinIed, over-
head Ihe sky is ablaze wiIh Ihou-
sands o luminous sIars. Erom my
backcounIry camping spoI Ihere
isn'I even Ihe lighI o anoIher
camper. I cannoI see a single sIreeI
lighI or house lighI. On Ihe disIanI
hills, even across Ihe Rio Crande
inIo Mexico, Ihere isn'I a single
lighI o a arm or Iown. No remoIe
radio Iowers lash red on Ihe disIanI
hillside, nor do I see even Ihe ainI-
esI glow o a ar away ciIy over Ihe
dark horizon. To my surprise, Ihere
aren'I even Ihe lighIs o airplanes passing overhead. I suspecI Iheir absence is due
Io Big Bend's posiIion in Texas where Ihe border river loops souIhward, orcing
any poIenIial overhead lighIs Io pass in and ouI o U.S. and Mexican airspace.
Eor Ihe irsI Iime in all my Iravels Ihere is noI a single source o arIiicial lighI Io
compeIe wiIh Ihe sIars in Ihe sky. The only sign I can see o Ihe modern world is
Ihe ainI sIeady lighI o a disIanI saIelliIe relecIing sunlighI o iIs surace as iI
passes by in orbiI. YeI, as dark as iI is, Ihe landscape isn'I black as all around me is
a ainI illuminaIion by Ihe lighI o Ihe disIanI sIars.
SiIIing on Ihe IailgaIe o my Iruck, cupping a sIeaming mug o coee in my
hands, I look Io Ihe wesI and see Ihe lighI o Ihe seIIing winIer Milky \ay, a pale
sisIer Io her showy sibling in summer. In places IhaI are merely 'sorI o' dark, one
rarely sees Ihis parI o our Calaxy. I Iake anoIher warm and comorIing sip, Ihen
wrap my coaI IighIer. The clear sky possesses no clouds Io Irap in Ihe day's heaI
and Ihe nighI is already cold.
figure 1.22 1he wihLer Milky Way silhoueLLes
ah ocoLillo as seeh from Lhe kobbers koosL
backcouhLry campsiLe ih 8ig 8ehd NaLiohal
lark. 1he cohsLellaLioh of Orioh ahd Lhe faihL
pihkish glow of Lhe Orioh Nebula are visible Lo
Lhe upper righL, |usL beheaLh Lhe bahd of Lhe
Calaxy (1. Nordgreh).
MidnighI approaches and Ihe winIer Milky \ay nears Ihe horizon. I look up
and see Ihe specIacular sighI o Coma Berenices near Ihe zeniIh. \haI does Ihis
consIellaIion look like7 I can'I really say. II's one o Ihose consIellaIions
unorIunaIe enough Io look like noIhing, consulI Ihe sIar maps and iI's jusI Ihree
sIars o so-so brighIness joined in a righI-angle (noI even a ull Iriangle). BuI iI's
noI Ihe ouIline o Ihese Ihree sIars IhaI makes Coma Berenices noIiceable, or
even now I'm noI sure which Ihree sIars I should be looking aI.
No, whaI makes Berenices specIacular is IhaI under Ihe darkesI o skies an
enormous clusIer o ainI sIars called Ihe Coma SIar ClusIer (or, jusI as
melodiously: MeloIIe 111) appears. Once every year or Iwo, I ind mysel
somewhere dark aI jusI Ihe righI Iime and I am sIarIled by iIs presence. \haI I am
looking aI is one o Ihose clusIers o newborn sIars which we saw back in
SagiIIarius, buI now nearby and much older. The cenIer o Ihis lock o sIars is only
288 lighI-years away, and Ihe sIars I see are only 400 million years old. TrilobiIes
were swimming Ihe shallow seas o EarIh when Ihese sIars were born. Under Ihe
inluence o galacIic Iides Ihese sIars have begun Io loaI away rom one anoIher
and in a ew Iens o millions o years Ihe clusIer I see will have disappeared inIo
Ihe background sIars. Eor now Ihough, Ihe NorIh CalacIic Fole lies jusI on Ihe
easIern ouIskirIs o MeloIIe 111 (Ihough o course vasIly arIher away): Ihe power
o iIs presence more in Ihe idea Ihan as an acIual Ihing Io be seen.
\iIh Iime all Ihe pieces move in unison and soon Ihe winIer Milky \ay in
Orion Iouches Ihe wesIern horizon as Ihe poinI IhaI is Ihe NorIh CalacIic Fole
reaches Ihe zeniIh. BuI IhaI's noI where I'm looking now because Io Ihe
figure 1.23 1he direcLioh Lo several
promihehL sLars ahd cohsLellaLiohs are
showh superimposed oh Lhe arLisL's
cohcepLioh of Lhe Milky Way. Wheh
lookihg Lowards Deheb we are poihLihg ih
Lhe direcLioh Lhe Suh is Lravelihg arouhd
Lhe cehLer of Lhe Calaxy. 1he cohsLellaLioh
of Cyghus LhaL spahs 30. alohg Lhe disk of
Lhe galaxy is ih Lhe direcLioh lookihg dowh
Lhe hearesL spiral arm of our Calaxy. Wheh
lookihg Lowards Lhe brighL Milky Way ih
Lhe direcLioh of SagiLLarius we are facihg
Lhe galacLic cehLer, while Lhe opposiLe
direcLioh Lowards Lhe cohsLellaLioh of
1aurus is Lhe parL of Lhe Milky Way poihLihg
direcLly away from our Calaxy's cehLer.
Arouhd Lhe figure are ahgles of galacLic
lohgiLude where 0. is Lowards Lhe galacLic
cehLer ahd ahgles ihcrease as you look
alohg Lhe bahd of Lhe Milky Way couhLer-
clockwise (1. Nordgreh, (base map) NASA}
|lL-CalLech}k. HurL (SSC-CalLech)).
souIheasI I can begin Io make ouI a ainI glow backlighIing Ihe disIanI hills. AI
irsI iI looks like greaI banks o sIeam rising o Ihe disIanI Rio Crande unIil
suddenly iI occurs Io me IhaI Ihey would have Io be reaching Ihousands o eeI
inIo Ihe dark nighI sky. All aI once I see iI or whaI iI is: iI's Ihe irsI ainI lighI o
SagiIIarius and Cygnus rising along Ihe enIire easIern horizon in unison. How
oIen have I marveled aI Ihe beauIy o a sunrise when beore me now is noI jusI
one sunrise, buI a billion7 I geI down o my Iruck and sIep ouI inIo Ihe ield o
brush beside my camp. Beore me I inally see whaI I have driven all Ihis way Io
experience: Ihe Milky \ay is banding Ihe horizon and sIanding here under a
sIarry sky I know IhaI I am sIanding uprighI in Ihe Calaxy.
I look Io Ihe souIheasI Iowards SagiIIarius and sIare across Ihe gap beIween
spiral arms Iowards Iwo disIanI bands, Ihe nearby ScuIum-CenIaurus Arm and
Ihe much more disIanI (and slighIly less euphonious) Three-kiloparsec Arm. The
gas and dusI IhaI low Ihrough each, blocks Ihe sIarlighI o whaI lies beyond. BuI
Io my eyes and Io my imaginaIion iI doesn'I maIIer. Eor behind boIh is Ihe
disIanI glow o Ihe galacIic bulge and iIs lighI o Ien billion suns shines
unimpeded as, in my mind's eye, iIs 2S,000 years-old lighI illuminaIes my ace. I
raise my leI arm sIraighI ouI rom my body and Io Ihe norIheasI I poinI Io
Cygnus where Ihe Sun is now heading in iIs 2S0 million year voyage around Ihe
cenIer o Ihe Calaxy. The Milky \ay is brighI here because I am poinIing sIraighI
figure 1.24 1he Milky Way wraps arouhd me as Lo righL ahd lefL l cah poihL Lo where
our Suh has come from ahd Lowards where our Solar SysLem is headihg ih iLs orbiL
arouhd Lhe galacLic cehLer before me (1. Nordgreh).
down Ihe Orion Spur: Ihe local spiral arm IhaI harbors our Sun. I raise my righI
arm and I poinI souIhwesI in space Io where Ihe Sun, EarIh and I are mosI
recenIly leaving. This parI o Ihe Milky \ay rarely makes iI above Ihe horizon or
us asIronomers in NorIh America. EarIher souIh in Hawaii and beyond Ihis parI
o Ihe galaxy Iowards Ihe consIellaIions o Vela and Carina is specIacularly brighI
because we are looking down a long bend o Ihe SagiIIarius Arm, Ihe nexI closesI
arm Io our own.
Behind me Iowards Orion, and Ihe horns o Taurus Ihe Bull, Ihe Milky \ay is
ainI because we are looking sIraighI away rom Ihe greaI bulk o sIars in our
Calaxy. Here are Ihe cold ouIer reaches o Ihe Calaxy where observaIions reveal
some sIrange orm o dark maIIer makes everyIhing revolve around our Calaxy
asIer Ihan graviIy says iI should. Above me I look up ouI o Ihe plane o Ihe
galaxy and sIare inIo Ihe vasIness o inIergalacIic space. Invisible Io my sighI, buI
noI Io my imaginaIion are clusIers upon clusIers o noI jusI sIars buI enIire
galaxies. The Coma and Virgo ClusIers o Calaxies are up Ihere: hundreds o
galaxies, each millions upon millions o lighI-years away. BeneaIh me Ihrough
Ihe invisible EarIh aI my eeI are Ihe SouIh CalacIic Fole and a million oIher
galaxies arIher away sIill.
I have come a long way Io be here and see Ihis, and a shiver runs down my
spine. On Ihis nighI, in Ihis place, and or Ihis momenI, Ihe Calaxy is laid ouI
beore me. My horizon exIends a quarIer million lighI-years in each direcIion,
and I know exacIly where I am in Ihe Universe. I am sIanding sIraighI and Iall in
my Calaxy, Ihe Milky \ay, my home.
See for yourseIf: our GaIaxy
inocuIars
FoinI a simple pair o binoculars or a spoIIing 'scope aI any o Ihe objecIs
described here and you will noI be disappoinIed. Binoculars are a wonderully
simple and cheap way Io observe Ihe sky, you don'I need an expensive or
complicaIed Ielescope. \haI you do need, however, is a sIable meIhod o
holding Ihe binoculars. Use a camera Iripod i you have one, or grip Ihe
binoculars in boIh hands while resIing boIh elbows on a Iable, bench, or railing.
Scorpius and Antares
In summer look Io Ihe souIh or souIheasI 0 minuIes aIer sunseI or Ihe
consIellaIion o Scorpius. AnIares, Ihe brighI, orange sIar, aI Ihe hearI o Scorpius
is Ihe irsI parI o Ihis consIellaIion you will see. Erom AnIares look upwards and
Io Ihe wesI (Io Ihe righI as you ace souIh) and you see a crossbar o Ihree almosI
equally brighI sIars. This is Ihe head o Ihe scorpion. Erom AnIares down and Io
Ihe easI your eyes ollow a chain o Ien sIars IhaI curve Ioward Ihe horizon and
Ihen hook back up Io a seI o sIars in Ihe shape o a sIinger. The consIellaIion is
almosI Iwo ull hand-widIhs side by side on Ihe sky (Eigure 1.4).
Sagittarius and the heart of the MiIky Way
EasI o Scorpius (Io Ihe leI as you look souIh) is Ihe gianI IeapoI aI Ihe hearI o
SagiIIarius. II has a main body o our sIars wiIh a Iriangular lid ormed by a iIh.
Two addiIional sIars on Ihe leI orm a handle while anoIher on Ihe righI orms a
Iriangle or a spouI. The Milky \ay appears as sIeam rising norIhward ouI o Ihe
spouI o Ihe IeapoI. I you are in Ihe souIhern parI o Ihe counIry or in a very
dark locaIion wiIh no ciIy lighIs Io Ihe souIh, Ihen Ihis region o Ihe Milky \ay
will be Ihe brighIesI parI o Ihe band and you will evenIually see IhaI Ihe enIire
area beIween SagiIIarius and AnIares is aglow wiIh Ihe lighI o disIanI sIars.
ThroughouI Ihis diuse glow are also numerous dark paIches caused by Ihe
dense clouds o dusI blocking Ihe lighI o Ihe disIanI sIars behind Ihem.
The Lagoon NebuIa (Messier 8 or M8)
In summer, look aI Ihe Ihree sIars IhaI make up Ihe spouI o SagiIIarius: Iwo sIars
across and a Ihird hanging down below. Imagine IhaI Ihird sIar swings up around
Ihe hinge ormed by Ihe Iop Iwo sIars o Ihe spouI. \here Ihe Ihird sIar comes Io
resI aI iIs highesI poinI Ihere's a small brighI concenIraIed cloud. This is Ihe
Lagoon Nebula. II is a cloud o mosIly hydrogen gas hanging beIween Ihe sIars,
abouI 100 lighI-years across. Many o Ihe oIher Iiny knoIs and clouds you see
wiIh Ihe naked-eye in Ihis parI o Ihe sky are in acI clusIers o newborn sIars,
wiIh hundreds packed inIo a space only a dozen lighI-years across (Eigure 1.4).
In winIer, Ihe same Iype o objecI as Ihe Lagoon can be seen in Ihe Orion
Nebula (M42) in Ihe consIellaIion o Orion. Eind Ihe line o Ihree equally brighI
and equally spaced sIars o Orion's belI low Io Ihe souIh. Erom Ihe middle sIar o
Ihe belI, a chain o Ihree dimmer sIars hang down orming a sword. The middle
sIar o Ihe sword is uzzier Ihan Ihe surrounding sIars. The uzziness is due Io iI
being a cloud o inIersIellar hydrogen gas jusI like Ihe Lagoon. BoIh are greaI
objecIs Io view Ihrough binoculars.
The Summer TriangIe
Due easI in summer is Ihe Summer Triangle: Ihree nearly equally brighI sIars,
each rom a dierenI consIellaIion. AlIair is in Ihe consIellaIion o Aquila, Ihe
Eagle, and is Ihe souIhernmosI o Ihe Ihree lying jusI beneaIh Ihe easIern edge o
Ihe Milky \ay's band. II is closely lanked by Iwo dimmer sIars. Deneb in
Cygnus (Ihe Swan or NorIhern Cross) is Ihe norIhern corner o Ihe Iriangle and
lies direcIly along Ihe Milky \ay aI Ihe norIhern edge o Ihe greaI dark riI, or
void, in Ihe Milky \ay's brighI band. Halway beIween Ihe Iwo and wesI o Ihe
Milky \ay (which when looking easI places iI high overhead) is Vega in Ihe
consIellaIion o Lyra, Ihe Harp. These Ihree sIars are Ihe brighIesI sIars during Ihe
Hold Lhe sLar map above your head wiLh Lhe Lop of Lhe page poihLihg horLh. lor Lhose aL
mid-laLiLudes wiLhih Lhe cohLihehLal hiLed SLaLes, Lhe cehLer of Lhe map marked wiLh a
+ will show Lhe view direcLly overhead (Lhe zehiLh) aL Lhe ihdicaLed Limes. lor Lhose
farLher horLh, ob|ecLs oh Lhe map may appear a liLLle farLher souLh, for Lhose farLher
souLh, ob|ecLs will appear a liLLle farLher horLh.
summer monIhs and Ihus are some o Ihe only sIars visible rom ciIies and brighI
Iowns. In acI Ihe Summer Triangle only became o noIe during Ihe lasI cenIury
as lighI polluIion bloIIed ouI all oIher sIars in urban skies excepI Ihese Ihree.
The MiIky Way
In summer Ihe Milky \ay appears as a ainI paIchy band running generally
norIh-souIh rom SagiIIarius up Ihrough Cygnus overhead and norIh Io Ihe
consIellaIion o Cassiopeia IhaI appears as a large '\' Io Ihe norIheasI. A large
dark dusI lane spliIs Ihe band inIo Iwo parallel parIs or mosI o Ihe disIance
beIween SagiIIarius and Cygnus. The band o Ihe Milky \ay is aI iIs brighIesI in
boIh SagiIIarius and Cygnus and geIs noIiceably dimmer Iowards Cassiopeia. As
summer Iurns Io winIer Ihe band o Ihe Milky \ay becomes more easI-wesI and
geIs even ainIer. By winIer and early spring, Ihe Milky \ay runs Ihrough Ihe
consIellaIions o Taurus, pasI Ihe Iop o Orion and down Ihrough Cemini. These
parIs o Ihe Milky \ay are iIs ainIesI and oIen are only visible rom very dark
locaIions. Slowly pan a pair o binoculars along Ihe band o Ihe Milky \ay Io see
Ihe wonders hidden Ihere.
The gIobuIar cIuster in HercuIes (Messier 13 or M13)
Look Io Ihe summer sky and see Ihe Big Dipper Io Ihe norIh. The handle o Ihe
Dipper 'arcs' Io Ihe brighI orange sIar ArcIurus. Erom ArcIurus, look back Iowards
Vega in Ihe summer Iriangle. Your line o sighI crosses Iwo consIellaIions equally
spaced along Ihis line. One consIellaIion is a crown o sIars in Ihe shape o a 'C':
Corona Borealis. The oIher consIellaIion is a recIangle IhaI is Ihe body o
Hercules. Along Ihe long side o Ihe recIangle acing Iowards ArcIurus Ihere is,
jusI barely visible under absoluIely dark skies wiIh no Moon, a ainI uzzy doI.
This is Ihe CreaI Clobular ClusIer in Hercules, M13. You can see M13 or yoursel
wiIh binoculars, buI only wiIh sIeady supporI.
The North GaIactic PoIe
The NorIh CalacIic Fole is Ihe poinI in inIergalacIic space direcIly above Ihe
norIh pole o Ihe Milky \ay Calaxy. To ind iI, look or Ihe greaI empIy region
beneaIh Ihe handle o Ihe Big Dipper locaIed Iowards Ihe wesI in summer, or easI
in winIer. I you are in a very dark locaIion, you will see in Ihis area a very large
(almosI a ull hand-widIh wide) smaIIering o ainI sIars. This is Ihe Coma SIar
ClusIer (also called MeloIIe 111) lying 288 lighI-years away in Ihe direcIion o
Ihe consIellaIion o Coma Berenices. The NorIh CalacIic Fole is locaIed on Ihe
easIern edge o Ihis clusIer.
further reading
Cosmos by Carl Sagan (183)
Random House, ISBN 03471S6
BcyonJ thc Bluc Horzon. Myths anJ LcgcnJs oj thc Sun, Moon, Stars, anJ Plancts by
E.C. Krupp (12)
Oxord UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 01S078004
Dcccmhcr's ChlJ. A Bool oj Chumash Oral Narratvcs by Thomas C. Blackburn
(180)
UniversiIy o Caliornia Fress, ISBN 0S20040880
SpiIzer Space Telescope
hIIp:}}www.spiIzer.calIech.edu}
Abrams FlaneIarium Sky Calendar
hIIp:}}www.pa.msu.edu}abrams}
NaIional Fark Service NighI Sky Team
hIIp:}}www.naIure.nps.gov}air}lighIscapes}
See Ihe Stars Ahovc, Larth Bclow page on Eacebook or Iravel and asIronomical
updaIes.
hIIp:}}www.acebook.com}
CehLer of our Milky Way Calaxy from NASA's Lhree greaL space observaLories: Hubble,
SpiLzer (lhfrared) ahd Chahdra (X-ray). Our cehLral supermassive blackhole (Sgr A*) is
Lhe brighL khoL aL Lhe boLLom (NASA, ESA, SSC, CXC, ahd S1Scl).
2
Black hole 5un
Usually t s a ht oj a trcl to lccp your lnowlcJgc jrom hlnJng you. But
Jurng an cclpsc t s casy. What you scc s much morc convncng than any
wlJ-cyc thcory you may lnow.
Annie Dillard, Total Lclpsc
A hush alls as Ihe shadow sweeps over Ihe crowd beside Ihe road. My waIch says
11:34 MounIain DaylighI Time, shorIly beore noon, and drivers all over Crand
TeIon NaIional Fark in wesIern \yoming have pulled o onIo Ihe edges o
roadways. The daylighI dims and a sIrange IwilighI Iakes hold, whaI's been
growing or an hour comes on like a sudden curIain's all in Ihe inal seconds.
\hen aI lasI Ihe Moon passes compleIely beIween EarIh and Sun, Ihe parIing
rays o sunlighI sIream down on me Ihrough valleys along Ihe shadowed lunar
limb. Beads o diamond lighI Iwinkle and shine where Ihe Sun disappears, Ihey
are sIrung IogeIher on a ghosIly ring encircling Ihe silhoueIIed Moon.
Then iI's gone.
Hal way beIween souIh and easI, horizon and zeniIh, a greaI gaping black
hole sIares down on me ouI o whaI's now an opalescenI summer sky. Eor Iwo
minuIes and 20 seconds I sIand in Ihe ull shadow o Ihe Moon. Fale, pearly
sIreamers o Ihe solar corona - Ihe high, hoI upper aImosphere o Ihe Sun - ly
like wind blown hair around Ihe darkened disk. AI all oIher Iimes Ihey are
compleIely losI wiIhin Ihe blinding glare o Ihe solar surace. Venus, Mars and
JupiIer appear amid winIer consIellaIions I haven'I seen or nearly hal a year. I
have spenI my enIire lie looking up aI Ihe sky and in all IhaI Iime I have never
seen anyIhing else as awe inspiring as a IoIal eclipse o Ihe Sun.
ThaI Ihis evenI won'I happen unIil AugusI 21, 2017 makes iI all Ihe more
figure 2.1 1he AugusL 11, 1 LoLal
solar eclipse seeh souLh of 8udapesL,
Huhgary. 1he faihL solar aLmosphere is
ohly visible durihg Lhose momehLs
wheh Lhe Mooh's darkehed disk
compleLely blocks Lhe blihdihg lighL of
Lhe Suh's disk. 8righL red erupLiohs of
hydrogeh gas are visible arouhd Lhe
edge of Lhe luhar disk (1. Nordgreh).
amazing. On IhaI day, aI IhaI Iime, I know exacIly where I need Io be and where
I need Io look Io see someIhing IhaI will noI have been visible rom Ihe
conIinenIal U.S. or 38 years. This is Ihe predicIive power o science.
Each and every monIh we can see or ourselves Ihe celesIial mechanics IhaI
lead Io eclipses. The very word month relecIs Ihe orbiIal moIion o Ihe Moon
around Ihe EarIh, going rom wesI Io easI every 2.S days as viewed relaIive Io
Ihe Sun. \hile we see Ihe Moon (and everyIhing else in Ihe sky) rise in Ihe easI
and seI in Ihe wesI, Ihis moIion is really only due Io Ihe spinning o Ihe EarIh on
iIs axis. To see Ihe Irue moIion o Ihe heavens, sIep ouIside some evening when
Ihe Moon shows a beauIiul crescenI low in Ihe wesI aIer sunseI, and noIice
where iI is relaIive Io lampposIs, mounIains or buildings. Do Ihe same Ihing Ihe
ollowing nighI, aI exacIly Ihe same Iime, and you and Ihe EarIh are once more
poinIing Ihe same direcIion in space. BuI now Ihe Moon is higher in Ihe sky Io
Ihe easI (while also a liIIle aIIer as a biI more o iIs liI hemisphere is visible in Ihe
sky). The dierence in posiIion rom nighI Io nighI is abouI Ihe disIance beIween
your Ihumb and liIIle inger held ouIsIreIched aI arm's-lengIh and iI reveals Ihe
disIance Ihe Moon acIually moves Ihrough space in 24 hours.
RepeaI Ihis every nighI or Iwo weeks and you slowly see Ihe Moon march
easIward in iIs orbiI across Ihe sky, nighI by nighI revealing more o iIs sunny
surace. Two weeks aIer your irsI observaIion, Ihe ully liI Moon rises in Ihe easI
jusI as Ihe Sun seIs in Ihe wesI and you have wiInessed Ihe acIual orbiIal moIion
figure 2.2 Co ouLside each highL aL Lhe same Lime ahd you will see Lhe Mooh march
slowly easLward agaihsL Lhe lahdscape ahd backgrouhd sLars as iL orbiLs Lhe EarLh. Each
highL a liLLle biL more of Lhe suhliL hemisphere is also visible from EarLh makihg Lhe
Mooh chahge phase from Lhih crescehL Lo faL gibbous, ahd fihally full over Lhe course of
Lwo weeks (1. Nordgreh).
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o Ihe Moon hal way around our planeI. Eor Ihe nexI Iwo weeks Ihe Moon
conIinues iIs nighIly moIion rising laIer and laIer unIil nearly a monIh aIer you
sIarIed, iI rises in Ihe easI and seIs in Ihe wesI simulIaneous wiIh Ihe Sun. AI
Ihese Iimes Ihe Moon is invisible unIil a ew days laIer when iI appears as a Ihin
crescenI once more aIer sunseI.
I Ihe Moon wenI round Ihe EarIh in exacIly Ihe same plane as Ihe EarIh's
orbiI around Ihe Sun, Ihen we'd geI eclipses every monIh as Ihe Moon passed in
ronI o Ihe Sun. Sadly, Ihe Moon's orbiI is IilIed by ive and a hal degrees wiIh
respecI Io Ihe EarIh's orbiI. MosI monIhs i we could buI see Ihe Moon's
compleIely shadowed dark side we would see iI skim IanIalizingly above or
beneaIh Ihe Sun rom our vanIage poinI here on EarIh.
II is only aI Ihe momenIs when Ihe Moon's orbiI caries iI rom one side o Ihe
EarIh's orbiIal plane Io Ihe oIher (Ihe poinI o inIersecIion is called Ihe lnc oj
noJcs) and does so exacIly when Ihe line o nodes poinIs direcIly aI Ihe Sun, IhaI
we geI eclipses. This happens roughly Iwice a year. In spring, or insIance, a solar
eclipse mighI occur somewhere on Ihe EarIh as Ihe Moon passes Ihrough Ihe line
o nodes rom norIh Io souIh and Ihe Sun, Moon, and EarIh line up perecIly. As
Ihe Moon goes rom above Io below Ihe EarIh's orbiIal plane, iI casIs a dark
circular shadow IhaI moves across Ihe EarIh's daylighI hemisphere. Depending
on Ihe geomeIry o Ihe Ihree celesIial bodies, Ihe narrow band o IoIaliIy may be
no more Ihan 40 miles (6S km) wide rom norIh Io souIh. Only Ihose observers
wiIhin Ihe Ihin band IhaI Ihe shadow Iraces ouI across Ihe EarIh's surace geI Io
see Ihe ull glory o Ihe solar corona. Roughly six monIhs laIer, however, anoIher
solar eclipse happens on Ihe oIher side o Ihe EarIh's orbiI as Ihe line o nodes
once again poinIs Iowards Ihe Sun and Ihis Iime Ihe Moon passes Ihrough iI
rom souIh Io norIh.
In addiIion, Iwo weeks beore or aIer each o Ihese magniicenI alignmenIs,
lunar eclipses occur when Ihe ully illuminaIed Moon passes Ihrough Ihe line o
nodes along Ihe shadow o Ihe EarIh. Unlike IoIal solar eclipses IhaI are visible
only Io Ihose wiIhin Ihe narrow shadow band, lunar eclipses are much more
democraIic and visible Io everyone on Ihe EarIh's unliI hemisphere where Ihe
Moon is above Ihe horizon. This is whaI brings me Io Crand TeIon NaIional Fark
Ioday, AugusI 27, 2007 - almosI exacIly Ien years beore Ihe solar eclipse IhaI will
bring me back in 2017. Eor IonighI will be a lunar eclipse visible Io anyone in Ihe
wesIern UniIed SIaIes.
Ferhaps you saw me. Eor Ihe Ihree days leading up Io Ihis eclipse I was Ihe one
wiIh Ihe compass and hand-made sexIanI making measuremenIs aI each o Ihe
scenic overlooks around Ihe park. JusI as I know exacIly where I need Io look Io
see Ihe eclipsed Sun in Ihe sky Ien years rom now, IonighI I know exacIly where
I need Io look Io see Ihe Moon pass Ihrough Ihe dierenI parIs o Ihe EarIh's
shadow. In such a beauIiul locaIion as Crand TeIon NaIional Fark, I wanI Ihe
view Io be in jusI Ihe righI spoI where no parI o Ihe Moon's passage is blocked
by mounIain or Iree. In Ihe end I have decided Io come back abouI 2:00am and
seI up my equipmenI aI Ihe MounIain View TurnouI jusI norIh o Ihe Jenny Lake
Loop juncIion along Ihe TeIon Fark Road.
figure 2.4 DeLail of NaLiohal lark Service map showihg a close-up of Crahd 1eLoh NaLiohal
lark. 1he midpoihL of Lhe 2017 solar eclipse paLh of LoLaliLy is showh ih red wiLh Lhe horLherh
limiL, beyohd which ohly a parLial eclipse will be visible, showh ih black}yellow. 1he duraLioh
of LoLaliLy is giveh ih mihuLes ahd secohds sLarLihg wiLh Lhe midlihe ahd progressihg horLh
Lhrough various park pullouLs ahd lodges. 1oLaliLy is markedly shorL hear Lhe horLherh ehd of
Lhe park. 1he midlihe passes direcLly Lhrough Lhe |acksoh Hole AirporL (NaLiohal lark Service,
Eclipse lredicLiohs by lred Espehak, NASA Coddard Space llighL CehLer).
Black hole 5un 3
figure 2.5 SchemaLic of Lhe
luhar eclipse of AugusL 28,
2007. 1he pehumbra is Lhe
regioh of Lhe shadow where
ohly parL of Lhe Suh's lighL is
blocked. 1he umbra is Lhe
regioh of compleLe eclipse
(lred Espehak, NASA Coddard
Space llighL CehLer).
Like iIs showier solar sibling, lunar eclipses are also a sIrange and awe inspiring
sighI. The EarIh orever casIs a dark shadow ar ouI inIo space buI like a raven aI
nighI, Ihere is noIhing Io show IhaI iI's Ihere. Only when Ihe Moon casually
passes inIo Ihe shadow do we see Ihe ull exIenI o iIs presence. Slowly a ainI
darkening, Ihe penumbra, begins Io pass across Ihe ace o Ihe Moon. IIs shadow
is so ainI I wouldn'I noIice iI i I wasn'I paying aIIenIion. An hour aIer Ihe irsI
hinI o Ihe penumbra Iouches Ihe easIern edge o Ihe Moon (Ihe leading edge as
iI Iravels easIward Ihrough space around Ihe EarIh), I see Ihe irsI real dark brown
biIe Iaken ouI o Ihe lunar limb. This is Ihe umbra, Ihe hearI o Ihe EarIh's
shadow, and over Ihe nexI hour as iI passes across Ihe lunar disk iI is increasingly
obvious Io all buI Ihe mosI casual observer IhaI someIhing is odd. Sure, we've all
seen Ihe Moon in iIs dierenI phases each and every monIh, buI Ihis is dierenI.
The Moon shouldn'I be Ihis shape, iI looks like a cookie wiIh a biIe Iaken ouI.
UlIimaIely, Ihe enIire disk plunges inIo Ihe umbra aI which poinI Iwo
amazing Ihings happen aI once. The irsI is IhaI, where beore Ihere was hardly a
sIar in Ihe sky, suddenly a Ihousand sIars bursI orIh and Ihe Milky \ay sIreIches
Ihe enIire lengIh o Ihe celesIial vaulI. Now you may be wondering why Ihis is so
amazing. AIer all, iI's nighI, shouldn'I Ihere be sIars, and especially so in a
naIional park wiIhouI Ihe inIererence o ciIy lighIs7 \hile iI's Irue, IhaI Ihe
naIion's parks are becoming Ihe lasI remaining reuges o naIural darkness where
visiIors can view a sIar-illed sky IhaI's as sIrange and exoIic as seeing glaciers or
geysers, a ull Moon can be as brighI as an enIire ciIy. \hen Ihe Moon is ull, or
even nearly so (as iI has been or Ihe lasI several nighIs beore Ihe eclipse), iIs
relecIed sunlighI illuminaIes Ihe nighI sky jusI as brighIly as ciIy lighIs do aI
home. However, aI Ihe insIanI IhaI Ihe Moon passes IoIally wiIhin Ihe EarIh's
shadow, IhaI relecIed sunlighI virIually disappears and suddenly Ihe sIars are
revealed.
figure 2. 1he Mooh passihg
Lhrough Lhe EarLh's shadow ih
2007. 1he mulLiple images show
Lhe acLual moLioh of Lhe Mooh
Lhrough Lhe shadow ahd relaLive
Lo Lhe sLaLiohary backgrouhd
sLars (ohe of which is visible ih
Lhe upper lefL) (1. Nordgreh).
I'd orgoIIen abouI Ihis acI in all my eorIs Io geI ouI here and geI my
cameras and Ielescope seI up. Suddenly Ihe summer Milky \ay, all buI invisible
an hour ago, sIreIches clear across Ihe sky and down inIo Ihe jagged mounIain
Iops o Ihe TeIons. A meIeor suddenly blazes overhead, and in Ihe 0 minuIes o
IoIaliIy's dark I see a hal dozen leI over shooIing sIars rom Ihe Ferseid meIeor
shower IhaI peaked Iwo weeks earlier.
BuI even as sIunning as Ihis IransormaIion may be, iI's Ihe second sighI IhaI
leaves me speechless. Eor aI Ihe cenIer o Ihe sIar illed sky is an enormous blood
red Moon, and or a ew momenIs even an asIronomer drops his scienIiic calm
and is spellbound by iIs beauIy.
During a IoIal lunar eclipse Ihe Moon Iurns shades o orange and rose, burnI
umber and mahogany, iI is unlike any oIher Iime in iIs monIhly Irip around Ihe
EarIh. In my lie I've surely seen a dozen lunar eclipses and each and every Iime
Ihe color is dierenI. During Ihe lunar eclipse o December 12 I saw Ihe Moon
Iurn such a dark shade o red IhaI iI almosI compleIely disappeared in Ihe sIarry
sky. To undersIand whaI causes Ihis color, I imagine IhaI I could wiIness Ihese
same evenIs rom Ihe surace o Ihe Moon.
In my imaginaIion iI's now Iwo hours earlier, and I sIand upon a blazingly
brighI lunar landscape vaulIed by a coal black sky. The sunlighI IhaI alls around
me is merciless in iIs lighI and heaI, wiIhouI an aImosphere, iIs brilliance shines
more inIensely Ihan IhaI seen rom even Ihe mosI desolaIe IerresIrial deserI. Had
Ihe Moon an aImosphere, I'd see waves o heaI radiaIing o Ihe rocks and along
Ihe craIer rims IhaI lank me on Ihis smooIh powdered plain. In Ihe midsI o Ihe
Moon's Iwo week long period o daylighI, iI is 2S3. EahrenheiI (123. Celsius) aI
noon. All is quieI and moIionless where Ihere is no air Io carry sound or blow
dusI across Ihe disIanI mounIain peaks.
Above me and beside Ihe Sun, nearly compleIely losI wiIhin iIs glare, is Ihe
nighI-Iime EarIh. I noI or Ihe overwhelming lighI o Ihe Sun I could see Ihose
ciIy lighIs IhaI have rendered ainI sIars invisible back home. As Ihe Moon's
moIion slowly brings Ihe EarIh in ronI o Ihe Sun, I realize IhaI while everyone
Black hole 5un 41
back home is abouI Io be IreaIed Io a IoIal lunar eclipse, I alone on Ihe Moon will
wiIness a IoIal solar eclipse.
Eor Ihe irsI ew minuIes o Ihe EarIh's slow passage in ronI o Ihe Sun, Ihe
lighI IhaI alls around me gradually dims. II does so only ainIly Ihough, as Ihe
resI o Ihe solar disk is sIill so brighI. This Ihen is Ihe penumbra, IhaI irsI ainI
wisp o shadow visible back in Ihe TeIons. Slowly, Ihe brighI lighI dims as Ihe
EarIh conIinues Io cross Ihe solar disk. EvenIually Ihe Sun disappears compleIely
and suddenly darkness alls all around. This is whaI iI means Io sIand in Ihe
umbra. I look around me on Ihe lunar plain and can sIill see Ihe disIanI
mounIains shining in Ihe brillianI sun. The lunar eclipse visible back home is
sIill noI IoIal, noI unIil Ihey Ioo inally all inIo Ihe umbra and Ihe enIire
hemisphere on which I sIand is ully shadowed rom Ihe Sun.
BuI while Ihe eclipse is sIill only parIial or Ihose on EarIh, or me I am baIhed
in IoIaliIy. The EarIh appears our Iimes larger in Ihe sky Ihan Ihe Moon and Sun
do on EarIh. So while a IoIal solar eclipse may lasI only a ew minuIes back Ihere,
or lunar observers iI Iakes an hour and a hal or Ihe Sun Io Iravel behind Ihe
EarIh. \hile iI does so, I am IreaIed Io a view no EarIh-bound observer has ever
seen. Eor while Ihe Moon has no aImosphere, Ihe EarIh mosI deiniIely does. As I
sIand here on Ihe Moon, ully wiIhin Ihe shadow o Ihe EarIh, ainI sunlighI
sIreams pasI Ihe moIher planeI and lighIs up Ihe ring o aImosphere I see
separaIing Ihe nighIIime EarIh rom Ihe day. All IhaI genIle lighI passing rom
day Io nighI in Ihe dusIy aImosphere o my home world orms a reddish ring in
Ihe darkness above. I drop my eyes Io Ihe landscape around me and I am baIhed
in Ihis reddish lighI: iI is Ihe lighI o every single sunrise and sunseI happening
on EarIh aI Ihis momenI.
So, back on EarIh, when you see IhaI ruby red Moon overhead during Ihe
momenI o IoIaliIy, whaI you are seeing is Ihe blended glow rom all Ihe colors o
all Ihe sunrises and all Ihe sunseIs shining up onIo Ihe Moon and relecIed back
Io EarIh. In IhaI lighI is Ihe rising Sun heralding every new workday in small
Iowns and sprawling ciIies and every lazy Sun seIIing over crowded ciIy sIreeIs
and souIh Faciic seas.
1
BuI even as beauIiul as Ihis lunar eclipse is, I long Io reIurn here in 2017 Io see
Ihe awe inspiring specIacle o Ihe IoIal solar eclipse, 3,646 days hence. To be able
Io make such accuraIe predicIions, Io know where I need Io be along Ihe Moon's
slender shadow's paIh aI jusI Ihe righI Iime means we musI really undersIand
how Ihe Universe works. \e musI really know how Moon, EarIh and Sun move
IogeIher Ihrough space, and know iI so well IhaI we can predicI Iheir paIhs
perecIly over Ien Irips o Ihe EarIh around Ihe Sun, and 123 and a hal Irips o
Ihe Moon around Ihe EarIh. And Ihe proo or wheIher or noI we Iruly
1
The remarkably dark lunar eclipse I saw in 12 was due Io Ihe erupIion o MI. FinaIubo in
Ihe Fhilippines Ihe year beore. So much volcanic dusI and ash was senI inIo Ihe aImosphere
IhaI brillianI red sunseIs were seen all over Ihe EarIh Ihus also reducing how much sunlighI
reached Ihe Moon during Ihe IoIal lunar eclipse.
figure 2.7 Observihg ihformaLioh for Lhe LoLal luhar eclipse of Dec. 10, 2011. lor NorLh
America Lhe eclipse will occur early ih Lhe morhihg hear moohseL (lred Espehak, NASA
Coddard Space llighL CehLer: suhearLh.gsfc.hasa.gov}eclipse}eclipse.hLml).
Black hole 5un 43
figure 2.8 Observihg ihformaLioh for Lhe LoLal luhar eclipse of April 15, 2014. lor NorLh
America Lhe eclipse will occur durihg Lhe middle of Lhe highL (lred Espehak, NASA
Coddard Space llighL CehLer: suhearLh.gsfc.hasa.gov}eclipse}eclipse.hLml).
undersIand Ihis celesIial mechanics is righI Ihere above me IonighI jusI as iI will
be Ihere or all Io see on a sunny Monday morning in AugusI, Ien years rom
now.
II may sound sIrange, buI I'll be in Ihe righI spoI, aI Ihe righI Iime, looking in
Ihe righI direcIion because 400 years ago, a LuIheran asIrologer named Johannes
Kepler had an unshakable devoIion Io Cod. Eive hundred years ago, in 1S17,
MarIin LuIher nailed his S Iheses Io Ihe \iIIenberg Church door and sIarIed
Ihe spliI beIween FroIesIanI and CaIholic Churches. One o Ihe ounding IeneIs
o FroIesIanIism was IhaI during Ihe previous iIeen hundred years ChrisIianiIy
had become weighed down by successive layers o belie and pracIice IhaI had
noIhing Io do wiIh real ChrisIian aiIh. According Io Ihis Ihinking, Ihe Irue
ChrisIian should be ree Io go back Io Ihe original holy IexIs, and wiIhouI being
orced Io rely upon anoIher's auIhoriIy, undersIand Ihe CreaIor's Divine plan
wiIhouI Ihe accumulaIed millennia's worIh o misleading or misIaken
inIerpreIaIion and IranslaIion.
InIo Ihis FroIesIanI IradiIion Johannes Kepler was born in Ihe aIernoon o
December 27, 1S71, in Ihe Imperial Eree CiIy o \eil der SIadI, \urIIemberg, in
whaI is now Cermany.
2
His aIher was a mercenary, uninIeresIed in amily lie
and when Kepler was sIill young, he wenI o Io ighI and die (presumably) or
Ihe king o Naples and was never heard rom again. Young Johannes, wiIh his
broIhers and sisIer, was raised by his moIher, a harsh and inIimidaIing woman.
\hile Ihe amily was noI rich, Kepler soon made a name or himsel as being a
brillianI sIudenI and he earned a spoI in Ihe scholarship sysIem o Ihe local duke
which would pay or all his uIure educaIion and evenIually, he hoped, lead Io a
uIure in Ihe Church. Kepler was iercely devoIed Io his FroIesIanI upbringing
and educaIion, Ihe FroIesIanI IradiIion IhaI placed a paramounI undersIanding
o Cod Ihrough personal scholarship iI perecIly wiIh his brillianI and
inquisiIive mind.
In Kepler's Iime, science, like religion, was subjecI Io dogma. Eor nearly Iwo
millennia beore Kepler, knowledge o Ihe naIural world had been seen Ihrough
Ihe prism o Ihe Creek philosopher ArisIoIle. ArisIoIle had soughI Io apply order
Io Ihe naIural world and over Iime his wriIings had become Ihe inal word on Ihe
workings o NaIure. BuI ArisIoIle's philosophy was rooIed in Ihe idea IhaI Ihe
observed world could be undersIood simply by Ihinking abouI iI.
In his view Ihe world was made o our earIhly elemenIs: earIh, waIer, air, and
ire. The iIh elemenI was Ihe divine acthcr IhaI composed Ihe heavenly spheres
and sIars. Since Ihe heavens obviously rise and seI around Ihe apparenIly
sIaIionary EarIh, he concluded we musI be Ihe cenIer o Ihe Universe wiIh each
2
James A. Connor's book, Kcplcr's Wtch. An Astronomcr's Dscovcry oj Cosmc OrJcr AmJ
Rclgous War, Poltcal lntrguc, anJ thc Hcrcsy Tral oj Hs Mothcr, is an excellenI biography and
discussion o Ihe various culIural inluences IhaI produced Ihe irsI and greaIesI o
maIhemaIical asIronomers.
Black hole 5un 45
elemenI, rom earIh Io acthcr, having iIs naIural place in decreasing weighI
ouIward rom Ihis cenIer. Because elemenIs seek Iheir naIural place, componenIs
o earIh held in Ihe air aloI would always seek Io all back down when released.
The more earIh you hold aloI, Ihe more iI would seek Io reIurn Io iIs origin.
Thus is graviIy explained.
Considering whaI one can see or onesel, Ihis makes preIIy good sense (be
honesI, have you ever seen an aIom and have you ever seen or elI Ihe planeI
zipping Ihrough space around Ihe Sun7). BuI as reasonable as Ihis Iheory o
graviIy may sound, iI can be easily IesIed by dropping Iwo objecIs o diering
weighIs and seeing i Ihey acIually all aI dierenI raIes. \hile air resisIance may
keep Ihe Iwo weighIs rom alling aI exacIly Ihe same speed, Ihe resulIs are
nowhere near whaI ArisIoIle's graviIy would predicI. BuI Ihere is absoluIely no
evidence IhaI iI ever occurred Io ArisIoIle or any o his adherenIs over Ihe nexI
one Ihousand, nine hundred years, Io Iry such a IesI. In a conlicI beIween Ihe
messy world and an eleganI idea, especially an idea o ArisIoIle's, Ihe idea won.
This is noI Ihe way science works Ioday. Eor a scienIisI, and or Ihe millions o
people Ioday who board airplanes, ride in cars, or Iake medicines and Ihus rely
upon Ihe producIs o science, Ihe only Ihing IhaI maIIers is i iI works, our
Iheories abouI NaIure musI acIually maIch wiIh whaI we see in realiIy.
In Ihe mid-1200s a Dominican priesI and scholar by Ihe name o Thomas
Aquinas combined ArisIoIle's wriIings wiIh ChrisIian IexIs Io give Ihe Church a
widely accepIed physical and philosophical supporI sIrucIure. ArisIoIle's ideas o
Ihe Universe now lenI supporI Io, and were in Iurn supporIed by examples in Ihe
Bible. As a resulI, by Ihe Iime o Kepler and Calileo nearly our hundred years
laIer, Ihe principal way Io decide Ihe accuracy o a scienIiic Iheory was wheIher
iI agreed wiIh ArisIoIle (which or all inIenIs and purposes was now synonymous
wiIh saying iI agreed wiIh Ihe Bible).
BuI Ihe FroIesIanI ReormaIion caIegorically rejecIed Ihe idea o placing
personal undersIanding under Ihe yoke o accepIed inIerpreIaIion or IranslaIion.
Since Cod creaIed Ihe Universe, Kepler saw Ihe Universe as a wordless TesIamenI
relecIing Cod's will or Ihe Cosmos. Eor FroIesIanI Kepler, Ihis meanI Ihe
Universe iIsel musI be sIudied in iIs original language - Ihe language o
maIhemaIics. BuI Ihe primary purpose o Ihis sIudy had Io be undersIanding Ihe
Universe correcIly, Ihe way iI really worked (even i Ihis meanI ignoring over Iwo
Ihousand years o ArisIoIle and Ihe Church). To ail Io do so would be Io
willingly place one's own wishes or belies above Ihose o Cod's.
Kepler's CaIholic conIemporary, Calileo, also believed Ihe Heavens were
Cod's revealed plan, and Ihus should Iake precedence where conlicIs wiIh a
liIeral inIerpreIaIion o Ihe Bible arose. II is Ihis similariIy beIween Calileo's
views and Ihe FroIesIanI approach Io inIerpreIing ScripIure IhaI led direcIly Io
much o Calileo's evenIual diiculIy wiIh Ihe CaIholic Church (which was busy
aI IhaI Iime waging a spiriIual war Io crush FroIesIanIism wiIh Ihe CounIer-
ReormaIion). Eor neiIher o Ihese men was Ihe quesI Io undersIand Ihe Heavens
ever a baIIle o science versus religion, as is oIen porIrayed Ioday. BoIh were
devouIly religious, Iheir single minded deIerminaIion Io rejecI Ihe accepIed
dogma and auIhoriIy o over Iwo Ihousand years was simply an aIIempI Io
undersIand Iheir Cod and His plan as closely as possible.
Kepler IhoughI he had aI lasI ound Ihis undersIanding in Ihe orbiIs o Ihe
planeIs. In Kepler's Iime only seven planeIs were known: Ihe Moon, Mercury,
Venus, Sun, Mars, JupiIer and SaIurn.
3
The widely accepIed ordering o Ihis
Universe was ArisIoIle's EarIh-cenIric model as inIerpreIed maIhemaIically by
FIolemy in Ihe irsI cenIury A.D. Over Ihe nexI one and a hal millennia, more
and more precise observaIions o planeIary moIions led Io layer upon layer o
ever more complicaIed models o Ihis Universe. The mosI imporIanI qualiIy o
FIolemy's Universe was IhaI Ihe EarIh was uIIerly moIionless aI iIs cenIer. The
EarIh did noI go around Ihe Sun, iI did noI Iurn on iIs axis. The moIion o Ihe
Sun across Ihe sky was liIerally IhaI: Ihe moIion o Ihe Sun. This is acIually Ihe
simplesI answer Io whaI we observe each and every day.
On average iI Iakes 24 hours or Ihe Sun Io move once around Ihe EarIh, and
so iI musI be Iraveling on a circle or sphere IhaI carries iI around Ihe EarIh wiIh a
period o 24 hours. Likewise Ihe Moon also moves around Ihe EarIh, buI in order
Io rise nearly one hour laIer every nighI iI has Io revolve around Ihe EarIh wiIh a
period o abouI 2S hours.
And whaI abouI Ihe sIars7 Look aI Ihe sIars each nighI aI exacIly Ihe same
Iime aIer Ihe Sun goes down and you will noIice IhaI rom nighI Io nighI Ihe
sIars slowly creep wesIward behind Ihe seIIing Sun. In Ihis way, Ihe
consIellaIions we see in summer's evening sky (SagiIIarius and Scorpius) slowly
give way Io Taurus, Orion, and Cemini in winIer evenings. Eor Ihe sIars Io do
Ihis, Ihe celesIial sphere IhaI carries Ihe sIars musI circle Ihe EarIh rom easI Io
wesI asIer Ihan Ihe Sun. The period o Ihe sIars' orbiI is Ihereore noI 24 hours
like Ihe Sun, buI raIher 23 hours and S6 minuIes.
And Ihen Ihere are Ihe planeIs IhaI wander againsI Ihese sIars, slowly moving
Ihrough Ihe consIellaIions o Ihe Zodiac. To do Ihis, Ihey musI be on spheres
IhaI circle Ihe EarIh wiIh yeI anoIher period. The raIe wiIh which each does so is
again noI 24 hours, buI raIher some slighIly slower raIe IhaI leIs each move
slowly easIward Ihrough Ihe Zodiac, each aI iIs own peculiar raIe.
To add inal insulI Io injury, careul observaIion o Ihe precise posiIions o Ihe
planeIs shows IhaI Iheir easIward moIion isn'I even consIanI. SomeIimes a
planeI will slow, sIop, reverse iIs direcIion awhile, Ihen sIop again and conIinue
on as beore (all o Ihis happening while sIill circling Ihe EarIh once a day). To
accounI or Ihis rctrograJc moIion IhaI every planeI buI Venus and Mercury
experiences, Ihe planeIs were placed on small circular paIhs (called epicycles)
where Ihe cenIer o Ihe epicycle was acIually Ihe Ihing carried round Ihe EarIh
3
AI IhaI Iime, a 'planeI' was simply someIhing IhaI wandered Ihrough Ihe background sIars.
The exacI idenIiIies o Ihe 'known planeIs' acIually depended on wheIher or noI you IhoughI
Ihe EarIh was Ihe cenIer o Ihe Universe. I you did, Ihen EarIh wasn'I a planeI, buI Ihe Moon
and Sun were. I you didn'I, Ihen Ihe Sun was no longer a planeI and Ihe EarIh was insIead.
Black hole 5un 47
wiIh a period a liIIle less Ihan 24 hours (buI sIill more Ihan 23 hours and S6
minuIes).
Through Ihis complicaIed series o epicycles and spheres, Ihe FIolemaic
model o Ihe Universe could be made Io approximaIely maIch whaI was
acIually seen. BuI wiIh every new improvemenI in observaIional precision, new
layers o circles and cycles had Io be added Io keep Ihe greaI whirling model in
line wiIh realiIy.
In 1S43, nearly Iwo Ihousand years aIer ArisIoIle's deaIh and nearly IhirIy
years beore Kepler's birIh, Nicholas Copernicus simpliied Ihe Universe. His
model placed all o Ihese bodies in perecIly circular orbiIs around Ihe Sun, wiIh
only Ihe Moon leI circling Ihe EarIh. The nearly common period o 24 hours
required or every oIher objecI in Ihe Universe, was now simply Ihe EarIh Iurning
once on iIs axis. All Ihe slighI variaIions in period were now easily due Io Ihe
speed o Ihe heavenly bodies and Iheir disIance rom Ihe Sun. \hile Ihe new
model oIen predicIed Ihe posiIions o Ihe Moon and planeIs no beIIer Ihan Ihe
old sysIem, iI had Ihe beneiI o eleganI simpliciIy.
\iIh Ihis newound order, a person o a philosophical mind mighI Ihen ask:
\hy are Ihe planeIs aI Ihe disIance Ihey are ound and why are Ihere only six
(now IhaI Ihe Moon was classiied as someIhing else)7
Kepler IhoughI he ound Ihe answer in Ihe ive perecI FyIhagorean solids,
which he IhoughI could be made Io iI perecIly in Ihe gaps beIween Ihe
planeIs.
4
\iIh only ive possible solids Ihere could be only six possible planeIs
and so or Ihe irsI Iime in Ihe hisIory o human IhoughI he believed he had
ound Ihe hidden proo or Cod's blueprinI or Ihe Heavens. \hen Kepler
published his Mystcrum Cosmographcum in 1S6 he became insIanIly amous as
Ihe man who had discerned Cod's ramework or Ihe Universe.
In keeping wiIh his deep-held convicIion in Ihe FroIesIanI ideal, Kepler spenI
Ihe nexI decade seeking Ihe observaIional evidence IhaI would prove IhaI his
undersIanding o Cod's will was correcI. In Tycho Brahe, Ihe preeminenI
asIronomical observer o Ihe day, and Ihe lasI greaI asIronomer beore Ihe
invenIion o Ihe Ielescope, Kepler ound Ihe observaIions o Ihe planeIary
posiIions IhaI would yield Ihe daIa he needed. BuI aIer years o laborious
calculaIion using Ihe planeI Mars, Kepler was orced Io Ihe conclusion IhaI his
model o Ihe Solar SysIem and solids was uIIerly impossible.
S
The perecIly
circular orbiIs he assumed or Ihe Copernican model were compleIely incon-
sisIenI wiIh whaI Ihe observaIions or Mars acIually showed.
4
A perecI solid is a Ihree dimensional objecI (a solid) where each ace is exacIly Ihe same. A
cube is a perecI solid composed o six equal squares. There are only ive such solids,
including Ihe IeIrahedron o our equal Iriangles, and Ihe dodecahedron composed o 12
idenIical penIagons.
S
These years also included IiIanic personaliIy clashes wiIh Tycho Brahe, Brahe's deaIh,
subsequenI lawsuiIs rom Brahe's heirs, and Ihe persisIenI rumor IhaI Kepler had murdered
Tycho in order Io sIeal his daIa and repuIaIion or himsel.
II musI have been hearIbreaking or Kepler. These were Ihe ideas IhaI made him
amous. They were Ihe window he IhoughI he had opened inIo Ihe mind o Cod:
Cod Ihe CeomeIer. And Ihey and he were uIIerly wrong. How many o us in a
similar circumsIance would have swepI Ihe oending daIa under Ihe rug, or done
everyIhing in our power Io raIionalize why iI could be ignored or Io shoehorn Ihe
observaIions inIo our cherished ideas7 BuI Kepler didn'I do any o Ihese. SIicking
sIricIly Io whaI Ihe observaIions acIually showed, Johannes Kepler spenI Ihe nexI
decade revising his mosI cherished ideas, and in Ihe end discovering Ihe Ihree
greaI laws o planeIary moIion IhaI are sIill in use Ioday. They are:
1. All planeIs orbiI Ihe Sun in an ellipse, where Ihe Sun is locaIed aI one ocus
o Ihe ellipse (a circle is jusI a very special case o an ellipse).
2. As planeIs orbiI Ihe Sun, a line joining Ihem Io Ihe Sun sweeps ouI equal
areas in equal periods o Iime (in oIher words, planeIs speed up when Ihey
are closer Io Ihe Sun and slow down when Ihey are arIher away).
3. The square o Ihe period wiIh which a planeI orbiIs Ihe Sun is proporIional
Io Ihe cube o Ihe semi-major
axis o Ihe orbiI (or a circle Ihe
semi-major axis is jusI Ihe
radius).
In seeking Io undersIand why
Ihe planeIs obeyed Ihese laws,
Kepler was Ihe irsI Io ascribe
physical or earIhly causes Io hea-
venly moIions. His Ihree laws
implied IhaI some orce musI reside
wiIhin Ihe Sun IhaI aIIracIed Ihe
planeIs, speeding Ihem up as Ihey
came closer while making disIanI
planeIs move more slowly. The idea
o a physical cause or why Ihe
heavens moved was revoluIionary.
Erom Ihe Iime o ArisIoIle, Ihe
heavens were supposedly unique
and separaIe rom Ihe elemenIs
and acIions here on EarIh. The role
o Ihe asIronomical asIrologer was,
Ihereore Io simply describe whaI
Ihe heavens JJ.
6
Why Ihe planeIs
did whaI Ihey did was Ihe prove-
nance o Cod (or aI Ihe very leasI
figure 2.9 Kepler's model of Lhe Solar SysLem
from his Mysterium Ccsmcgrcphicum (CourLesy
of Lhe Divisioh of kare ahd MahuscripL
CollecLiohs, Corhell hiversiLy Libraries).
6
And Ihus be able Io casI horoscopes or whaI Ihis meanI or your wealIhy paIron. \haI Ihis
meanI or Ihe planeI was irrelevanI.
Black hole 5un 4
separaIe rom Ihe impure and cor-
rupIible EarIh). In looking or phy-
sical reasons or why Ihe planeIs
obeyed his planeIary laws o moIion
(magneIism, perhaps7) Kepler
sIopped being an asIrologer, and
insIead became Ihe world's irsI
asIrophysicisI.
Erom Kepler's religious aiIh we
see Ihe birIh o whaI would even-
Iual l y become Ihe sci enIi i c
meIhod: EirsI (as Kepler saw iI), iI
is viIal Io observe Cod's Universe.
Erom your observaIions you creaIe a
model or hypoIhesis or how you
believe Ihe Universe works. BuI
Ihen, and here's Ihe imporIanI
Ihing, iI musI work. I your hypoIh-
esis ails Io maIch whaI is acIually
seen, iI's you IhaI musI change. II's
you IhaI are aIIempIing Io under-
sIand Cod, i your undersIanding is
in error, learn rom your error, and
correcI iI. Do noI iI alse inIerpreIa-
Iions Io Cod's observed work jusI because you Ihink iI should be Ihe way you
wish iI. In Iime, iI is only Ihe hypoIheses IhaI survive Ihis rigorous IesIing wiIh
observaIion and experimenIaIion IhaI survive Io become laws, or whaI Ioday we
have come Io call scienIiic Iheories.
And IhaI's iI. The scienIiic meIhod we have Ioday is noI rooIed in an anIi-
religious desire Io prove Ihere is no Cod, buI raIher iI has iIs hisIorical origins in a
desire Io undersIand Cod's Universe beIIer. I Kepler and Calileo were alive and
pracIicing science Ioday, Ihey would likely argue or Ihe scienIiic Iheories o
EvoluIion and Ihe Big Bang, noI because some perceive Ihem as Codless, buI
raIher because Ihey are Ihe besI Iheories IhaI describe whaI is really seen in
NaIure. Every 'religious' alIernaIive ails Io accuraIely relecI whaI is observed
and so (according Io Ihe IradiIion o Kepler and Calileo) musI Ihereore be
perversions o Ihe wordless IesIamenI IhaI is Ihe NaIural world.
During his lie Kepler made no secreI IhaI he would noI bow Io being Iold
whaI he musI believe. As Ihe LuIheran Church soughI Io codiy accepIed IeneIs
o belie or Ihe new religion, Kepler oughI or Ihe righI Io accepI and rejecI
Ihose parIs as his undersIanding o Ihe original IexIs warranIed. He elI Ihis was
cenIral Io his aiIh as a LuIheran and was Ihereore cenIral Io Ihe accuraIe
undersIanding o Ihe Universe and Cod. Eor Ihis he was excommunicaIed by his
own Church. BuI while FroIesIanIs rejecIed him, he could noI rejecI FroIesIanI-
ism and so he was subsequenIly expelled rom one home aIer anoIher when
figure 2.10 Kepler's firsL ahd secohd laws for
plaheLary orbiLs. 1he Suh is showh aL ohe focus
of Lhe ellipse. 1he paLh Lhe plaheL follows over
Lhe course of a mohLh (for ihsLahce) is showh
by Lhe Lhree arrows. 1he area swepL ouL by
each arrow (showh ih gray) is always equal.
1hus Lhe plaheL moves quickly wheh close Lo
Lhe Suh (perihelioh) ahd slower wheh farLher
away (aphelioh). 1he differehce ih disLahce
beLweeh aphelioh ahd perihelioh is grossly
exaggeraLed for plaheLs ih Lhis image (1.
Nordgreh).
CaIholic rulers demanded Iheir subjecIs choose beIween CaIholicism or exile. In
Ihe ensuing ThirIy-Years \ar when CaIholic wenI Io war againsI FroIesIanI,
neiIher side IrusIed him and neiIher Church would accepI him. During Ihis Iime
his wie died, his children died, and his moIher was Iried and convicIed o
wiIchcraI. Through all o Ihese Irials and IormenIs he held Irue Io his convicIion
in absoluIe honesIy beore NaIure and Cod and as a resulI ushered in Ihe modern
age o science.
Look back Io Ihe sIars. CompuIers using Kepler's Ihree laws produce Ihe
numerical Iables IhaI Iell me Ihe Moon will eclipse Ihe Sun in 2017 jusI as Ihey
Iold me Ihe EarIh would eclipse Ihe Moon IonighI. AsIronomer Ered Espenak aI
NASA's Coddard Space ElighI CenIer, mainIains NASA's eclipse websiIe where his
calculaIions reveal Ihe paIhs o solar eclipses or Ihe nexI Ihousand years. \hen
Ihe Moon in iIs ellipIical orbiI passes beIween EarIh and Sun aI Ihe ar end o iIs
orbiI, Ihe Moon appears Ioo small Io cover Ihe enIire disk o Ihe Sun and a
brillianI ring o ire, an annular eclipse is Ihe resulI. \hen Ihe geomeIry o Ihe
eclipse isn'I perecI (or during IoIaliIy where Ihe majoriIy o us are noI orIunaIe
enough Io be wiIhin Ihe cenIral band swepI by Ihe shadow o Ihe Moon) a parIial
eclipse is visible insIead. Eor each o Ihese Iypes o eclipses, occurring all over Ihe
EarIh, maps and Iimes are already calculaIed or Ihose willing Io make Ihe Irip Io
see Ihem.
BuI Ihe calculaIions o Keplerian moIion reveal noI only uIure inIersecIions
o Sun and Moon, Ihey reveal pasI ones as well. On Ihe 11Ih o July, 107 we now
know Ihe shadow o Ihe Moon swepI across Ihe norIh Faciic Ocean and cuI
diagonally souIheasI across whaI would laIer be Ihe wesIern UniIed SIaIes.
During IhaI early summer aIernoon Ihe shadow conIinued over Ihe San Juan
Basin in Ihe Eour Corners region o Ihe souIhwesIern U.S., and inIo whaI is
Ioday, Chaco CulIure NaIional HisIorical Fark.
The arid canyon aI Ihe hearI o Ihe presenI park boundaries marks Ihe
ceremonial cenIer o Ihe Chacoan civilizaIion, Ihe ancesIors o Ioday's Fuebloan
peoples. In 107 Ihe vasI Chacoan culIure was aI iIs peak and in Ihe midsI o
nearly our hundred years o conIinuous occupaIion and ceremony amongsI Ihe
dry sandsIone walls o Ihe canyon. Erom numerous apparenI celesIial alignmenIs
o rock carvings and Ihe acre-sized buildings sIill ound Ihere, iI is almosI cerIain
figure 2.11 A LoLal solar eclipse
recorded ih sLohe. Could Lhis be Lhe
107 eclipse of Lhe Suh wiLh solar
coroha curlihg abouL Lhe darkehed disk?
vehus is hypoLhesized Lo be Lhe circle aL
upper lefL of Lhe peLroglyph. Mahy
more currehL 'rock carvihgs' how
surrouhd Lhe ahciehL observaLioh (1.
Nordgreh).
Black hole 5un 51
IhaI Ihe heavens were an inIegral parI o Ihis culIure living aI Ihe very edge o
whaI Ihe land could susIain.
On Ihe ouIskirIs o one o Ihe park's ruins, on Ihe easI ace o an enormous
dun-colored boulder, a peIroglyph was made unlike any oIher IhaI can be ound
around Ihe souIhwesI. Someone careully pecked ouI o Ihe surace o Ihe sIone a
circle wiIh anciul curls and loops exIending ouIwards rom all sides. To Ihe
upper leI is anoIher smaller circle whose orm, depIh and weaIhering suggesI iI
was made roughly conIemporaneous wiIh Ihe oIher. Kim Malville, an
archaeoasIronomer aI EorI Lewis College in Colorado hypoIhesizes IhaI Ihese
eaIures could be Ihe record o IhaI solar eclipse, where Ihe corona IhaI is aI all
oIher Iimes invisible is recorded in Ihe sIrange waves and hoops radiaIing rom
Ihe cenIral disk. And Ihe oIher, smaller circle7
Recall IhaI during Ihe momenIs o IoIaliIy's darkness, when Ihe Sun's glare no
longer brighIens Ihe sky, Ihe brighIesI sIars and planeIs are briely visible in a
day-Iime sky. The residenIs o Chaco Canyon a Ihousand years ago would have
seen Ihe same Ihing, and may have accuraIely recorded noI only Ihe appearance
o Ihe Sun's corona, buI Ihe sudden emergence o Venus as well. Erom Kepler's
laws we know Ihe Iwo circles siI in relaIion Io one anoIher exacIly where you and
I would have seen Venus aI Ihe Iime o IoIaliIy, so many cenIuries ago.
Today Ihe rock arI o Fiedra del Sol is surrounded by oIher 'arIwork,' some
much more recenI and ar less ceremonial in naIure Ihan Ihe resI.
7
II is almosI
cerIain IhaI Ihe peIroglyph's Irue meaning will never be known or sure. BuI
Ihrough Kepler's work almosI exacIly ive hundred years in iIs uIure, and Ihe
calculaIion o asIronomers an addiIional our hundred years urIher orward in
Iime, we can Iell exacIly whaI Chacoans saw in IhaI long-ago aIernoon sky.
\heIher Ihey chose Ihis rock Io record Ihis amazing appariIion is almosI beside
Ihe poinI.
AlmosI S0 years aIer Kepler's deaIh, Sir Isaac NewIon posIulaIed a simple orce
o graviIy aI work beIween any Iwo objecIs wiIh mass. The greaIer Ihe masses,
Ihe sIronger Ihe orce, Ihe arIher aparI Ihe masses, Ihe smaller Ihe orce
becomes. This simple hypoIhesis o a undamenIal physical orce uniied Ihe
everyday drop o an apple wiIh Ihe cosmic moIion o Ihe Moon around Ihe
EarIh. BoIh ollow Ihe paIhs Ihey do because o Iheir aIIracIion Io Ihe EarIh. To
see Iheir similariIy NewIon imagined sIanding on a high mounIain's edge. Drop
any objecI wiIh mass (an apple, say) and iI will all sIraighI down Io EarIh as we
expecI. Now Ihrow iI wiIh some slighI velociIy and while iI sIill alls Io EarIh iI
does so a liIIle arIher away rom Ihe base o Ihe cli. Throw asIer and each
7
Eor Ihis reason, as o 2008, Ihe rock arI o Fiedra del Sol is noI on display Io Ihe visiIing
public. \hile park rangers are looking Io ind ways Io open Ihis amazing panel Io Ihe public,
Ihey are careul noI Io do so unIil Ihey are conidenI iI won'I succumb Io Ihe ravages o more
modern rock arI: graiIi.
figure 2.12 llaheLary orbiLs as devised
by NewLoh. Ah ob|ecL Lhrowh wiLh
ihcreasihg velociLy follows a curved
paLh arouhd Lhe EarLh uhLil evehLually
ah ob|ecL Lhrowh wiLh sufficiehL speed
loops back upoh iLself. lllusLraLioh from
NewLoh's A trectise cf the system cf the
wcrld, 1728. A phoLo of Lhis figure, from
Lhis exacL copy of NewLoh's book was
ihcluded oh a goldeh disk placed
aboard Lhe voyager 1 ahd 2 spacecrafL
how headihg Lo Lhe sLars (CourLesy of
Lhe Divisioh of kare ahd MahuscripL
CollecLiohs, Corhell hiversiLy Libraries).
successive Ioss sends Ihe apple arIher rom Ihe cli. CraviIy's aIIracIion makes
Ihe apple orever all Iowards Ihe EarIh while Ihe speed o Ihe apple simply
deIermines how ar around Ihe EarIh Ihe apple lies beore iI evenIually hiIs.
Throw hard enough (perhaps wiIh Ihe aid o a rockeI-powered cannon) and Ihe
apple lies enIirely around Ihe EarIh, iIs paIh looping back on iIsel as iI lies once
more over Ihe cli where iI sIarIed. CraviIy's pull makes Ihe apple all orever
around Ihe planeI, yeI orever missing as iI does so. The resulI is an EarIh wiIh an
apple or a moon.
Erom NewIon's law o graviIy and Ihe acceleraIion o bodies produced by Ihis
orce, all Ihree o Kepler's laws can be maIhemaIically reproduced buI now wiIh
Ihe knowledge IhaI iI is graviIy IhaI connecIs Ihe Heavens and EarIh. Erom Ihis
discovery Ihe mysIerious quanIiIy IhaI relaIed Ihe square o Ihe orbiIal period
and Ihe cube o Ihe orbiIal disIance in Kepler's Ihird law is none oIher Ihan Ihe
IoIal mass o Ihe objecIs. I you know Ihe period o EarIh's orbiI around Ihe Sun
and how ar rom Ihe Sun Ihe EarIh orbiIs, Kepler's Ihird law reveals Ihe IoIal
mass o Ihe Sun (Ihe EarIh being microscopically Iiny in comparison). Kepler's
laws in Ihis orm Ihen become models or everyIhing a good scienIiic Iheory
should do: Ihey explain whaI is seen, predicI Ihe resulI o uIure evenIs, and Iie
IogeIher a wide range o physical phenomenon in order Io illuminaIe deeper
IruIhs abouI Ihe world. \hile ancienI asIrologers may have been able Io predicI
when eclipses would occur somewhere on EarIh, Ioday's asIrophysicisI can do
IhaI and predicI Ihe exacI Iiming o eclipses or anywhere on Ihe surace o Mars,
as well.
Black hole 5un 53
figure 2.13 A solar eclipse by Lhe MarLiah mooh lhobos as recorded from Lhe surface of
Mars. Oh Lhe 45Lh MarLiah day, or sol, of iLs missioh, Lhe NASA Mars rover OpporLuhiLy
phoLographed ohe of Mars' irregularly shaped moohs pass ih frohL of Lhe Suh. lhobos is
Loo small Lo ever compleLely block Lhe solar disk wheh viewed from Mars. 1he eclipse
progresses from lefL Lo righL (NASA}|lL}Corhell).
As a resulI, Kepler's Ihird law
(wiIh NewIon's addiIion) has
become one o Ihe mosI useul
discoveries in asIronomy in Ihe lasI
400 years. \hile Kepler devised his
law or planeIs in Iheir orbiIs around
Ihe Sun, Ihanks Io NewIon we now
know Ihey hold equally Irue or any
objecI IhaI orbiIs any oIher. FoinI a
pair o binoculars wiIh a magniica-
Iion o only 20, aI JupiIer and
anyone Ioday can see Ihe nighI-Io-
nighI moIion o Ihe our large
moons Calileo discovered in January
1610. \iIh NewIon's reinemenI o
Kepler's Ihird law, knowledge o Ihe
period o Ihe moons and Ihe orbiIal
disIance o each Iells us unambigu-
ously IhaI JupiIer is 318 Iimes more
massive Ihan Ihe EarIh and Ihe
largesI o all planeIs orbiIing our
Sun. Thanks Io NewIon and Kepler
Ihe heavens can be weighed.
NewIon's example o Ihrowing Ihings rom Ihe Iops o mounIains leads Io an
inIriguing resulI i ollowed ar enough. The more massive Ihe planeI, Ihe asIer
you have Io Ihrow or ly in order Io go inIo orbiI and escape Ihe surace
alIogeIher. Jump up. Try iI. No maIIer how sIrong a jumper you are, you will
always come back down. The EarIh has jusI Ioo much mass Io leI you escape Ihe
surace wiIhouI reIurning sooner raIher Ihan laIer. BuI Ihe asIer you jump, or
Ihe asIer Ihe rockeI you use Io jump or you, and Ihe arIher away you geI beore
coming back Io EarIh. Alan Shepard, Ihe irsI American in space, saI aIop a
figure 2.14 A luhar eclipse oh Mars is
observed by Lhe NASA Mars rover SpiriL. Here
lhobos quickly fades from view as iL ehLers Lhe
shadow of Mars. CraLer SLickhey is barely
visible oh Lhe lower righL limb of lhobos' disk
(NASA}|lL}Corhell).
Mercury RedsIone rockeI IhaI leI Ihe EarIh wiIh a speed o S,134 miles per hour
(8,214 km}h) and reached a heighI o 116 miles (186 km) beore evenIually
alling back Io EarIh. In order Io compleIely cscapc Ihe EarIh's pull and never
reIurn, he'd have needed Io Iravel nearly ive Iimes asIer.
The denser Ihe planeI (or sIar) Ihe greaIer Ihis escape velociIy becomes. BuI
whaI happens as Ihe escape velociIy becomes rcally big7 Compress Ihe mass o
Ihe Sun inIo a ball no larger Ihan 4 miles (6 km) in diameIer, a small Iown in size,
and Ihe orce o NewIonian graviIy aI iIs surace will pull wiIh such sIrengIh IhaI
noI even lighI iIsel can exceed Ihe escape velociIy. The possibiliIy o such ''black
holes'' inIrigued Ihe eighIeenIh cenIury Reverend John Michell, a Irained
scienIisI who also published papers on Ihe sIrengIh o graviIaIional orces on
EarIh, and Ihe likelihood IhaI sIars in Ihe sky orbiIed one anoIher under Iheir
own muIual graviIy. InIeresIingly, iI is Ihe very acI IhaI sIars are aIIracIed Io and
orbiI each oIher according Io Kepler's laws IhaI allows us Io IesI Michell's idea or
whaI happens when a sIar's escape velociIy approaches Ihe speed o lighI. Eor
how else is one Io discover Ihe massive unseen objecI rom which even lighI is
Ioo weak Io escape, i noI by Ihe graviIaIional inluence iI has on Ihose objecIs
IhaI iI encounIers7
Deep in Ihe core o Ihe Milky \ay Ihere lurks a graviIaIional monsIer. Hidden
rom our eyes by 2S,000 lighI-years o inIervening dusI, Ihe cenIer o our own
Calaxy has always been a mysIerious place. Since Ihe invenIion o radio
Ielescopes in Ihe 1S0s, asIronomers have deIecIed radio waves coming Io us ouI
o Ihe hidden depIhs o Ihe Calaxy beyond Ihe consIellaIion o SagiIIarius. This
radio source, called SagiIIarius A* (pronounced Saj A-sIar) is believed Io be aI Ihe
very cenIer o our Calaxy. Eor Ihe lasI Iwo decades Andrea Chez, an asIronomer
aI Ihe UniversiIy o Caliornia aI Los Angeles, has been moniIoring a clusIer o
young sIars surrounding Ihis radio source, using a new generaIion o gianI
inrared Ielescope able Io peer Ihrough all Ihe inIervening dusI and gas. Over Ihe
years, her paIienI and painsIaking observaIions show Ihe sIars' orbiIal moIion in
Ihe very inner one lighI-year o our Calaxy. Only because Ihe sIars move wiIh
figure 2.15 1he cehLer of our Milky Way recorded ih ihfrared lighL usihg Lhe Midcourse
Space ExperimehL (MSX) saLelliLe. Showh are disLahL dusL clouds heaLed by faihL
sLarlighL. 1he brighL khoL ih Lhe middle is Lhe cehLer of our Calaxy (MSX}llAC}NASA).
Black hole 5un 55
figure 2.1 lmage of Lhe cehLer of Lhe
Milky Way made usihg Lhe W.M. Keck
ObservaLory. 1he posiLioh of Lhe source
of radio emissiohs LhaL is believed Lo
emahaLe from arouhd a massive black
hole called Sgr A* is labeled (W.M. Keck
ObservaLory ahd Lhe CLA CalacLic
CehLer Croup).
velociIies o Ihousands o miles per second are we even able Io see Iheir changing
posiIions rom so ar away.
A decade o observaIions reveal sIars on greaI looping ellipIical orbiIs IhaI all
have a single common graviIaIional ocus consisIenI wiIh Ihe posiIion o
SagiIIarius A*. Around Ihis objecI, Ihey, and by exIension every dusI cloud,
clusIer and sIar in our Calaxy, including our Sun, are all in perpeIual Keplerian
moIion. Erom Ihe periods and orbiIal sizes o Ihese sIars, Chez calculaIes IhaI Ihe
objecI abouI which Ihey revolve musI be 3.7 million Iimes more massive Ihan
our Sun, all wiIhin a space smaller Ihan our Solar SysIem. YeI while her Ielescope
reveals Ihe lighI o Ihe sIars around iI, iI sees no sign o Ihe lighI o almosI our
million suns aI Ihe single graviIaIional ocus. In acI, iI sees no lighI Ihere aI all.
However, an objecI Ihis massive, in a region noI much smaller Ihan Ihis, will
have an escape velociIy approaching Ihe speed o lighI. Eor Ihese reasons,
asIronomers are almosI cerIain Ihe objecI aI Ihe posiIion o SagiIIarius A* is a
supermassive black hole. Black holes like Ihis are IhoughI Io be ound aI Ihe
figure 2.17 SLars aL Lhe cehLer of our
Calaxy are observed orbiLihg a commoh
poihL aL Lhe posiLioh of Sgr A*. lh Lhe
backgrouhd is displayed Lhe cehLral
porLioh of ah image Lakeh ih 2004. While
every sLar ih Lhis image has beeh seeh Lo
move over Lhe pasL 15 years, ohly Lhe
seveh labeled sLars exhibiL ehough
curvaLure of moLioh Lo cohsLrucL Lheir
full orbiLs (showh as solid or dashed
curves). 1ogeLher Lhey provide Lhe besL
evidehce yeL for a supermassive black
hole wiLh 3.7 millioh Limes Lhe mass of
Lhe Suh aL Lheir commoh focus (ahd
where Lhere is ho correspohdihg ob|ecL
wiLh Lhe lighL of 3.7 millioh suhs)
(Ahdrea Chez (CLA) ahd Lhe CalacLic
CehLer kesearch Croup, daLa obLaihed
wiLh Lhe W.M. Keck 1elescopes).
cenIers o all large galaxies. \here Ihey came rom is one o Ihe greaI areas o
ongoing research. To undersIand Ihe origin o Ihese monsIers may be Io
undersIand Ihe origin o galaxies Ihemselves.
Even our own Solar SysIem has been no sIranger Io massive unseen objecIs.
Eor all buI Ihe lasI Iwo hundred years only Ihe six planeIs o anIiquiIy were
known. In 1781, Sir \illiam Herschel (who wiIh his Ielescope irsI mapped Ihe
Milky \ay's sIrucIure) discovered Ihe slow moIion o a new planeI ar beyond
Ihe orbiI o SaIurn. This new planeI was named Uranus or Ihe Creek god o Ihe
sky and aIher o SaIurn. \hen moons were subsequenIly ound orbiIing Uranus,
Ihe applicaIion o Kepler's Ihird law revealed iI was 14 Iimes more massive Ihan
Ihe EarIh. BuI subIle deviaIions in Uranus's posiIion over Ihe years implied Ihe
graviIaIional aIIracIion o yeI anoIher, hiIherIo unseen planeI. NepIune's
discovery in SepIember 1846, aI Ihe exacI locaIion where Uranus' orbiIal
anomalies indicaIed, was a powerul IesIamenI Io Ihe predicIive power o science
in an age IhaI had come Io expecI a perecIly clockwork heavens.
8
BuI while asIronomers o Ihe 1800s applied Kepler's laws Io Ihe dark disIanI
reaches o Ihe Solar SysIem, oIhers soughI Io do Ihe same in Ihe iery conines
close Io Ihe Sun. ObservaIions had long shown IhaI Mercury Ioo ailed Io
perecIly ollow Kepler's ellipIical orbiIs. \iIh each year's pass around Ihe Sun,
Mercury never reIraced iIs orbiI exacIly. The poinI aI which iI passed closesI Io
Ihe Sun kepI precessing or advancing wiIh each passing orbiI, so IhaI insIead o a
single ellipse, Mercury insIead Iraces ouI an enormous mulIi-peIaled loral
arrangemenI.
Such a paIIern would resulI i anoIher planeI orbiIed even closer

Io Ihe Sun Ihan inner-mosI Mercury. AsIronomers named Ihis blazing unseen
planeI Vulcan and looked or iIs ainI lighI near Ihe Sun in Ihe ew momenIs o
darkness during IoIaliIy o a solar eclipse. BuI no maIIer how closely Ihey looked,
no planeI was ever ound. SomeIhing was wrong wiIh graviIy, Ihe observaIions
did noI maIch Ihe predicIions.
The soluIion Io Ihis dilemma came in 11S when a Cerman-born ex-paIenI
8
FluIo's discovery in 130 was originally parI o Ihis progression as calculaIions showed an
unknown planeI's eecIs on Ihe orbiI o NepIune as well. However, wiIh a mass less Ihan a
iIh IhaI o our own Moon, Ihere was no way FluIo could have produced Ihe calculaIed aecI
on NepIune, a planeI as massive as Uranus and 10,000 Iimes more massive Ihan FluIo.
EvenIually, Ihe original orbiIal calculaIions were ound Io have been in error (Ihere was no
discrepancy) and FluIo's discovery in Ihe correcIly 'predicIed' posiIion was simply a
orIuiIous coincidence. Today, we now know FluIo Io be one o Ihe largesI o a newly-
discovered populaIion o icy dwar planeIs orbiIing in a massive belI ouI beyond Ihe orbiI o
NepIune.
The amounI o Ihis advance is sIaggeringly small. Over a hundred years, Ihe IoIal error in
posiIion on Ihe sky o where Mercury is, and where iI should be due Io all oIher known
NewIonian eecIs, is no more Ihan 43 arcseconds, (where one arcsecond is one 60Ih o an
arcminuIe, which in Iurn is one 60Ih o a degree) or abouI one iIieIh Ihe diameIer o Ihe ull
Moon.
Black hole 5un 57
clerk published a paper describing his Ceneral Theory o RelaIiviIy. In iI, AlberI
EinsIein presenIed maIhemaIically a revoluIionary new orm o graviIaIion
where, conIrary Io NewIon, graviIy was no longer a orce beIween objecIs.
InsIead, graviIy is a curvaIure in Ihe abric o a our dimensional space-Iime
(Ihree dimensions o space plus Ihe single dimension o Iime) produced by Ihe
presence o a mass. Imagine a bowling ball placed on a Irampoline. II warps Ihe
Iwo-dimensional abric o space IhaI is Ihe Irampoline's surace inIo a pucker.
Roll a baseball across Ihe Irampoline and Ihe warp in Ihe surace causes Ihe ball
Io ollow a curved paIh around Ihe bowling ball. The paIh iI ollows is exacIly
whaI NewIon's orce o graviIy predicIs.
Similarly, i you've ever seen one o Ihe plasIic unnels on display in shopping
malls or science cenIers, where a coin is rolled inIo Ihe widely curved circular
surace, you've seen how Ihe coin rolls around and around Ihe cenIral
depression. I you aim Ihe coin jusI righI, you can make iI ollow a airly
circular paIh around Ihe cenIral depression. I, however, you aim Ihe coin closer
Io Ihe cenIral pucker, iI will Irace ouI an ellipse as iI dips irsI down and Ihen
back ouI o Ihe cenIral well. On such a paIh as Ihis, iI picks up speed as iI alls in
close Io Ihe cenIral hole only Io slow down again as iI rolls ouIward Iowards Ihe
arIhesI poinI in iIs orbiI. I Ihe curve o Ihe unnel is builI jusI righI, Ihen Ihe
paIh and speed o Ihe rolling coin will ollow Kepler's laws o orbiIal moIion.
AddiIionally, as Ihe coin loses energy Ihrough ricIion wiIh Ihe plasIic surace iIs
ellipIical orbiI advances jusI as Mercury's does all Ihe while spiraling downward.
I Ihere was no ricIion aI all you could creaIe a whole solar sysIem o perpeIually
orbiIing pennies and dimes.
Now i all Ceneral RelaIiviIy did was conirm Ihe predicIions o NewIon, Ihen
Ihere would be no reason Io accepI iI over NewIon's. AIer all, NewIon's Iheory o
graviIy had worked preIIy well or Iwo hundred and iIy years. BuI in addiIion Io
explaining all Ihe phenomena IhaI we already knew, EinsIein's Iheory made
predicIions or cerIain special cases markedly dierenI rom whaI NewIon's law
describes. According Io EinsIein, a planeI orbiIing deeply wiIhin Ihe graviIa-
Iional well o iIs sIar should experience a warp in boIh Ihe abric o space and Ihe
passage o Iime IhaI consIanIly changes as iIs ellipIical IrajecIory carries iI
alIernaIely closer and arIher away rom Ihe sIar. \iIh each close pass Io Ihe sIar
Ihe orienIaIion o iIs orbiI will change, causing iI Io slowly precess around Ihe
sIar. This is exacIly whaI is observed or Mercury.
ThaI EinsIein inally solved Ihe problem o Mercury was quickly evidenI Io
asIronomers, and an imporIanI observaIional supporI or his Iheory. AIer all, a
good scienIiic Iheory needs Io explain whaI is already seen. BuI Mercury's
problems wiIh NewIon had been widely known or years. I scienIisIs were going
Io accepI EinsIein's complicaIed new Iheory (iI was widely sIaIed IhaI almosI no
one buI EinsIein could compleIely undersIand Ihe complex maIhemaIics and
physical implicaIions) a siIuaIion would have Io be ound where Ceneral
RelaIiviIy predicIed measurable resulIs compleIely aI odds wiIh Ihose predicIed
by NewIon.
The scienIiic communiIy didn'I have Io waiI very long.
figure 2.18 Diagram of
graviLaLiohal lehsihg by
sLarlighL. LighL from a disLahL
sLar passes Lhe limb of Lhe
Suh ahd is deflecLed Lowards
Lhe observer. 1he observer,
however, ohly sees Lhe
direcLioh from which Lhe
lighL reaches her eye. 1he
apparehL source of Lhe
sLarlighL, Lherefore appears
Lo be farLher away from Lhe
Suh, Lhah Lhe Lrue sLar's
posiLioh (1. Nordgreh).
On May 2, 11, Ihe shadow o Ihe Moon would sweep across Ihe SouIh
AIlanIic Ocean and Ihe sIars near Ihe Sun would become visible or Ihe brie ive
minuIes o IoIaliIy. I graviIy acIed as EinsIein's Iheory predicIed, Ihen rays o
sIarlighI passing by Ihe limb o Ihe Sun should have Iheir direcIion o Iravel
subIly changed as Ihey passed Ihrough Ihe graviIaIional warp o space-Iime
around Ihe Sun. The visible resulI would be IhaI during Ihe eclipse, sIars
appearing in phoIographs near Ihe Sun's dark disk should be ever so slighIly ouI
o posiIion, shiIed away rom Ihe Sun, by an amounI o 1.7S arcseconds when
compared Io a phoIograph o Ihe same sIar ield made when Ihe Sun was noI
presenI. As small as Ihis delecIion mighI appear iI was Iwice whaI NewIon's
orce o graviIy predicIed.
To IesI RelaIiviIy's predicIion Ihe Royal AsIronomical SocieIy o CreaI BriIain
senI Iwo expediIions by ship Io locaIions along Ihe paIh o IoIaliIy (in Ihe evenI
IhaI bad weaIher or mechanical problems could sIrike aI jusI Ihe wrong Iime
during Ihis rare evenI, iI was always good Io have a backup). One expediIion
wenI Io Sobral in norIhern Brazil, while Ihe oIher sailed Io Ihe island o Frincipe
o Ihe \esI Arican coasI. Each would have Io carry and assemble Ihe delicaIe
Ielescopes and phoIographic equipmenI necessary Io phoIograph Ihe Sun and
Ihe surrounding sIars during IoIaliIy's darkness. In addiIion, Io veriy Ihe normal
posiIion o Ihe sIars wiIhouI Ihe Sun's inluence, Ihe expediIion in Brazil would
sIay on or an addiIional Iwo monIhs so IhaI Ihe exacI same sIar ield could be
phoIographed wiIh Ihe exacI same equipmenI in Ihe darkness o early dawn aIer
Ihe Sun had moved on.
Six monIhs aIer Ihe eclipse, Sir Erank Tyson, AsIronomer Royal o Ihe Royal
AsIronomical SocieIy presenIed Io a joinI meeIing o Ihe Royal SocieIy and Royal
AsIronomical SocieIy Ihe resulIs o IhaI May's expediIion Io demonsIraIe
wheIher EinsIein's predicIions had come Irue:
Thc PrcsJcnt. I will call on Ihe AsIronomer Royal Io give us a
sIaIemenI o Ihe resulI o Ihe Eclipse ExpediIion o May lasI.
Black hole 5un 5
figure 2.19 WiLh Lhis hegaLive image
of Lhe LoLally eclipsed Suh (made from
lrihcipe lslahd ih Lhe Culf of Cuihea, oh
2 May 11) ArLhur EddihgLoh
cohfirmed Lhe predicLioh of AlberL
EihsLeih's Ceheral 1heory of kelaLiviLy
from Lhe posiLioh of sLars visible durihg
Lhe eclipse (marked by Lwo horizohLal
lihes) (koyal AsLrohomical SocieLy}
lhoLo kesearchers, lhc.).
Thc Astronomcr Royal. The purpose o Ihe expediIion was Io
deIermine wheIher any displacemenI is caused Io a ray o lighI by
Ihe graviIaIional ield o Ihe Sun, and, i so, Ihe amounI o Ihe
displacemenI. EinsIein's Iheory predicIed a displacemenI varying
inversely as Ihe disIance o Ihe Sun's ray rom Ihe Sun's cenIre,
amounIing Io 1.7S or a sIar seen jusI grazing Ihe Sun. His Iheory or
law o graviIaIion had already explained Ihe movemenI o Ihe
perihelion o Mercury - long an ouIsIanding problem or dynamical
asIronomy - and iI was desirable Io apply a urIher IesI Io iI. |Thcrc thcn
jollows a lcngthy Jcscrpton oj thc cxpcJton anJ thc cxpcrmcntal proccss.|
AIer a careul sIudy o Ihe plaIes I am prepared Io say Ihere can be
no doubI IhaI Ihey conirm EinsIein's predicIion. A very deiniIe
resulI has been obIained IhaI lighI is delecIed in accordance wiIh
EinsIein's law o graviIaIion.
Thc PrcsJcnt. I now call or discussion on Ihis momenIous
communicaIion. I Ihe resulIs obIained had been only IhaI lighI was
aecIed by graviIaIion, iI would have been o Ihe greaIesI impor-
Iance. . .. BuI Ihis resulI is noI an isolaIed one, iI is parI o a whole
conIinenI o scienIiic ideas aecIing Ihe mosI undamenIal concepIs
o physics. . .. This is Ihe mosI imporIanI resulI obIained in connec-
Iion wiIh Ihe Iheory o graviIaIion since NewIon's day, and iI is iIIing
IhaI iI should be announced aI a meeIing o Ihe SocieIy so closely
connecIed wiIh him.
The dierence beIween Ihe laws o graviIaIion o EinsIein and
NewIon come only in special cases. The real inIeresI o EinsIein's
figure 2.20 1oLal eclipse of Lhe Suh as seeh from Siberia ih 2008. 1he solar coroha
exLehds for up Lo 20 solar diameLers ih Lhis view LhaL shows iL agaihsL Lhe backgrouhd
sLars. 1he smaLLerihg of sLars Lo Lhe upper righL is Lhe lraesepe sLar clusLer, also khowh
as M44 or Lhe 8eehive clusLer, ih Cahcer. 1he plaheL Mercury is visible Lo Lhe upper lefL
(Miloslav Druckmuller (8rho hiversiLy of 1echhology), leLer Ahiol ahd vo|Lech kusih).
Iheory lies noI so much in his resulIs as in Ihe meIhod by which he
geIs Ihem. I Ihis Iheory is righI, iI makes us Iake an enIirely new view
o graviIaIion. I iI is susIained IhaI EinsIein's reasoning holds good -
and iI has survived Iwo very severe IesIs in connecIion wiIh Ihe
perihelion o Mercury and Ihe presenI eclipse - Ihen iI is Ihe resulI o
one o Ihe highesI achievemenIs o human IhoughI.
AIer 240 years, Kepler and NewIon were supplanIed by EinsIein. As Ihe
presidenI o Ihe Royal AsIronomical SocieIy was careul Io sIaIe, Ihe earlier
scienIisIs weren'I wrong, Ihey were merely correcI over a vasI range o masses
and moIions IhaI didn'I Iake inIo accounI some very sIrange and exoIic
siIuaIions. Apply EinsIein's Iheory o Ceneral RelaIiviIy Io 'everyday' scenarios o
moons, planeIs and sIars aI reasonable disIances rom one anoIher and iI
simpliies Io exacIly Ihe same relaIions giving exacIly Ihe same answers as Kepler
and NewIon. BuI approach Ihe suraces o sIars where graviIy's 'orce' greaIly
warps Ihe abric o space-Iime and NewIon uIIerly ails Io accounI or all Ihe
wonderul eecIs Io be ound Ihere.
I one could Iurn up Ihe mass o Ihe Sun, like Iurning up Ihe volume on a
radio dial (while keeping Ihe size ixed) Ihe warp IhaI Ihe Sun creaIes in Ihe abric
o space-Iime would geI sIeeper and sIeeper as iI became increasingly deep. The
lighI rom disIanI sIars IhaI beore would pass by and be delecIed by jusI a ew
arcseconds, would insIead be delecIed by ever more degrees, unIil evenIually
like Ihe coins in Ihe plasIic unnel, lighI iIsel would spiral down Ihe cenIral well
never Io escape. The surace inside which Ihe walls o Ihe well are Ioo sIeep or
even lighI Io escape is called Ihe evenI horizon and is noI acIually a physical
surace, buI merely Ihe poinI inside o which all inormaIion is losI orever.
Black hole 5un 1
Here again we approach a black hole buI now as an impeneIrable chasm in Ihe
abric o space-Iime. So while Ihe Reverend Michell could hypoIhesize Ihe
presence o black holes in Ihe 18Ih cenIury, iI is asIrophysicisIs in Ihis cenIury
who ulIimaIely ollow Ceneral RelaIiviIy down Ihe graviIy well Io explore Ihe
warp o boIh space and Iime around a black hole's evenI horizon.
Meanwhile in Ihe ouIer reaches o Ihe Milky \ay, one hundred and eighIy
degrees away rom Ihe supermassive black hole aI our Calaxy's cenIer, we conIinue
Io see Ihe graviIaIional eecIs o even more unseen mass. OuI aI disIances o
100,000 lighI-years rom Ihe galacIic cenIer, where NewIon's laws should perecIly
apply, we see sIars and dusI clouds orbiIing our galaxy ar asIer Ihan Kepler's laws
say Ihey should. In virIually every spiral galaxy we look aI we see Ihe same sIory.
InsIead o Ihe disIanI edges o galaxies orbiIing slower Ihan Ihe inner porIions (in
accordance wiIh Kepler's Ihird law) we see Ihey orbiI jusI as asI as sIars and gas in
Ihe cenIer. JusI as wiIh Uranus in our own Solar SysIem, Ihere musI be hidden,
unseen maIIer in Ihe ouIskirIs o Ihe galaxies giving Ihese sIars an exIra
graviIaIional acceleraIion. Since Ihis hidden mass emiIs no lighI o iIs own and
is visible only by iIs graviIaIional inluence we have come Io call iI Jarl mattcr.
In an ulIimaIe marriage o NewIon and EinsIein, modern asIronomers look Io
measure Ihis hidden mass surrounding galaxies using a variaIion on Ihe greaI
solar eclipse experimenI o 11. As lighI rom disIanI galaxies aI Ihe edge o Ihe
Universe passes by Ihese nearby galaxies and clusIers (where NewIon and Kepler
say Ihis mass resides) Ihe unseen mass warps Ihe abric o space-Iime delecIing
Ihe paIh Ihe passing lighI Iakes. The graviIaIional warp acIs as a lens bending Ihe
passing lighI: Ihe greaIer Ihe mass, Ihe greaIer Ihe lensing eecI. Erom Ihe
warped image o disIanI galaxies we are able Io precisely measure and map Ihe
disIribuIion o dark maIIer in Ihe Universe. The Universe is ulIimaIely weighed
by Ihe weighIlessness o lighI.
And Ihen wiIh a suddenness IhaI sIarIles me, sunlighI once again alls down on
me as Ihe Moon emerges rom Ihe shadow o Ihe EarIh. On Ihis nighI in 2007, in
Crand TeIon NaIional Fark, sunlighI once more shines on Ihe surace o Ihe
Moon as iI begins Io seI inIo Ihe nearby mounIain's gap. There among Ihe craggy
mounIain peaks iI is ollowed down by Ihe irsI reddish alpenglow o sunrise, Ihe
same reddish glow IhaI jusI momenIs beore illuminaIed Ihe shadowed Moon.
\hile we live only a brie Iime compared wiIh Ihe EarIh, iI is Ihrough Ihe power
o our science IhaI we can see whaI has come beore and predicI whaI is yeI Io be.
And while iI is noI clear i or when Ihe nexI greaI Iheory will arise Io supplanI
EinsIein, I do hope Io someday see someone discover Ihe naIure o IhaI
mysIerious dark maIIer. Eor science has shown IhaI aI every sIep where an
exIraordinary problem presenIs iIsel, in Iime Ihere has always been an
exIraordinary answer. As EinsIein once said, ''The mosI incomprehensible Ihing
abouI Ihe Universe is IhaI iI is comprehensible.'' The ulIimaIe proo o Ihis
sIaIemenI, and science iIsel, is IhaI I know exacIly where I'll be Ien years rom
now on AugusI 21, 2017 aI 11:34:48 am MounIain DaylighI Time when Ihe Sun
is IoIally eclipsed by Ihe Moon. Ferhaps I'll see you Ihere.
figure 2.21 CraviLaLiohal lehsihg of a disLahL blue galaxy clusLer by a hearby ellipLical
galaxy. 1he alighmehL beLweeh us, Lhe hearby galaxy ahd disLahL clusLer is so perfecL
LhaL Lhe image of Lhe faihL blue clusLer forms ah almosL perfecL rihg. 1his is called ah
EihsLeih rihg ahd cah be used Lo measure Lhe mass of dark maLLer ih Lhe hearby lehsihg
galaxy. Oh Lhe righL are showh compuLer recohsLrucLiohs of Lhe disLahL clusLer (Lop),
lehsihg galaxy (middle), ahd Lhe resulLihg image (boLLom) (A. 8olLoh (hiversiLy of
Hawaii}lfA) for SLACS ahd NASA}ESA).
figure 2.22 1he eclipsed Mooh of AugusL 2007 seLs wiLhih Lhe gap of Cascade Cahyoh
ih Crahd 1eLoh NaLiohal lark. 1he same alpehglow LhaL lighLs Lhe disLahL mouhLaihs is
respohsible for Lhe reddish glow of Lhe eveh more disLahL Mooh. 1he image was made
by phoLographihg Lhe eclipsed Mooh every 10 mihuLes from Lhe MouhLaih view
1urhouL alohg Lhe 1eLoh lark koad (1. Nordgreh).
Black hole 5un 3
See for yourseIf: ecIipses of the Sun, Moon and sateIIites
Viewing a soIar ecIipse (safeIy)
The ollowing maps show Ihe paIhs o IoIal and annular solar eclipses. Annular
eclipses occur when Ihe Moon is Ioo ar away rom Ihe EarIh Io compleIely block
Ihe disk o Ihe Sun. During Ihis kind o eclipse Ihe Sun looks like a ring o ire,
buI Ihe sIars and ainI solar corona are noI visible. The only Iime Ihe Sun can be
viewed saely wiIh Ihe naked eye is during a IoIal eclipse, when Ihe Moon
compleIely covers Ihe disk o Ihe Sun. 1t x ncvcr xatc to IooR at a gartaI or
annuIar ccIgxc, or thc gartaI ghaxcx ot a totaI xoIar ccIgxc, wthout
taRng thc grogcr grccautonx. Even when % o Ihe Sun's surace is
obscured during Ihe parIial phases o a solar eclipse, Ihe remaining crescenI Sun
is sIill inIense enough Io cause irreparable eye damage. Specially designed solar
eclipse glasses are commonly available or sale on Ihe inIerneI.
The saesI way Io observe a parIial or annular eclipse is by projecIion. A small
opening in a card is used Io orm an image o Ihe Sun on a screen or sheeI o
paper. MulIiple openings in a loosely woven sIraw haI, or beIween inIerlaced
ingers, will also casI a paIIern o solar images on a sheeI o paper or a screen.
Similarly, a Iree wiIh many broad overlapping leaves will creaIe mulIiple Iiny
openings, each o which will projecI an image o Ihe Sun orming hundreds o
crescenI-shaped images on Ihe ground below.
Orbiting spacecraft
Eclipses o Ihe Sun and Moon are rare. I only Ihe EarIh had more moons, Ihen
Ihe predicIive power o Kepler's laws would be a more common specIacle. In acI,
Ihe EarIh is currenIly orbiIed by somewhere around 2S,000 moons. All buI one o
which are small, meIallic and arIiicial. \e call Ihem saIelliIes and on any given
nighI you can wiIhouI much diiculIy pick Ihem ouI as Ihey move across Ihe
background o sIaIionary sIars. SaIelliIes normally beIray Ihemselves as a single,
sIeady, whiIe or possibly yellowish lighI IhaI moves slowly and sIeadily againsI
Ihe background sIars (airplanes always have more Ihan one lighI - wingIip lighIs
are red and green - while aI leasI one lighI will blink). In as liIIle as ive Io Ien
minuIes saIelliIes can move clear across Ihe hemisphere o Ihe sky. \hen you see
Ihis, whaI you are seeing is Ihe lighI o Ihe Sun shining o Ihe surace o Ihe
spacecraI and relecIed down Io EarIh. The larger Ihe spacecraI Ihe brighIer iI
looks. Because o Ihis, some Iumbling cylindrical saIelliIes, such as spenI
cylindrical rockeI boosIers, will brighIen and ade or lash as dierenI parIs o
Iheir surace caIch Ihe Sun.
The brighIesI arIiicial saIelliIe by ar is Ihe InIernaIional Space SIaIion (ISS)
wiIh acres o highly relecIive solar panels. The ISS orbiIs Ihe EarIh every 0
minuIes aI an alIiIude o nearly 2S0 miles (400 km) above Ihe EarIh's surace. As
iI passes inIo Ihe EarIh's shadow (where iI is eclipsed by Ihe EarIh) asIronauIs on
board see Ihe rosy red glow o sunseI and Ihose o us beneaIh see Ihe yellow
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Black hole 5un 5
Map of ahhular, hybrid, ahd LoLal solar eclipses visible arouhd Lhe world beLweeh 2001 ahd
2050. Durihg a hybrid eclipse Lhe Mooh is Loo far from Lhe wesLerh ahd easLerh limbs of Lhe
EarLh for a LoLal eclipse. viewers hear Lhe begihhihg ahd ehd of Lhe eclipse Lrack see ah ahhular
eclipse while Lhose ih Lhe cehLer of Lhe shadow's paLh are oh Lhe parL of Lhe EarLh closesL Lo Lhe
Mooh ahd so |usL barely see a LoLal eclipse (Eclipse map courLesy of lred Espehak, NASA
Coddard Space llighL CehLer).
beacon Iurn red and dim as iI silenIly disappears inIo darkness. \hile you may
caIch one o Ihese evenIs by chance, a number o websiIes predicI Ihese evenIs
or any daIe and locaIion on EarIh. The besI siIe by ar is Heavens-Above.com
which will Iell you when and where Io look or everyIhing rom Ihe ISS, Io Ihe
Hubble Space Telescope Io any number o saIelliIes and Iumbling abandoned
boosIer rockeIs.
TabIc 2.1 Lunar ccIgxcx {21-225}
Date cIipse cIipse Geographic Region of VisibiIity
Type Duration
2010 |uh 2 larLial 02h44m e Asia, AusLralia, lacific, w Americas
2010 Dec 21 1oLal 03h2m
01h13m e Asia, AusLralia, lacific, Americas, Europe
2011 |uh 15 1oLal 03h40m
01h41m SouLh America, Europe, Africa, Asia,
AusLralia
2011 Dec 10 1oLal 03h33m
00h52m Europe, e Africa, Asia, AusLralia, lacific,
NorLh America
2012 |uh 04 larLial 02h08m Asia, AusLralia, lacific, Americas
2013 Apr 25 larLial 00h32m Europe, Africa, Asia, AusLralia
2014 Apr 15 1oLal 03h35m
01h19m AusLralia, lacific, Americas
2014 OcL 08 1oLal 03h20m
01h00m Asia, AusLralia, lacific, Americas
2015 Apr 04 1oLal 03h30m
2015 Sep 28 1oLal 03h21m
01h13m e lacific, Americas, Europe, Africa, w Asia
2017 Aug 07 larLial 01h57m Europe, Africa, Asia, AusLralia
2018 |ah 31 1oLal 03h23m
01h17m Asia, AusLralia, lacific, w NorLh America
2018 |ul 27 1oLal 03h55m
01h44m SouLh America, Europe, Africa, Asia,
AusLralia
201 |ah 21 1oLal 03h17m
01h03m lacific, Americas, Europe, Africa
201 |ul 1 larLial 02h5m SouLh America, Europe, Africa, Asia,
AusLralia
2021 May 2 1oLal 03h08m
00h19m e Asia, AusLralia, lacific, Americas
2021 Nov 1 larLial 03h2m Americas, h Europe, e Asia, AusLralia,
lacific
Black hole 5un 7
Date cIipse cIipse Geographic Region of VisibiIity
Type Duration
2022 May 1 1oLal 03h28m
01h2m Americas, Europe, Africa
2022 Nov 08 1oLal 03h40m
2023 OcL 28 larLial 01h1m e Americas, Europe, Africa, Asia, AusLralia
2024 Sep 18 larLial 01h05m Americas, Europe, Africa
2025 Mar 14 1oLal 03h3m
01h0m lacific, Americas, w Europe, w Africa
2025 Sep 07 1oLal 03h30m
01h23m Europe, Africa, Asia, AusLralia
NoLes: Ohly luhar eclipses where Lhe Mooh passes ihLo Lhe EarLh's umbra are
showh. 1he Lime duraLioh durihg which aL leasL parL of Lhe Mooh is wiLhih Lhe
umbra is showh, ihcludihg (ih boId) Lhe lehgLh of Lime Lhe Mooh spehds fully
wiLhih Lhe umbra if Lhe eclipse is LoLal. CrediL: Eclipse Lable courLesy of lred
Espehak, NASA}Coddard Space llighL CehLer. lor more ihformaLioh oh solar ahd
luhar eclipses, see lred Espehak's Eclipse Web SiLe: suhearLh.gsfc.hasa.gov}
eclipse}eclipse.hLml
further reading
Totalty. Lclpscs oj thc Sun by Mark LiIIman, Ered Espenak, & Ken \illcox (2008)
Oxord UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 01S320S.
Thc Copcrncan Rcvoluton. Planctary Astronomy n thc Dcvclopmcnt oj Wcstcrn
Thought by Thomas S. Kuhn (1S7)
Harvard UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 067417103.
Kcplcr's Wtch. An Astronomcr's Dscovcry oj Cosmc OrJcr AmJ Rclgous War,
Poltcal lntrguc, anJ thc Hcrcsy Tral oj Hs Mothcr by James A. Connor (200S)
HarperOne, ISBN 00607S04.
Blacl Holcs & Tmc Warps. Lnstcn's Outragcous Lcgacy by Kip S. Thorne (14)
\.\. NorIon & Company, ISBN 033312763.
NASA Eclipse \ebsiIe mainIained by Ered Espenak
hIIp:}}eclipse.gsc.nasa.gov}eclipse.hIml
Heavens Above, spacecraI observing predicIions
hIIp:}}www.heavens-above.com}
3
Tldes on a cosmlc shore
Thc surjacc oj thc Larth s thc shorc oj thc cosmc occan. . .. Rcccntly, wc
havc waJcJ a lttlc out to sca, cnough to Jampcn our tocs or, at most, wct
our anllcs. Thc watcr sccms nvtng. Thc occan calls. Somc part oj our
hcng lnows ths s jrom whcrc wc camc. Wc long to rcturn.
Carl Sagan, Cosmos
The sea shares a kinship wiIh space. SIanding on Ihe shore, sIaring ouI Io sea, Ihe
limiIlessness sIrains Ihe senses. I you've ever been on a ship ouI o sighI o land,
Ihe endless ocean makes even Ihe largesI ship shrink inIo insigniicance. The
same is vasIly Iruer o space o course. Even here, wiIh eeI planIed irmly on
EarIh, how many people eel small sIanding under a Iruly sIarry sky or Ihe irsI
Iime7 How many leI Iheir imaginaIions run wild when Ihey wonder whaI's ouI
Ihere, wheIher iI's Ihe dark depIhs o space or Ihe equally dark ocean depIhs7 In
boIh cases, Ihe impeneIrable seems unknowable.
BuI sIare long enough inIo eiIher and Iheir naIural rhyIhms presenI
Ihemselves. Over a single nighI Ihe sIars rise in Ihe easI and seI in Ihe wesI.
Erom nighI Io nighI Ihe Moon slowly moves rom wesI Io easI. Erom year Io year
Ihe planeIs slowly march rom one consIellaIion Io anoIher. Similarly on EarIh,
Ihe crash o waves is hypnoIic in iIs regulariIy: in and ouI, back and orIh. Erom
where I siI on a cobblesIone beach Ihe receding waIer sounds wiIh Ihe symphony
o Ien Ihousand Iiny pebbles as each breaking wave rolls back ouI Io sea. SIay or
a while and you noIice nuances.
\aves IhaI once broke ar down Ihe cove now orce me Io move, lesI my eeI
become weI wiIh Ihe rising waIer line. EvenIually Ihe enIire cove is enguled in
figure 3.1 Acadia NaLiohal lark is ohe
of mahy haLiohal ahd sLaLe parks locaLed
alohg Lhe couhLry's coasLs. As Lhe hearly
full Mooh rises over Lhe ALlahLic Oceah,
waves crash amid Lhe cobblesLohes of
LiLLle HuhLers 8each oh Acadia's MouhL
DeserL lslahd ih souLheasL Maihe (1.
Nordgreh).
Ihe sea. BuI, i I sIayed long enough, I'd see Ihe cycle reverse unIil six hours laIer
Ihe sea level is a dozen eeI lower and sea-oam and seaweed would resI once
more on weI cobbles. These dramaIic changes in Ihe ocean's heighI are Ihe Iides
and Ihey are one o Ihe mosI direcI experiences wiIh cosmic orces many o us
will ever wiIness or ourselves.
ApproximaIely every six hours we experience a new high or low Iide. This
paIIern repeaIs iIsel, over and over, every day on shorelines all over Ihe world.
Here in Maine on Ihe coasI o MounI DeserI Island and Acadia NaIional Fark Ihe
sea level regularly rises and drops by a dozen eeI over Ihe course o jusI six hours.
CreaI and mysIerious orces musI be aI work in order Io make IhaI much waIer
simply go away. BuI where does iI go, and why does iI go Ihere7 Erom paIIerns
come explanaIions. One such explanaIion comes rom Ihe Tsimshian people
along Ihe Faciic CoasI o Ihe U.S. and Canadian border:
A long Iime ago, Ihe old people say, Ihe Iide did noI come in or go
ouI.
The ocean would sIay very high up on Ihe shore or a long Iime and
Ihe clams and Ihe seaweed and Ihe oIher good Ihings Io eaI would be
hidden under Ihe deep waIer. The people were oIen hungry.
''This is noI Ihe way iI should be,'' said Raven. Then he puI on his
blankeI o black eaIhers and lew along Ihe coasI, ollowing Ihe line
o Ihe Iide. AI lasI he came Io Ihe house o a very old woman who was
Ihe one who held Ihe Iide-line in her hand. As long as she held onIo iI
Ihe Iide would sIay high. Raven walked inIo Ihe old woman's house.
There she saI, Ihe Iide-line held irmly in her hand. Raven saI down
across rom her.
''Ah,'' he said, ''Those clams were good Io eaI.''
''\haI clams7'' said Ihe old woman.
BuI raven did noI answer her. InsIead he paIIed his sIomach and
said, ''Ah, iI was so easy Io pick Ihem up IhaI I have eaIen as much as I
can eaI.''
''ThaI can'I be so,'' said Ihe old woman, Irying Io look pasI Raven Io
see ouI her door, buI Raven blocked Ihe enIrance. So she sIood up and
leaned pasI him Io look ouI. Then Raven pushed her so IhaI she ell
Ihrough Ihe door, and as she ell he Ihrew dusI inIo her eyes so IhaI
she was blinded. She leI go o Ihe Iide-line Ihen and Ihe Iide rushed
ouI, leaving all kinds o clams and crabs and oIher good Ihings Io eaI
exposed.
Raven wenI ouI and began Io gaIher clams. He gaIhered as much as
he could carry and aIe unIil he could eaI no more. All along Ihe beach
oIhers were gaIhering Ihe good ood and Ihanking Raven or whaI he
had done. Einally he came back Io Ihe place where Ihe old woman sIill
was. ''Raven,'' she said, ''I know iI is you. Heal my eyes so I can see
again.''
''I will heal you,'' Raven said, ''buI only i you promise Io leI go o
Ihe Iide-line Iwice a day. The people cannoI waiI so long Io gaIher
ood rom Ihe beaches.''
''I will do iI,'' said Ihe old woman. Then Raven washed ouI her eyes
and she could see again. So iI is IhaI Ihe Iide comes in and goes ouI
every day because Raven made Ihe old woman leI go o Ihe Iide-line.
Tsimshian Iale, How Raven Made Ihe Tides
This narraIive is rom Ihe book, Natvc Amcrcan Storcs Iold by Joseph Bruchac, a
poeI and sIoryIeller o Abenaki ancesIory (a people who Ioday sIill live here
along Ihe Cul o Maine). In iI we see an awareness o Ihe Iide's paIIerns IhaI has
always been viIal or anyone aIIempIing Io live along Ihe sea.
Eour hundred years ago along Ihe IIalian coasIline, Ihe asIronomer Calileo
became Ihe irsI modern scienIisI Io aIIribuIe Ihe Iides Io, i noI mysIical causes,
Ihen aI leasI cosmic ones. In Ihe ocean's sIeady rise and all in and ouI Ihrough
Ihe shipyards and canals o Venice, Calileo saw evidence or our planeI's moIion
in space. Eor nearly Iwo Ihousand years, Ihe prevailing view in Europe had been
IhaI Ihe EarIh saI perecIly sIill and ixed while Ihe enIire Universe moved
around us. Our language sIill clings Io Ihis commonsense noIion IhaI we are aI
resI. \hile millions o people each day enjoy Ihe beauIy o a sunseI, even Ihe
mosI sIeely-eyed scienIisIs I know never Ialk o ending Ihe day wiIh an ''EarIh-
Iurning-solar-disappearance.''
Now, we've all been Iold since we were young IhaI Ihe days are caused by Ihe
spin o Ihe EarIh, IhaI a year is one ull Irip o our planeI around Ihe Sun. BuI
whaI proo did our parenIs or Ieachers ever give us IhaI we could see or
ourselves7 Calileo IhoughI he had ound Ihis evidence wiIh Ihe Iides. Many o
Ihe experimenIs Calileo did on whaI would laIer become Ihe bedrock o physics
involved dropping Ihings, swinging Ihings, and waIching Ihings roll downhill.
In a swirling buckeI o waIer, Calileo IhoughI he ound Ihe reason or Ihe Iides. I
Ihe buckeI is perecIly aI resI he argued, Ihen Ihe waIer is Ioo. The only way Io
figure 3.2 Eveh wiLh
foggy skies, Lhe
presehce of Lide pools
lefL behihd durihg low
Lide are evidehce of
asLrohomical forces.
EhLire ecosysLems cah
be fouhd here ih Lhese
Lihy, Lemporary islahds
of sea-life (1. Nordgreh).
Tldes on a cosmlc shore 71
geI Ihe waIer Io slosh back and orIh was Io seI Ihe buckeI, and by exIension Ihe
EarIh, in moIion. In Ihe Iides he saw Ihe visible proo o Copernicus' idea IhaI
Ihe Sun, noI Ihe EarIh was Ihe cenIer o Ihe Universe. So sure o Ihis was he IhaI
Ihis idea became Ihe ourIh and inal chapIer o his Daloguc Conccrnng thc Two
Chcj WorlJ Systcms, Ihe book IhaI evenIually earned him almosI 400 years o
sancIion by Ihe CaIholic Church.
UnorIunaIely, Calileo was wrong abouI Ihe Iides. Yes, Ihey do have
someIhing Io do wiIh Ihe roIaIion o Ihe EarIh, aIer all, Ihe Iime beIween Iwo
seIs o high or low Iides is almosI exacIly 24 hours, which is how long iI Iakes Ihe
EarIh Io Iurn once on iIs axis. So unless Ihis is an amazing coincidence - and in
naIure Ihere are very ew amazing coincidences - Ihen Ihe roIaIion o Ihe EarIh
musI have someIhing Io do wiIh Ihe paIIern o Iides. \haI mosI o us have heard
aI some poinI, Ihough, is IhaI iI is Ihe Moon IhaI is responsible. This we can
parIially see or ourselves. NoIice IhaI I was careul Io say IhaI Ihe Iime beIween
Iwo seIs o high Iides is almost exacIly 24 hours. Fick up a copy o local Iide Iables
available in mosI seaside communiIy shops and compare Ihe Iimes o high and
low Iides rom day Io day. Each day Ihe Iides occur abouI S0 minuIes laIer Ihan
Ihe previous day. I Ihe Iide Iables don'I also include moonrise and seI Iimes,
waIch Ihe sky on Ihose days when Ihe clouds and og are clear and you will
evenIually noIice IhaI Ihe Moon also rises abouI S0 minuIes laIer rom day Io
day. Somehow Ihese evenIs musI be relaIed.
EorIy-ive years aIer Calileo's deaIh, Sir Isaac NewIon discovered Ihe uniying
orce o graviIy IhaI governs all Ihose Ihings Calileo was inIeresIed in: why
Ihings all, swing, roll, and orbiI one anoIher in space. In his Iheory o how
graviIy worked, NewIon Iheorized IhaI Ihe sIrengIh o graviIy's pull depends on
only Iwo Ihings: (1) Ihe producI o Ihe mass o Ihe Iwo Ihings involved, and (2)
Ihe square o Iheir disIance rom one anoIher (i.e., Iheir separaIion Iimes iIsel).
The second o Ihese means IhaI as Ihe disIance beIween a planeI and a moon
becomes Iwo Iimes greaIer, Ihe orce o graviIy beIween Ihem becomes our
Iimes weaker. I Ihe disIance decreases Io one Ihird o whaI iI was, Ihe orce o
graviIy becomes nine Iimes sIronger. The disIance separaIing Ihings is Ihereore
very imporIanI: small dierences in disIance can become large dierences in
graviIy.
TonighI I'm walking along Ihe sea-ronI in Ihe Iown o Bar Harbor jusI ouIside
Ihe Acadia park boundary. Erom my posiIion on Ihe AIlanIic CoasI, I see Ihe ull
Moon jusI begin Io rise over Ihe easIern horizon. Meanwhile, nearly a quarIer o
Ihe way around Ihe EarIh Io Ihe easI, colleagues o mine in NewIon's England see
Ihe ull Moon high overhead and Ihus are a liIIle closer Io iI Ihan I. Eriends o
mine in Hawaii, however, a quarIer o Ihe way around Ihe EarIh Io Ihe wesI, are
on very nearly Ihe opposiIe side o Ihe EarIh rom Ihe Moon and will noI see iI
rise or nearly anoIher six hours. I am Ihereore a liIIle closer Io iI Ihan Ihey. All
o Ihis means IhaI Ihe parIs o Ihe EarIh on which each o us is sIanding, mysel,
my riends and my colleagues, all eel a dierenI graviIaIional pull rom Ihe
Moon.
\hile rock is preIIy solid and doesn'I deorm easily under whaI is really only a
figure 3.3 DifferehL parLs of Lhe EarLh are fouhd aL differehL disLahces from Lhe Mooh.
Here, ih Lhe firsL image of Lhe EarLh ever Lakeh from Lhe Mooh, Africa ahd Lhe
MediLerraheah Oceah siL alohg Lhe EarLh's LermihaLor ahd are Lhe closesL poihLs oh Lhe
plaheL Lo Lhe Mooh. 1his image was Lakeh ih 1 by Lhe Luhar OrbiLer spacecrafL ahd aL
Lhe Lime was declared Lhe lhoLo of Lhe CehLury. lh 2008 iL was reprocessed Lo brihg ouL
Lhe full beauLy of Lhe image (NASA}LOlkl (Luhar OrbiLer lmage kecovery lro|ecL)).
slighIly dierenI orce, waIer is Io say Ihe leasI, luid. The waIers on Ihe side o
Ihe EarIh closesI Io Ihe Moon are raised in a slighI bulge ouIward rom Ihe resI o
Ihe EarIh. \here I sIand I see Ihe eecI o Ihis lunar orce as Ihe waIers are pulled
away rom my seashore Io ill IhaI bulge over by Europe and Arica. The resulI: I
experience low Iide while Iheir Iide is high.
figure 3.4 A
NaLiohal lark
kahger
demohsLraLes Lhe
cause of Lhe Lides
usihg ah assisLahL
as Lhe Mooh ahd
showihg Lhe Lwo
Lidal bulges of
waLer he raises oh
eiLher side of Lhe
EarLh (1.
Nordgreh).
figure 3.5 1op view: DifferehL
parLs of Lhe EarLh aL differehL
disLahces from Lhe Mooh feel a
differehL pull of graviLy from Lhe
Mooh (showh by Lhe lehgLh of
Lhe arrows). Middle view:
8ecause Lhe differehL parLs of Lhe
EarLh feel a differehL graviLaLiohal
pull relctive tc the center of Lhe
EarLh, Lhe net pull oh each parL,
relaLive Lo Lhe cehLer of Lhe
plaheL, is as showh. 8oLLom view:
1wo bulges are Lherefore raised
oh Lhe EarLh. 1he closesL is raised
as Lhe hear porLioh is pulled away
from Lhe middle. 1he far porLioh
is raised as Lhe middle is pulled
away from iL (1. Nordgreh).
\haI Ihen o my riends in Hawaii7 Are all o Iheir waIers pulled away rom
Ihem so IhaI Ihey experience an even lower Iide Ihan I7 I Ihis were Ihe case, and
Ihe Moon only pulled one bulge o waIer Iowards iI, Ihen as Ihe EarIh Iurned
underneaIh IhaI waIer we would experience high Iide only once every day
insIead o Iwice a day as we do in realiIy. There musI be Iwo bulges, one on each
side o Ihe EarIh, buI why should Ihe Moon cause waIer Io bulge away rom iI7
The answer is IhaI jusI as my colleagues in England are closer Io Ihe Moon Ihan I,
and Ihus Ihe waIer near Iheir shores is pulled upwards away rom Ihe EarIh, my
riends in Hawaii are arIher rom Ihe Moon Ihan I and Ihus Ihe EarIh o which I
am a parI is pulled ever so slighIly ouI rom underneaIh Ihe ocean where Ihey
are. Two bulges are ormed, one because iI is pulled wiIh greaIer orce Ihan Ihe
resI o Ihe EarIh, Ihe second because iI is pulled less sIrongly Ihan Ihe EarIh and
is leI behind.
As Ihe EarIh spins on iIs axis, Ihe moIion Calileo was inIeresIed in proving all
Ihose cenIuries ago, each place on EarIh passes under each waIer bulge, and Ihus
experiences Iwo high Iides a day. Since Ihe Moon slowly revolves around Ihe
EarIh every 27 days rom wesI Io easI, every day Ihe Moon appears Io rise above
each spoI on EarIh abouI S0 minuIes laIer and Ihe Iidal bulges iI induces come
abouI S0 minuIes laIer as Ihey ollow iI around.
There are some special places along Ihe EarIh's shorelines where high and low
Iides are parIicularly exIreme. As a college sIudenI, Ihe lasI job I ever held beore
becoming an asIronomer was as seasonal help in a ish cannery ouIside o
Anchorage, Alaska. I worked Iwelve-hour shiIs, seven days a week, and each day
when Ihe Iedium overIook me, I'd gaze ouI Ihe cannery door aI Ihe boaI docks
beyond. I disIincIly remember Ihe irsI Iime I noIiced Ihe hull o Ihe ship ouIside
replaced, six hours laIer, by no more Ihan a view o iIs masI Iied up Io Ihe pier.
figure 3. lh 8ar Harbor, Maihe, aL Lhe ehLrahce Lo Acadia NaLiohal lark, Lhe sea level
regularly chahges by a dozeh feeL wiLh Lhe Lides. Here are Lwo images, from Lhe same
locaLioh, Lakeh ohly six hours aparL. NoLice Lhe heighL of Lhe waLer ahd Lhe whiLe ship's
hull relaLive Lo Lhe ehd of Lhe pier (1. Nordgreh).
During Ihe Iime in beIween, Ihe Iide had gone ouI and Ihe ship's keel had come
Io resI a liIIle over IhirIy eeI lower Ihan beore. Some days iI was leI resIing on
Ihe slick mud-laIs alIogeIher.
Here aI Ihe mouIh o Ihe Cul o Maine Ihe Iides are also preIIy exIreme, a
daily change o 12 eeI in sea level (3.7 meIers) is noI uncommon. EarIher up Ihe
Cul in Ihe Bay o Eundy NaIional Fark in New Brunswick, Canada, Ihe change
can be up Io our Iimes greaIer. Eormer Acadia Fark Ranger Jim McKenna, now a
proessor aI Ihe Maine MariIime Academy, describes Ihis eecI, called scchng,
Ihis way: ''Imagine Ihe AIlanIic Ocean is a gianI baIhIub. As Ihe Moon passes
over Ihe Iub iI drags Ihe Iidal bulge wiIh iI. As Ihe Moon passes over Ihe wesIern
edge o Ihe Iub and Ihe high waIer encounIers land, high Iide occurs and Ihe
bulge rebounds back easI across Ihe ocean. I Ihe Iub is jusI Ihe righI lengIh so
IhaI Ihe Iime iI Iakes or Ihe rebounding wave Io reach Ihe easIern shore is
exacIly Ihe same as Ihe Iime or Ihe nexI bulge Io come around again, Ihe heighI
o Ihe wave is ampliied.''
This is exacIly Ihe same eecI as pushing a child on a swing. I Ihe raIe aI
which you push a swinging child is exacIly Ihe same raIe as which Ihe child
comes back Io you, Ihe ampliIude o her swing increases. This is usually Ihe goal.
figure 3.7 Map of Lhe
rahge of world Lides. ked
areas experiehce ehormous
Lidal variaLiohs while blue
areas experiehce very liLLle
(k. kay, NASA Coddard
Space llighL CehLer).
Fush aI Ihe wrong raIe and preIIy soon chaos develops and Ihe very iraIe child
loses heighI. In regions o Ihe world where Ihe raIe aI which waIer moves in and
ouI o a bay or inleI is very nearly equal Io Ihe raIe aI which Ihe Iidal bulge comes
around, dramaIic swings occur aI Ihe ar end o Ihe gul (such as Ihe Bay o Eundy
aI Ihe ar end o Ihe Cul o Maine).
The Sun also aecIs Ihe Iides. \hile Ihe Sun is very much arIher away rom
Ihe EarIh Ihan Ihe Moon, iI is also 30 million Iimes more massive Ihan Ihe Moon
and so even iI aecIs whaI we see in Ihe paIIern o coasIal Iides. TonighI is a
wonderully clear nighI, wiIh jusI enough og and clouds along Ihe horizon Io
lend Ihe sunseI drama. Behind me, Ihe Sun has seI while beore me Ihe ull Moon
rises Ihrough Ihe red glow o IwilighI. AI Ihis momenI Ihe Iide is excepIionally
low and beore me a land-bridge Io nearby Bar Island is revealed. \alking ouI
onIo Ihe grey, gravelly sand bar where seaweed and crusIaceans cover Ihe
figure 3.8 Durihg low Lides, 8ar lslahd is |oihed Lo 8ar Harbor by a wide causeway.
visiLors cah walk across Lo Lhe ''islahd'' wiLhih ah hour ahd a half of low Lide. Six hours
laLer Lhe ehLire expahse is compleLely covered by Lhe sea (1. Nordgreh).
recenIly weI surace, I am awesIruck
Io be sIanding on whaI, in six hours
Iime, will once more be Ihe sea
loor.
1
\hen Ihe Sun, EarIh, and Moon
are all in a line, boIh o Iheir Iidal
eecIs on Ihe EarIh are aligned as
well, and low Iides are lower, while
high Iides are even higher. This
alignmenI happens near ull Moon
when Ihe Moon is on Ihe opposiIe
side o Ihe EarIh Io Ihe Sun, and
New Moon when Ihe Moon is
beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun. Check
Ihe Iide Iables IhaI give Ihe heighIs
o Ihe Iides as well as Ihe Iime Ihey
occur and you will see IhaI abouI
Iwo days aIer each New and Eull
Moon Ihe Iides are excepIionally
large.
2
These are called Ihe sprng
tJcs (so named or images o Ihe
waves springing higher up Ihe sea-
shore) and Ihis monIh in Bar Har-
bor, Ihe heighI o Ihe ocean will
change by nearly 1S eeI (4.S m)
over Ihe course o jusI six hours. A week aIer ull or new Moon, when Ihe Sun
and Moon are 0 degrees away rom one anoIher, Iheir Iidal pull is aI cross-
purposes and Ihe dierence beIween high and low Iides is parIicularly small.
These are called Ihe ncap tJcs.
Every seven and a hal lunaIions (where a lunaton is Ihe 2 and a hal days
beIween Iwo consecuIive ull Moons) an even more subIle phenomenon occurs.
Because Ihe Moon orbiIs Ihe EarIh in an ellipIical orbiI, someIimes Ihe Moon is
closer Io Ihe EarIh (called pcrgcc) Ihan aI any oIher Iime and Ihe Iidal orces are
greaIer. \hen ull or new Moon occurs while Ihe Moon is aI perigee, Ihe
combined eecIs o Sun, Moon, and orbiIal dynamics all conspire Io produce
spring Iides even higher Ihan Ihose IhaI occur every monIh. These are Ihe
pcrgcan Iides, someIimes called astronomcal Iides, buI as you can see on any Irip
figure 3.9 A close-up of a porLioh of MouhL
DeserL lslahd LhaL cohLaihs Lhe ma|oriLy of
Acadia NaLiohal lark. 8ar Harbor wiLh Lhe
periodically mishamed 8ar lslahd is locaLed ih
Lhe horLheasL parL of Lhe islahd (upper lefL of
Lhe map) (NaLiohal lark Service).
1
The Iides don'I even have Io be IhaI exIreme in order Io open Ihe passageway. Every day Ihe
Iide drops low enough Io open Ihe connecIion Io Bar Island. JusI be sure Io reIurn wiIhin an
hour and a hal on eiIher side o low Iide, however, as Ihe bar compleIely disappears during
high Iide.
2
The gap o a couple days occurs because Ihe waIer bulge IhaI Ihe Moon and Sun pull around
Ihe EarIh drags across Ihe sea loor and so lags behind Ihe parIicular phase o Ihe Moon.
Io Ihe coasI, IhaI's jusI being redun-
danI. Over Ihe course o jusI a
couple weeks' vacaIion on any sea-
shore you will wiIness or yoursel
Ihe Iug o war beIween asIronom-
ical orces, and Ihere never needs Io
be a clear nighI Io see iI.
Ideally, Ihe EarIh's bulges should
always sIay poinIed direcIly aI Ihe
Moon wiIh Ihe EarIh roIaIing
underneaIh. BuI Ihe EarIh Iurns on
iIs axis asIer Ihan Ihe Moon orbiIs
Ihe EarIh (Ihe reason we see Ihe
Moon rise in Ihe EasI and seI in Ihe
\esI each day). As a resulI, ricIion
beIween Ihe sealoor and sea causes
Ihe bulges Io be parIially carried
orward wiIh Ihe EarIh's roIaIion
relaIive Io Ihe posiIion o Ihe Moon.
The Moon's graviIy, however, con-
Iinues Io pull backwards on Ihose
bulges and ever so gradually Ihe
EarIh's roIaIion is slowed as graviIy,
waIer, and rock slowly acI againsI
one anoIher. The days are Ihereore
geIIing longer by abouI 1.7 milli-
seconds per day per cenIury.
3
BuI Ihese orces work boIh ways.
JusI as Ihe Moon deorms Ihe EarIh,
Ihe EarIh deorms Ihe Moon. Since
Ihe EarIh is much more massive
Ihan Ihe Moon, Iidal orces rom
figure 3.10 1he full Mooh rises over Egg kock
LighL as seeh from Lhe Egg kock overlook oh
Lhe Acadia lark Loop koad. 8ecause Lhe Mooh
is forever Lidally locked Lo roLaLe aL exacLly Lhe
same raLe iL circles Lhe EarLh, we always see
exacLly Lhe same face. 1he dark markihgs LhaL
make up Lhe Mah ih Lhe Mooh are acLually
smooLh plaihs of dark volcahic rock LhaL
ahciehL observers ohce LhoughL were seas
(1. Nordgreh).
3
\e have direcI evidence o Ihis slowing rom 2,000 year old Babylonian records o solar and
lunar eclipses. The observaIions Ihey recorded on clay IableIs careully noIe Ihe daIes and
Iimes Ihese eclipses occurred (e.g., how soon aIer sunrise or moonrise). \iIh modern
undersIanding o Ihe moIion o EarIh, Moon, and Sun we can calculaIe when Ihese evenIs
would have occurred i Ihe EarIh's roIaIion was consIanI. To see Ihe IoIal solar eclipse o 1S
April, 136 B.C., or insIance, a clock seI Io Ihe roIaIion o Ihe EarIh's spin musI have losI a
liIIle over 3 hours over Ihe lasI 2,000 years compared Io an ideal clock keeping perecI Iime.
Had iI noI, Ihe solar eclipse would only have been parIial as seen in Babylon, direcIly
conIradicIing Ihe view o Ihe sIars and planeIs a Babylonian asIronomer reporIed aI mid-day
during IoIaliIy. IncidenIally, while Ihe EarIh is slowing down, Ihe Moon is moving away. As
Ihe Moon's graviIy pulls back on Ihe EarIh's Iidal bulge, Ihe bulge's graviIy pulls orward on
Ihe Moon. This added biI o angular momenIum causes Ihe Moon Io slowly spiral ouIward
rom Ihe EarIh. As Ihe days geI longer Ihe Moon geIs arIher away.
Ihe EarIh long ago slowed Ihe Moon's roIaIion so IhaI iIs bulges (Ihis Iime o
solid rock) always sIay poinIed Iowards Ihe EarIh and Ihe Man in Ihe Moon never
goes away.
4
Many billions o years rom now, a day will come when Ihe Moon has slowed
Ihe EarIh Io Ihe poinI IhaI iI Iurns aI exacIly Ihe same raIe IhaI Ihe Moon orbiIs,
Ihe Iwo bodies will orever keep Ihe same aces poinIed Iowards one anoIher. On
IhaI day anyone leI on EarIh will see Ihe Moon cease Io rise and seI and only Ihe
weaker Iides rom Ihe Sun will conIinue Io move across Ihe oceans.
There is noIhing unique abouI Iidal orces wiIh respecI Io Ihe EarIh and
Moon. As o 200 Ihere were 170 known moons orbiIing planeIs in our Solar
SysIem, and nearly every one o Ihem behaves in Ihe same way as our Moon.
MosI o Ihem were long ago Iidally locked, always keeping Ihe same ace poinIed
Iowards Iheir parenI planeI. FlaneIary scienIisIs mapping Ihe landscapes o Ihese
disIanI moons make reerence, Ihereore, Io a moon's sub-planeIary poinI: Ihe
posiIion on Ihe surace o Ihe moon on which, i you could buI sIand, Ihe parenI
planeI would orever hang direcIly overhead. Eor moons o Ihe gianI planeIs:
JupiIer, SaIurn, Uranus, and NepIune, Iheir home planeIs are 10,000 Io a million
Iimes more massive Ihan Iheir moons (as compared Io only 100 Iimes larger or
Ihe EarIh and iIs Moon). As a resulI, Ihe degree Io which Ihe Jovian planeIs
deorm Iheir liIIle moons is enormous.
Look aI JupiIer Ihrough a pair o binoculars or a spoIIing scope wiIh a
magniying power o no more Ihan 20, and you will see JupiIer's Iiny disk jusI
as Calileo did when he irsI poinIed his Ielescope aI Ihe planeI on Ihe nighI o
figure 3.11 A skeLch of |upiLer
ahd iLs moohs as made Lhrough
a replica of Calileo's Lelescope
wiLh which he firsL observed
Lhem. 1he maghificaLioh is ohly
25 Limes whaL Lhe humah eye
cah see, ahd is equivalehL Lo
whaL a preLLy good pair of
bihoculars would show. 1o see
Lhese, boLh Lhe Lelescope ahd
Lhe bihoculars heed Lo be
sLeadied oh a camera Lripod
(1. Nordgreh).
4
Many people suppose Ihis means Ihe Moon doesn'I Iurn on iIs axis like Ihe EarIh. However, i
Ihe Moon didn'I Iurn wiIh respecI Io Ihe sIars, irsI we would see one side, and Ihen Iwo
weeks laIer when Ihe Moon had gone hal way around Ihe EarIh we would see Ihe oIher. In
order Io keep Ihe same ace Iurned Iowards us iI needs Io Iurn on iIs axis aI exacIly Ihe same
raIe IhaI iI goes around us. Again, an apparenI coincidence o IhaI magniIude reveals Ihe
hidden beauIy o Ihe orces aI work beIween EarIh and Moon.
January 7, 1610. SIeady Ihe binoculars on a Iripod or by resIing Ihem againsI Ihe
Irunk o a Iree and you will see Ihe our Iiny moons Calileo discovered arrayed in
a line abouI Ihe planeI's disk. Since Ihe common plane in which all our moons
orbiI is almosI perecIly in line wiIh us we always see Ihem laid ouI like our Iiny
pearls on a sIring (alIhough one or more may be obscured by JupiIer every so
oIen).
\aIch or only Iwo nighIs and you will see Ihe paIIern o moons change as
Ihey make Iheir way around JupiIer according Io Kepler's laws o planeIary
moIion. InnermosI Io, abouI Ihe same size as our Moon, Iakes 1.8 days Io make
one ull orbiI. NexI ouI Iiny Europa, only Iwo-Ihirds as massive as our own
Moon, Iakes 3.S days Io make Ihe Irip. The Ihird moon is Canymede, largesI
moon in Ihe Solar SysIem, circling JupiIer once every seven days, ollowed by
CallisIo aI a liIIle over 16 days. \aIch Ihese moons or a ew monIhs as Calileo
did and you can pick ouI Ihese periods or yoursel.
Over Ihe lasI our and a hal billion years, Iidal orces rom gianI JupiIer
should long ago have pulled all our moons inIo perecIly circular orbiIs wiIh
each one orever locked wiIh one ace poinIing inward Iowards Ihe planeI's disk.
BuI, like rambuncIious siblings, Ihe graviIaIional yank and pull rom each moon
on anoIher has kepI Europa and Io, and Io a lesser exIenI Canymede, rom ever
seIIling inIo perecIly circular orbiIs. Europa's ellipIical orbiI Ihereore repeaIedly
carries iI Iowards and away rom JupiIer's enormous bulk. The Iidal sIreIching
IhaI JupiIer induces Ihereore waxes and wanes repeaIedly every Ihree and a hal
days or Ihe lie o Ihe moon.
The ellipIical orbiI also warps Ihe moon in anoIher unusual manner. Like our
Moon, Europa keeps Ihe same ace poinIed Iowards JupiIer by Iurning on iIs axis
aI Ihe same raIe IhaI iI orbiIs Ihe planeI. However, because Europa's orbiI is
ellipIical, orbiIal dynamics embodied in Kepler's laws, say IhaI Ihe moon musI
speed up as iI passes closesI Io JupiIer and slow down aI Ihe poinI IhaI iI's
arIhesI away. Since Ihe moon spins on iIs axis aI a consIanI raIe, Ihis changing
orbiIal speed means IhaI some Iimes Ihe planeI moves Ioo asI Io keep Ihe same
ace poinIed exacIly aI JupiIer while hal an orbiI laIer iI moves Ioo slowly. As a
resulI, Ihe ace IhaI always poinIs Iowards JupiIer slowly swings back and orIh
ever so slighIly relaIive Io a line joining iI Io Ihe planeI.
S
\hile Ihe moon may swing, Ihe posiIion o Ihe bulges does noI. JupiIer's
massive graviIaIional orce keep Ihe Iidal sIreIching poinIed direcIly along Ihe
line beIween moon and planeI. Eor any one geographical spoI on Ihe small
moon Ihereore, Ihe bulges sweep back and orIh across Ihe sub- and anIi-Jovian
hemispheres.
S
Because our Moon's orbiI is also ellipIical Ihe same phenomenon happens here. Calileo irsI
observed Ihis eecI, called lhraton, which allows us each monIh Io see a liIIle way around
Iowards Ihe 'arside' o Ihe Moon. As a resulI, over Ihe course o a monIh we can see almosI
60% o Ihe Moon's IoIal surace area.
figure 3.12 |upiLer, lo ahd Europa (Lop)
Lakeh from voyager 1 as iL heared Lhe
plaheL oh lebruary 5, 17 (NASA |eL
lropulsioh LaboraLory).
figure 3.13 Europa rises over Lhe limb of |upiLer. NoLice Lhe cracks crossihg Lhe face of
Lhe mooh. Compare Lhis image made by Lhe New Horizohs spacecrafL ih 2007, as iL was
passihg |upiLer oh iLs way Lo lluLo, Lo Lhe similar image of Lhe EarLh risihg over Lhe limb
of Lhe Mooh made by Lhe Luhar OrbiLer spacecrafL ih 1 ih ligure 3.3 (NASA}|ohhs
Hopkihs hiversiLy Applied lhysics LaboraLory}SouLhwesL kesearch lhsLiLuLe).
BoIh o Ihese eecIs, Ihe changing amounI o Ihe Iidal sIreIching, and Ihe
changing posiIion o Ihe Iidal sIreIching, cause Ihe rock wiIhin Ihe moon Io
slowly rub and scrape, back and orIh. Deep inside iIs small body, every insIance
o ricIion beIween jagged suraces generaIes a Iiny licker o warmIh IhaI keeps
Ihe inIerior o Ihe moon perpeIually aglow. Today, scienIisIs Ihink Ihis heaI has
melIed a planeI-wide ocean o waIer on Europa, proIecIed rom Ihe rigid
vacuum o space above by a
rozen icy shell.
ThaI someIhing sIrange was
occurring aI Europa was appar-
enI rom Ihe very irsI images
reIurned by Ihe Iwo Voyager
spacecraI IhaI passed by in
17. Unlike our Moon Ihere
were no mounIains, no gianI
impacI basins, no maria, no
canyons, and mosI imporIanI o
all, virIually no craIers. \haI
Ihere was, were innumerable
cracks criss-crossing an improb-
ably smooIh surace, like a crys-
Ial ball IhaI had been shaIIered
wiIh a hammer.
Cross-counIry ski across Ihe
rozen surace o Europa and
rom Ihe summiI o Ihe highesI
icy plaIeau Io Ihe boIIom o Ihe
lowesI valley Irough you will
descend liIIle more Ihan a mile
(no more Ihan Iwo kilomeIers).
Along Ihe way, in addiIion Io
crossing globe-girdling icy crev-
asses you will also see regions o
vasI broken ice-sheeIs where ice-
bergs are orever locked in a
rozen-solid sea. These eaIures,
irsI seen by Voyager, were
imaged anew wiIh greaIer deIail
when NASA came back or a
longer look wiIh Ihe appropri-
aIely named Calileo spacecraI in
Ihe laIe 10s.
Eor Ihe lasI our hundred
years, Ihe bedrock requiremenI
o science is IhaI iI's noI enough
figure 3.14 1he sLrahgely smooLh surface of Europa
is revealed ih Lhis image from Lhe Calileo spacecrafL.
Cracks overlap cracks wiLhouL ahy Lrace of
mouhLaihs or cahyohs ahd ohly ohe lohe craLer
(compare Lhis wiLh our owh Mooh as seeh ih ligure
3.3). 1hree promihehL cycloidal cracks cross Lhrough
Lhis image revealihg Lhe presehce of a subsurface sea
(aL leasL aL Lhe Lime Lhey were formed). NoLe Lhe
scale bar ih Lhe corher (NASA}|lL}hiversiLy of
Arizoha).
Io have a hypoIhesis IhaI sounds good, buI raIher iI is evidence IhaI counIs. Eor
Ihis reason, Ihe Calileo spacecraI's mission aI Europa was ocused on inding
evidence o Ihis ice-capped ocean and clues as Io how Ihick Ihe obscuring layer
o ice mighI be.
One o Ihe irsI eaIures visible Io Voyager IhaI were imaged in much greaIer
deIail by Calileo, were sIrange cycloidal ridges: greaI looping cracks IhaI
sIreIched or Ihousands o miles across Ihe Europan landscape. In 1, Rick
Creenberg and collaboraIors aI Ihe UniversiIy o Arizona Lunar and FlaneIary
LaboraIory published a paper in which Ihey showed exacIly how Ihese sIrange
issures could have ormed.
On EarIh, we see our Iidal ocean bulge by waIching iI rise and all a dozen eeI
or so againsI Ihe sIaIionary coasIline. On Europa Ihere is no sIable coasIline as
Ihe enIire surace rises and alls by nearly a hundred eeI (30 m) over Ihe course
o a single Ihree and hal day orbiI. BuI as Ihe surace rises, sIress on Ihe icy shell
causes cracks IhaI slowly sIreIch across Ihe surace aI Ihe same speed IhaI you or I
mighI walk.
Erom Ihe perpeIual swinging back and orIh moIion o Ihe moon caused by iIs
ellipIical orbiI, Ihe direcIion IhaI JupiIer's Iidal sIresses pull on Ihe cracks slowly
changes over Ihe course o iIs hal-weekly orbiI. \iIh each pass near JupiIer, a
crack begins Io grow, arc, and sIop, only Io sIarI up again wiIh each new pass
around Ihe planeI. Eor Ihe irsI Iime, a plausible explanaIion was shown or Ihese
beauIiully sIrange eaIures, buI mosI imporIanI o all, Ihey only worked i Ihe
ice being deormed is a Ihin shell on Iop o a liquid ocean. A solid icy moon will
exhibiI no such behavior.
6
To be honesI, however, all IhaI Ihe cycloidal cracks show is IhaI Ihe moon was
liquid as recenIly as Ihe lasI ew million years. To undersIand whaI is under Ihe
ice righI now, anoIher piece o observaIional evidence was needed. Bob
Fappalardo is a planeIary geologisI aI NASA's JeI Fropulsion LaboraIory in
Caliornia and since receiving his FhD in geology in 14 he has been eiIher aI or
near Ihe graviIaIional cenIer o one o Ihe largesI research groups working on
Europa's mysIerious inIerior. I was curious whaI he IhoughI Ihe single besI
evidence was or a liquid ocean on Europa - given IhaI no one has ever seen
beneaIh Ihe icy surace. In neaIly summarizing Ihe lasI IhirIy years o Iheory and
observaIion, he replied, ''TheoreIical modeling o Iidal heaIing predicIs IhaI
Europa could have a global ocean beneaIh Ihe ice, and Europa's geology cerIainly
supporIs Ihis noIion. BuI,'' he conIinued, ''II is Ihe magneIomeIer daIa rom Ihe
Calileo spacecraI which is Ihe besI evidence we have IhaI an ocean exisIs Ihere
Ioday.''
Like Ihe EarIh, JupiIer has a magneIic ield. However, JupiIer's is 20,000 Iimes
6
Try iI or yoursel: squeeze an orange. An orange is a mosIly liquid sphere wiIh a Ihin solid
shell on Ihe surace. Now squeeze a similarly sized apple, an apple is solid all Ihe way
Ihrough. An orange will give and deorm, Ihe apple won'I.
sIronger and exIends so ar ouI inIo space IhaI all our o iIs Calilean moons orbiI
inside iIs boundary. I you could look up inIo Ihe sky and see JupiIer's magneIic
ield wiIh Ihe naked-eye, iI would appear ive Iimes larger Ihan Ihe ull Moon. I
Europa were an inerI lump o solid ice, a cross-counIry skier holding a compass
on iIs surace would be guided ouIward inIo space Iowards JupiIer's NorIh Fole,
raIher Ihan anywhere speciic on Europa.
The Calileo spacecraI carried a compass, o sorIs, and as iI swooped pasI Ihe
icy moon, MargareI Kivelson and collaboraIors aI Ihe UniversiIy o Caliornia aI
Los Angeles ound Ihe direcIion o iIs 'needle' changed. SomeIhing wiIhin Ihe
moon alIers Ihe magneIic ield o JupiIer in which iI siIs. The only way Ihe moon
could do IhaI is i Ihere is a subsIance inside Europa IhaI carries iIs own elecIrical
charge and is able move in response Io Ihe magneIic ield iI eels (and Ihus alIer
Ihe neI magneIic ield around Ihe moon). As explained by Fappalardo, ''This
indicaIes IhaI Ihere musI be a conducIor aI a relaIively shallow depIh beneaIh
Ihe surace, and Ihe only good candidaIe is a salIy waIer ocean.''
The quesIion remains however, how ar down beneaIh Ihe ice do you have Io
go Io inally reach Ihe ocean7 In answer Io Ihis quesIion, Ihere are currenIly Iwo
camps. One side claims a Ihin crusI o no more Ihan a ew miles or kilomeIers,
where cracks sIill orm IhaI sIreIch rom Ihe rozen surace all Ihe way down Io
Ihe liquid ocean beneaIh. The oIher side claims Ihe evidence poinIs Io a Ihick
crusI around 1S miles (Iwo dozen kilomeIers) or more, where Ihe liquid sea is
kepI in uIIer isolaIion rom Ihe vacuum o space above.
Fappalardo avors a Ihick crusI. ''Erom Ihe sizes and shapes o Europa's ew
impacI craIers, iI appears IhaI Ihey ormed in an ice shell IhaI is abouI 20 km
Ihick,'' says Fappalardo. ''MosI craIers appear as i Ihey ormed in Ihe solid ice,
while Ihe Iwo largesI show bullseye-like rings which suggesI Ihey have
peneIraIed Io liquid waIer.''
Eor Creenberg, who proposes whaI he'd raIher describe as a ''permeable''
model - where Ihe crusI is Ihin enough IhaI Ihe surace o Ihe moon is in
consIanI conIacI wiIh Ihe sea beneaIh - he sees global evidence or his
hypoIheses in Ihe broad specIrum o cracks IhaI cross Ihe Iiny moon's surace. As
an example, he poinIs Io one o Ihe mosI common eaIures on Europa: sIrange
double-ridged cracks.
The mosI likely way Ihese ridges occur is IhaI Iidal orces orm cracks
IhaI open and close on a daily basis as a resulI o Ihe variaIions in Ihe
sIresses. \hen Ihe cracks open, waIer is going Io come up Io Ihe loaI
line jusI like a crack in a norIhern lake in winIer. \hen you go skaIing
on such a lake you can ind all Ihese places where Ihere are cracks and
waIer has come up 0% o Ihe way along Ihe ice and Ihen rereezes so
you geI Ihese grooves IhaI are jusI a ew inches deep. So, a similar
Ihing happens Ihere on Europa and Ihe waIer comes up, sIarIs Io
reeze, buI Ihen a ew hours laIer Ihe sIresses change and Ihe walls
close. As Ihey do, Ihey crunch up Ihe resh ice and squeeze iI up as
slush and broken ice onIo Ihe surace. Then a ew hours laIer as Ihe
figure 3.15 lcebergs locked ih frozeh seas are criss-crossed by double ridge cracks ih
Lhis Calileo image of Europa's surface. 1he area covered measures abouL 45 by 20 miles
(70 by 30 kilomeLers) (NASA}|lL}hiversiLy of Arizoha).
moon comes around Io Ihe same spoI in iIs orbiI as beore, Ihe Iidal
sIresses reIurn and Ihe crack opens up again and Ihe slush and rubble
is pulled Io eiIher side o Ihe now open crack. Every day Ihis happens
and so evenIually you build Ihese double ridges. To have IhaI happen
Ihough, you need Io have Ihe cracks open up all Ihe way down Io Ihe
liquid ocean.
In Ihe end Ihough, because Ihe main high-bandwidIh anIenna by which
Calileo was Io have reporIed iIs science daIa back Io EarIh never ully deployed,
Ihe number o images IhaI scienIisIs could acquire was only a hundredIh o whaI
had iniIially been hoped. As deIailed as Ihe Iidal models and calculaIions may be,
Ihe images upon which Ihey are based and wiIh which Ihey musI be compared,
are painully ew in number. \here daIa are sparse, disagreemenIs over Iheories
arise. And in planeIary science circles Ihe debaIe beIween 'Ihin' camps and
'Ihick' is as heaIed as Ihe moon's inIerior. There are scienIisIs who hope Ihe nexI
NASA lagship mission Io Ihe ouIer planeIs is a Europa orbiIer speciically
designed Io Iake o where Calileo ended. \hen asked whaI observaIion would
deiniIively end Ihe debaIe, Fappalardo replies,
A spacecraI equipped wiIh a radar sounder could deiniIely deIermine
which model is correcI. I Ihe ice shell is Ihin, Ihe radar signal will
peneIraIe Ihrough Ihe ice, relecI o Ihe ocean, and be picked up
again by Ihe radar. I Ihe ice shell is Ihick, Ihe radar signal will ade
slowly Ihrough Ihe Ihicker and warmer ice, and relecIions will occur
IhaI map ouI warm blobs o warmer ice IhaI are predicIed Io be rising
up Ihrough Ihe Ihick ice shell.
BuI why is Ihick versus Ihin imporIanI7 \aIching how Ihe graviIy o Europa
aecIed Calileo's IrajecIory as iI passed overhead, asIronomers deIermined Ihe
figure 3.1 ArLisL's drawihg of Lhe
Calileo spacecrafL wiLh iLs umbrella-
like high-gaih ahLehha LhaL hever
compleLely uhfurled. All Lhe images
Calileo sehL back Lo EarLh, Lherefore,
had Lo be dohe usihg Lhe much
smaller ahd far less powerful low-gaih
ahLehha showh here commuhicaLihg
wiLh a probe Calileo dropped ihLo
|upiLer's aLmosphere. Calileo arrived
aL |upiLer Dec 7, 15 (NASA).
figure 3.17 ArLisL's cohcepLioh of Lwo cross-secLioh views of Europa. Oh Lhe lefL is Lhe
Lhih, or porous, model where Lhe surface of Lhe ice is ih direcL cohLacL wiLh Lhe liquid
oceah beheaLh. llumes of hoL waLer from uhderwaLer 'black smokers' rise Lhrough Lhe
liquid sea. Oh Lhe righL is Lhe Lhick crusL model where cracks ih Lhe surface do hoL
propagaLe all Lhe way dowh Lo Lhe liquid beheaLh. Here 'black smokers' heaL Lhe ice
sehdihg blobs of warmer ice risihg Lhrough Lhe cooler surrouhdihgs (ArLwork by
Michael Carroll, NASA}|lL).
IoIal mass o Ihe moon. Erom measuring Ihe moon's size we know how dense Ihe
mass musI be Io iI wiIhin iIs volume. Because Ihe average densiIy is greaIer Ihan
Ihe densiIy o waIer we know Ihe inner porIion o Ihe moon musI be made o
rock. Knowing Ihe densiIy o boIh rock and ice, i we can deIermine Ihe
Ihickness o Ihe ice shell iI will reveal Ihe depIh o Ihe liquid ocean beneaIh.
Using a conservaIive esIimaIe or Ihe Ihickness o Ihe rozen ice shell (Ihe 'Ihick'
camp), Ihe ocean on Europa musI be aI leasI S0 miles (7S km) deep. This is deeper
Ihan any ocean on EarIh and Ihe combined waIer on all o Europa is more Ihan
Iwice Ihe waIers in all Ihe oceans o EarIh combined.
Imagine whaI mighI be down Ihere, orever hidden rom view by any
spacecraI passing overhead. EiIy years ago, biologisIs would have said noIhing.
All lie on EarIh known aI IhaI Iime needed sunlighI Io survive. I iI didn'I
generaIe iIs own energy direcIly rom sunlighI, iI aIe someIhing IhaI did, or iIs
ood aIe someIhing IhaI did (Ihink abouI your own ood). OuI aI JupiIer Ihe Sun
is weak. IIs pale lighI is 2S Iimes dimmer Ihan here aI EarIh and whaI liIIle lighI
illuminaIes Ihe icebergs on Europa surely doesn'I peneIraIe dozens o miles
Ihrough Ihe ice inIo Ihe sub-arcIic seas. BuI all IhaI changed in 177 wiIh Ihe
discovery o black smokers: Iowering submarine Ihermal venIs ueling enIire
ecosysIems in Ihe permanenI nighI o EarIh's deep ocean loor.
Erom Ihese undersea oresIs o sIrange sIony shapes, dark waIer, rich in
minerals, billows upward illuminaIed only in Ihe camera lighIs o deep-sea
submarines. This super-heaIed waIer, warmed by Ihe volcanism o Ihe EarIh's
inIerior pours inIo Ihe cold ocean aI IemperaIures greaIer Ihan 660. E (3S0. C).
As iI mixes wiIh Ihe rigid waIers over a mile beneaIh Ihe surace o Ihe sea, Ihe
minerals in Ihe 'smoke' precipiIaIe ouI building up gianI chimneys over millions
o years. They loom ouI o Ihe darkness like a long-sunken ciIy o sIeel acIories
leI-over rom an ancienI unknown indusIrial civilizaIion.
BuI raIher Ihan orming a submarine wasIeland o coal Iailings and slag, Ihe
volcanic heaI and minerals are Ihe basis o whaI beore Ihen was an enIirely
unknown and Ihriving ecosysIem. In Ihese sub-sea hoI springs, lie permanenIly
cuI-o rom Ihe energy o Ihe Sun Ihrives o Ihe inIernal volcanic heaI o Ihe
EarIh. And raIher Ihan jusI a simple evoluIionary oddiIy, Ihe lie orms down
Ihere may relecI Ihe very origin o all lie up here. The chain o chemical
reacIions required or Ihe green chlorophyll o planI lie Io converI sunlighI Io
energy is acIually quiIe complicaIed. By conIrasI, iI's a chemically simpler
process Io exIracI energy direcIly rom Ihe EarIh's heaI. As a resulI, Ihe irsI Iypes
o organisms Io evolve on any world are mosI likely Io be Ihose able Io geI Ihe
mosI ood, as quickly and as simply as possible. In Ihe Iube worms, snails, and
clams o Ihe sub-sea Ihermal venIs we may see Ihe shapes o lie's irsI orms.
\hile many planeIary scienIisIs assume IhaI Ihe same Iidal heaIing IhaI keeps
Europa's ocean liquid could also produce iIs own version o black smokers,
Creenberg is skepIical. 'The problem wiIh Ihe black smoker sIory is Ihere is no
evidence or iI on Europa.' AIer all, given Ihe degree Io which human beings
have explored Ihe EarIh, iI was noI unIil deep-sea submersibles searched Ihe
ocean loors IhaI we ound evidence o black-smokers on EarIh. Eor Ihis reason,
unIil submarines are senI Io Europa, any hypoIheses o Europan lie based on
Iheir presence will be Ihe worsI kind o science: Ihe kind wiIh no evidence
whaIsoever.
BuI maybe Ihere is anoIher way or lie, a way we have some hope o
deIecIing7 Eor Creenberg, Ihe dierence beIween 'Ihick' versus 'Ihin' is noIhing
less Ihan Ihe possibiliIy o lie iIsel. ''The imporIanI Ihing abouI having Ihe
linkages beIween Ihe ice surace and liquid sea is IhaI iI really makes iI possible Io
figure 3.18 1he summer Milky Way seLs alohg lark Loop koad oh a clear laLe-
SepLember evehihg. 1his view from |usL passed Lhe OLLer Cliff LookouL shows Lhe
beauLiful sLarry skies over Acadia NaLiohal lark. views like Lhis are possible from mahy
haLiohal ahd sLaLe parks, far from ciLy lighLs, seeh here disLahLly backlighLihg Lhe horizoh
(1. Nordgreh).
have lie on Europa. You have oxidanIs and oIher organic maIerial on Ihe
surace, maIerial broughI by comeIs. You can only have organisms living in Ihe
ocean i you can geI IhaI oxygen, or organic maIerial, down Io Ihe waIer.'' In
Europa's Iides, Creenberg sees Ihe only possibiliIy or discovering Europan lie.
A sIroll along any seashore, Ihereore, puIs every one o us in direcI conIacI
wiIh asIronomical orces, and possibly even Ihose orces responsible or lie up
Ihere amongsI Ihe planeIs and Ihe sIars beyond. Two weeks aIer waIching Ihe
ull Moon rise rom Ihe Iown o Bar Harbor, I've gone abouI as ar away rom Ihe
Iown lighIs as I can geI under a dark moonless nighI. TonighI, I'm walking alone
along Ihe quieI and blessedly dark Arcadia Fark Loop Road IhaI ollows Ihe
figure 3.19 A pahoramic map of Lhe sky as seeh from OLLer Cliffs LookouL alohg Lhe
Acadia lark Loop koad. Members of Lhe lslahd AsLrohomy lhsLiLuLe, workihg LogeLher
wiLh Lhe NaLiohal lark Service, rouLihely measure Lhe brighLhess of Lhe backgrouhd sky
(here showh ih arLificial color) ih order Lo Lrack Lhe spread of arLificial lighL polluLioh LhaL
bloLs ouL Lhe disLahL lighL of sLars. 1he brighLer Lhe backgrouhd (brighLhess ihcreases
from black ahd purple all Lhe way up Lhrough Lhe raihbow, aL lefL, Lo whiLe) Lhe fewer
sLars cah be seeh. lh Lhe Lop frame, a Lruly dark sky (before Lhe ihvehLioh of Lhe elecLric
lighL) would show a sky of purple ahd dark blue. 1he yellow over Lhe horizoh is from Lhe
local Lowh of 8ar Harbor. 1he lighL blue arc Lhrough Lhe upper image is Lhe haLural lighL
of Lhe Milky Way. 1he image aL boLLom is a dayLime pahorama of Lhe locaLioh for
comparisoh. Zero degrees alohg Lhe horizohLal axis is due horLh, 0 degrees is due easL
(lslahd AsLrohomy lhsLiLuLe).
rugged and rocky coasI around Ihe island. AI nighI Ihe road Iravels under some
o Ihe mosI sIar-illed skies on Ihe easI coasI o Ihe UniIed SIaIes. CoasIlines are
usually good places Io see Ihe nighI sky as Ihere you are normally guaranIeed
IhaI aI leasI hal Ihe horizon will be ree rom Ihe ciIy lighIs IhaI drown ouI Ihe
disIanI sIars. This is especially Irue in Acadia NaIional Fark where Fark Rangers
consider Ihe nighI sky above Ihe island Io be as precious and worIh proIecIing as
Ihe rusIic New England seascape wiIh iIs rolling graniIe hills and brighI all
colors. In cooperaIion wiIh experIs aI Ihe local non-proiI Island AsIronomy
InsIiIuIe, Acadia is one o Ihe lasI preserves o sIarry-skies along Ihe easIern
seaboard. On any given summer nighI, sIargazers gaIher here on Ihe Ihousand
ooI heighIs o Cadillac MounIain or down on Sand Beach along Ihe Fark Loop
Road or a ranger asIronomy Ialk.
7
In Ihe all o 2008, residenIs o Bar Harbor
even passed a ciIy ordinance proIecIing Ihis increasingly rare resource rom Ihe
growing IhreaI o lighI polluIion.
So IonighI, wiIhouI a Moon Io brighIen Ihe sky, a Ihousand sIars coaI Ihe
waIer's surace wiIh lighI IhaI has Iaken hundreds and Ihousands o years Io
reach me. One such sIar is omicron CeIi, or Mira, LaIin or '\onderul.' Mira is
7
Be sure Io consulI Ihe local VisiIor CenIer Io see i Ihis is happening on a nighI when you
visiI.
parI o Ihe consIellaIion o CeIus Ihe
\hale and appropriaIely enough or
me Ihis SepIember nighI, iI is jusI
cresIing Ihe waves o Io Ihe souIheasI
as midnighI approaches (check Ihe
OcIober sIar map in ChapIer 4 Io see
whaI Ihe sky looks like in SepIember
around midnighI).
In 1S6, Mira became Ihe irsI sIar
in hisIory ound Io vary regularly in
brighIness. Over Ihe course o 332
days, Mira slowly changes rom one
o Ihe many moderaIely brighI sIars
visible in Ihe sky (noIiceably red
compared Io surrounding sIars) Io
uIIerly invisible and back again. II's
a sun jusI like our own IhaI a long
Iime ago used up mosI o iIs nuclear
uel and has gradually swollen Io a
bloaIed red gianI beIween Ihree and
our hundred Iimes bigger Ihan our
own sIar Ioday. \hen our own Sun
goes Ihrough Ihis process abouI ive
billion years rom now iI will swell up
so large IhaI iI enguls Ihe EarIh.
JupiIer, ive Iimes arIher away, will
skim Ihe Sun's Ienuous ouIer layers.
As Ihe inIerior o a sIar like Mira
changes rapidly in response Io iIs
decaying condiIion, Ihe surace
spasms ouIward and back in regular
cycles changing in diameIer by a
acIor o almosI 30% wiIh each greaI
gasp. AsIronomers, proessional and
amaIeur alike, have been aiIhully recording each and every resulIing change in
Mira's brighIness or Ihe lasI 168 years.
Soon aIer discovering Mira, asIronomers surveying Ihe heavens ound a
number o oIher sIars IhaI also changed Iheir brighIness in a regular way. One o
Ihe irsI aIer Mira was Algol, Ihe Demon SIar, 'Al Chul' in Arabic. Algol is Ihe
head o Ihe demon Medusa carried by Ferseus Io save Ihe air princess
Andromeda rom CeIus' aIIack.
8
Unlike Mira, Algol is nearly consIanI in
brighIness unIil suddenly iI's noI. Every Iwo days and 21 hours, iI visibly dims by
figure 3.20 1he chahgihg, pulsaLihg
brighLhess of Mira as measured by dedicaLed
amaLeur ahd professiohal asLrohomers for Lhe
lasL 150 years. Each ihdividual doL represehLs
Lhe 10-day meah brighLhess of Lhe sLar. 1he
verLical axis for each row shows LhaL aL iLs
brighLesL, Mira is abouL Lhird maghiLude
(abouL as brighL as lolaris, Lhe NorLh SLar). AL
iLs dimmesL Mira is LehLh maghiLude, ihvisible
Lo Lhe haked eye which has iLs limiL arouhd
sevehLh maghiLude (AAvSO).
8
In Ihe all, Ferseus always rises beore CeIus Io proIecI us and Andromeda rom Ihe dangers o
Ihe deep.
figure 3.21 lihder charL for Mira (also
called omicroh CeLi) ih Lhe cohsLellaLioh of
CeLus, Lhe Whale. Mira brighLehs ahd dims
over Lhe course of 332 days. lh Lhis phoLo,
Lhe hoLiceably reddish (or aL leasL
hoLiceably hoL-blue) Mira is aL iLs maximum
brighLhess. AL iLs faihLesL iL will be ihvisible
Lo Lhe haked eye. 1o fihd Mira, use Lhe sLar
maps for Lhe wihLer mohLhs Lo firsL fihd Lhe
cohsLellaLioh of lisces, Lhe lishes. 1he sLar
aL Lhe sharp behd ih lisces poihLs direcLly Lo
Lhe posiLioh of Mira locaLed beLweeh Lhe
circular 'Lail' ahd spear-shaped 'head' of
Lhe whale. 1he Lable aL Lhe ehd of Lhis
chapLer provides daLes for wheh Mira is aL iLs brighLesL ahd dimmesL (1. Nordgreh).
figure 3.22 Chahdra X-ray space Lelescope image of Mira (labeled A). Mira has lohg
beeh khowh Lo have a compahioh (labeled 8) ahd ih Lhis 2003 image we see for Lhe very
firsL Lime Lhe graviLaLiohal aLLracLioh beLweeh sLars pullihg gaseous maLerial from Lhe
aLmosphere of Mira. 1his compahioh is slowly gaihihg mass from Mira while Lides have
possibly affecLed iLs shape. Oh Lhe righL is ah arLisL's cohcepLioh of Lhe Lwo sLars (M.
Karovska, NASA}CXC}SAO}M. Karovska eL al., lllusLraLioh: CXC}M.Weiss).
1.2 magniIudes (a liIIle over 30%) or 10 hours. In 1783, English asIronomers
John Coodricke and Edward FigoII wroIe o Ihe inIriguing possibiliIy IhaI Ihis
was Ihe irsI discovery o a planeI around anoIher sIar. By Iheir hypoIhesis, we
EarIh-bound observers jusI happened Io be aligned so IhaI once every orbiI o Ihe
new planeI we wiInessed an eclipse o Ihe disIanI sIar by iIs unseen companion.
\iIh Coodricke's subsequenI discovery o more eclipsing binaries iI was
evenIually realized IhaI raIher Ihan planeIs, Ihe new-ound objecIs were insIead
sIars Ioo small, Ioo dim, or Ioo close Io Iheir primary sIar or us Io see by Ihe lighI
o Ihe primary's glare.
\e now know Ihe majoriIy o sIars in Ihe sky come in mulIiples, wiIh pairs,
IripleIs, and pairs o pairs quiIe common. In Ihis respecI, our single Sun is in Ihe
figure 3.23 lirsL lighL curve of Lhe
eclipsihg bihary, Algol, made usihg
elecLrical deLecLors ih 110. 1he
large dip ih brighLhess occurs
wheh Lhe faihLer compahioh sLar
passes ih frohL of Lhe brighLer
primary sLar. 1he small, secohdary
dip occurs wheh Lhe dimmer sLar
passes arouhd behihd Lhe brighLer
ohe. 1he rise ih LoLal brighLhess
arouhd Lhe secohdary mihimum
reflecLs LhaL Lhe face of Lhe dimmer
sLar Lidally locked Lo forever poihL
Lowards Lhe brighLer sLar, has beeh
heaLed ahd so shihes brighLer Lhah
Lhe side forever poihLed away. A
differehce of ohe maghiLude is a
differehce of 2.5, ih brighLhess
(SLebbihs, |., 110, Astrcphysiccl
jcurncl, vol. 32, pg. 185,
keproduced by permissioh of Lhe
AAS).
figure 3.24 lihder charL for Algol, showihg Lhe cohsLellaLioh of lerseus ahd Lhe hearby
lleiades clusLer of sLars. NorLh is Lo Lhe righL. Compare Algol's brighLhess Lo Lhe hearby
sLar gamma Ahdromedae ( Ahd) ahd alpha lerseus (O) ih order Lo deLecL if Algol is
currehLly eclipsed. Normally, Algol will be hearly as brighL as Lhese sLars. Durihg Lhe
faihLesL 2 hours of iLs 10 hour eclipse iL will appear slighLly dimmer Lhah hearby epsiloh
lersei (). 1his image shows iL ouL of eclipse (1. Nordgreh).
minoriIy o all Ihe sIars we see aI nighI. Erom Ihese binaries, however, we learn
abouI sIars in ways no single sIar can possibly allow. Eor as Ihese sIars orbiI one
anoIher we learn abouI Iheir masses Ihrough applicaIion o Kepler's laws or
orbiIal moIion (Ihe asIer Ihey orbiI, Ihe more massive Ihey musI be). \here
sIars eclipse one anoIher we learn abouI Iheir sizes and relaIive luminosiIies by
seeing how much lighI is eclipsed as each passes in ronI o Ihe oIher (Ihe larger
Ihe unseen companion, Ihe more lighI iI blocks as iI passes in ronI o Ihe
primary). The eclipsing binaries are our laboraIories allowing us Io measure and
probe all Ihe varieIies o sIars ound in Ihe sky and Ihereby deIermine how Iruly
common or rare, our Sun and our Solar SysIem mighI be.
One o Ihose oIher eclipsing binaries Coodricke ound is beIa Lyrae in Ihe
consIellaIion o Lyra Ihe Harp. TonighI, Lyra is overhead and easily ound as
Vega, iIs brighIesI sIar, is also one o Ihe brighIesI sIar in summer and all. During
SepIember evenings Ihis brighI whiIe sIar is near Ihe zeniIh and jusI beginning
iIs slow descenI inIo Ihe wesI. Vega is one Ihird o Ihe amed 'Summer Triangle'
along wiIh AlIair and Deneb, and so is one o Ihe ew sIars acIually visible rom
ciIies. Thanks Io Vega, beIa Lyrae (also called Sheliak, Creek or harp) is relaIively
easy Io ind and IonighI iI's where my eye is inally drawn. II's an unassuming
Ihird magniIude sIar (abouI sixIeen Iimes ainIer Ihan Vega). BuI by iIs changing
brighIness, visible Io Ihe naked eye, we know IhaI in realiIy iI is Iwo sIars
alIernaIely passing one in ronI o Ihe oIher wiIh a cycle IhaI repeaIs every 12.
days.
Careul observaIion by dedicaIed observers shows someIhing unusual abouI
Ihe combined lighI rom Ihese Iwo sIars and iI's or Ihis reason IhaI my aIIenIion
has inally seIIled here. Careully compare Ihe lighI curves rom Algol and beIa
Lyrae. In general, Ihe lighI rom Algol is airly consIanI excepI during Ihose
momenIs when one sIar passes in ronI o Ihe oIher, buI or beIa Lyrae, Ihe
combined lighI rom Ihe sIars is in consIanI lux.
figure 3.25 LighL curve for Lhe eclipsihg
bihary beLa Lyrae. 1he differehL size
mihima reflecL Lhe differehL brighLhess
of Lhe eclipsihg sLars. 1he cohLihually
chahgihg brighLhess reflecLs Lhe Lidally
disLorLed shapes of boLh sLars, as Lhey
roLaLe, we see differehL amouhLs of
surface area. ObservaLiohs from
mulLiple maxima ahd mihima have beeh
wrapped ohLo ohe sihgle ploL where
'lhase' represehLs Lhe fracLioh of Lhe
Lime LhaL has passed sihce Lhe eclipse.
1he scaLLer ih Lhe observaLiohs aL ahy
sihgle phase is a reflecLioh of Lhe gas
ahd dusL LhaL surrouhd Lhe sLars makihg Lhe combihed sLarlighL chahge slighLly from
orbiL Lo orbiL (vah Hamme, W, Wilsoh, k.E., Cuihah, E.l., 15, Astrcncmiccl jcurncl,
vol. 110, pg 1350~133, keproduced by permissioh of Lhe AAS).
figure 3.2 lihder charL for beLa
(P) Lyrae, showihg vega ahd Lhe
Milky Way. NorLh is up. Compare
beLa Lyrae Lo Lhe hearby sLar
gamma () Lyrae ih order Lo
deLecL if beLa Lyrae is currehLly
eclipsed. Over iLs 13 day period,
beLa Lyrae will go from beihg
hearly equal ih brighLhess Lo
gamma Lyrae, uhLil aL iLs dimmesL
iL is Lhe faihLesL of all Lhe ma|or
sLars showh lihked LogeLher ih Lhe
cohsLellaLioh. 1his image shows iL
ouL of eclipse (1. Nordgreh).
In realiIy, Ihe Iwo sIars in beIa Lyrae orbiI so closely IhaI Iheir suraces nearly
Iouch. As one sIar ages and slowly pus up and swells like Mira, Iidal orces rom
Ihe oIher gradually pull iI inIo a disIended Iear-drop shape. As iI conIinues Io
swell Iidal orces rom Ihe smaller, denser sIar begin ripping away iIs aImosphere
unIil, wiIh every passing orbiI, Ihe smaller sIar cannibalizes Ihe larger. \iIh
Iime, Ihe larger sIar loses mass and shrinks, while Ihe smaller sIar, embedded in a
Ihick disk o dusI and gas, gains mass and grows.
The lighI we see rom beIa Lyrae is now almosI enIirely due Io Ihe lighI o Ihe
mass-losing sIar, iIs growing companion hidden compleIely inside iIs dark
enclosing cocoon o accreIing mass. \e see Ihe slow change in brighIness
beIween eclipses because as Ihe mass-losing sIar Iurns Io ollow iIs companion
around, we see Ihe ull range o iIs aI and bloaIed, Iear-drop proile.
Since Ihis process began a ew Ihousand years ago, so much maIIer has
changed places beIween Ihe Iwo sIars IhaI Ihe roles have now reversed and whaI
was once Ihe smaller sIar is now Ihe larger, esIimaIed aI nearly 12 Iimes Ihe mass
o our Sun, while Ihe sIar we see is now Ihe smaller, and probably only Iwice as
massive as Ihe Sun.
EvenIually as Ihe mass in Ihe disk slowly seIIles onIo Ihe enclosed sIar, Iidal
orces play one lasI role as Ihey slow iIs roIaIion Io exacIly coincide wiIh iIs orbiI.
Then like Europa around JupiIer and our Moon around us, iI will keep one ace
poinIed aI iIs companion as Ihey conIinue Iheir slow spiral dance. Thanks Io a
new generaIion o Ielescopes we are
able Io see Ihis graviIaIional Iug o war
irsI hand, and or Ihe irsI Iime, see Ihe
gradual deaIh o a sIar.
BuI Ihe Iidal orces IhaI desIroy sIars

are also responsible or Ihe mosI spec-
Iacular sIellar birIhs. Ear beyond Ihe
sIars I see wiIh my naked eyes, enIire
galaxies o gas and sIars wiIh Ihe
combined mass o over a hundred
billion suns graceully glide Ihrough
Ihe darkness o space, each a hundred
Ihousand lighI-years across. \hen Iwo
such leviaIhans approach on Iheir
Keplerian IrajecIories, Iidal orces
beIween Ihe nearer reaches send Ihe
gas and dusI beIween Ihe sIars spiraling
figure 3.27 lirsL image showihg Lhe Lidal
Lug-of-war beLweeh Lhe Lwo sLars of beLa
Lyrae. 1he lefL columh shows Lhe image of Lhe
orbiLihg sLars made by Lhe CHAkA Lelescope
oh ML. Wilsoh ih souLherh Califorhia.
8righLhess ihcreases from orahge Lo black,
wiLh Lhe black sLar represehLihg Lhe ohe LhaL
we see ih Lhe sky. 1he columh oh Lhe righL is a
model of Lhe Lwo sLars LhaL besL fiLs Lhe daLa
seeh oh Lhe lefL. NoLice how each sLar is besL
modeled as a Lidally deformed ellipse raLher
Lhah a perfecL sphere. 1he Lypical separaLioh
of Lhe Lwo sLars, as well as Lheir size as viewed
oh Lhe sky, is oh Lhe order of half a
milliarcsecohd (mas). A milliarcsecohd is 1}
3,00,000 of a degree. 1he Mooh is ohly half
a degree ih size as seeh from EarLh ahd a child
sLahdihg oh Lhe Mooh would appear ohly 0.5
mas Lall (Zhao, M. eL al. 2008, Astrcphysiccl
jcurncl Letters, vol. 84 pp. L5-L8,
keproduced by permissioh of Lhe AAS).
This new breed o Ielescopes called opIical inIereromeIers, combines Ihe lighI rom many
widely separaIed mirrors Io simulaIe Ihe ine-deIail possible wiIh a single gianI Ielescope. The
CHARA inIereromeIer on MI. \ilson in souIhern Caliornia combines Ihe lighI rom our
widely separaIed mirrors simulaIing Ihe ine deIail capable by a single mirror 1,07S I (328 m)
in diameIer.
figure 3.28 CompuLer model of
Lidal forces beLweeh galaxies
durihg a collisioh ih space. 1he
primary galaxy is represehLed as
parLicles oh a series of cohcehLric
rihgs (Lhis is Lhe disk of Lhe galaxy).
1he secohd galaxy is simply showh
as a sihgle large black doL
represehLihg iLs cehLer of mass.
Each Lime sLep ih Lhe collisioh
(represehLed by Lhe humbers
beheaLh) is ih uhiLs of 100 millioh
years from Lhe Lime of closesL
approach L = 0. Compare Lhe
model aL L = 2 or 2.5 Lo Lhe Hubble
Space 1elescope image of M51. As
grouhdbreakihg as Lhese models
were ih 172 wheh Lhey were
published ih a lahdmark paper,
Loday l cah see Lhese same
ihLeracLiohs oh Lhe screehsaver LhaL
came wiLh my compuLer (1oomre,
A. & 1oomre, |., 172,
Astrcphysiccl jcurncl, vol. 178 pp.
23~, keproduced by
permissioh of Lhe AAS).
on new courses inIo Ihe inIergalacIic space. The paIhs Ihey ollow depend on Ihe
roIaIion o Ihe Iwo galaxies as Ihey approach one anoIher. I one o Ihe galaxies
spins in Ihe same direcIion as Ihe paIh iI Iakes around iIs neighbor (like an
enormous gear locking and rolling around Ihe IeeIh o a companion) graviIy
Iakes hold and draws a Iidal bridge o gas beIween Ihe Iwo. A hydrogen sIream
Ien Ihousand lighI-years long and a Ihousand lighI-years Ihick arcs Ihrough Ihe
void, Iying Ihe Iwo massive galaxies IogeIher while graviIy's Iides send a counIer
Iail spiraling ouIward in Ihe opposiIe direcIion. \ell over a hundred Ihousand
lighI-years o new gas is Ihrown inIo Ihe void in Ihe galacIic equivalenI o Ihe
Iidal bulges on EarIh, sIreIched ouI rom Ihe orce o graviIaIional inIeracIion.
The collision o Iwo galaxies like our own Milky \ay is one o Ihe mosI
beauIiul sighIs in exIragalacIic space. My avoriIe example is, appropriaIely
enough or Ihe sea, Ihe \hirlpool Calaxy (MS1) in Ihe consIellaIion o Canes
VenaIici near Ihe end o Ihe Big Dipper's handle. Here, noI Ioo long ago, a small
galaxy passed Ioo close Io a grand spiral similar Io our Milky \ay. Today Ihey are
separaIed by 1S0,000 lighI-years as Ihey conIinue around one anoIher in Iheir
slow-moIion passage. However, unlike waves upon a coasIline whose splash is
measured in seconds, Ihe crashing o galaxies like Ihe Iwo in Ihe \hirlpool is an
evenI measured in hundreds o millions o years. \hile no single encounIer
could ever be wiInessed in iIs enIireIy, rom hundreds o examples aI dierenI
sIages o compleIion IhroughouI Ihe heavens, IheoreIical asIrophysicisIs have
modeled Ihe process rom beginning Io end
figure 3.29 Hubble Space 1elescope image of Lhe ihLeracLihg galaxy pair comprisihg
M51, Lhe Whirlpool Calaxy, ahd a small galaxy (NASA, ESA, S. 8eckwiLh (S1Scl), ahd Lhe
Hubble HeriLage 1eam (S1Scl}AkA)).
In Ihose Iidal Iails, graviIaIional orces bring IogeIher Ihe gas and dusI
beIween Ihe sIars and spark Ihe ormaIion o new suns. Tidal inIeracIions may be
one o Ihe mosI imporIanI mechanisms or creaIing new sIars in galaxies. \here
new sIars orm, our observaIions o Ihe heavens show IhaI Ihe ormaIion o new
planeIs and new solar sysIems around Ihem may noI be Ioo ar behind. \here
Ihere are planeIs, Ihere are surely moons, and Ihe power o Iides on Ihose moons
may even now be aI work, making Ihe condiIions righI or new lie, in a new sea.
I do noI know whaI I may appear Io Ihe world, buI Io mysel I seem Io
have been only a boy playing on Ihe sea-shore, and diverIing mysel
in now and Ihen inding a smooIher pebble or a preIIier shell Ihan
ordinary, whilsI Ihe greaI ocean o IruIh lay all undiscovered beore
me.
NewIon said Ihese words wiIh regards Io his graviIaIional Iheories. I cannoI help
buI Ihink o Ihem Ihis nighI as I sIep down onIo Ihe sIill weI rocks, leI behind by
Ihe vanishing Iide. Above me is a clear sIarry sky illed wiIh wonders o naIure
hidden rom view by ininiIe dark depIhs. Beside me is an equally dark and no-
less wondrous sea. I sIoop Io pick up a shell brighI in relecIed sIarlighI seI
amongsI Ihe darker sIone. All around me are resh pools o waIer. The lie IhaI
surrounds me here in Acadia may have irsI colonized Ihe land rom Iide pools
jusI such as Ihese a billion years ago. In each one, I see Ihe sIars relecIed while
Ihe mirrored image o JupiIer ouIshines Ihem all. Amid all Ihis beauIy and power
figure 3.30 |upiLer shihes above Lhe cohsLellaLioh of Scorpius ahd reflecLed ih a Lide
pool alohg Lhe coasL of MouhL DeserL lslahd (1. Nordgreh).
o sea and space IogeIher, I cannoI help buI look aI IhaI sparkle o planeIary lighI
and wonder abouI Ihe possibiliIy o oIher lie, Ihere in IhaI oIher ocean, on IhaI
disIanI moon: perhaps impossible buI or Ihe power o Ihe Iides.
See for yourseIf: moons, pIanets, stars and gaIaxies
|upiter and its moons
Eind JupiIer in Ihe sky Ihis monIh and noIe iIs posiIion relaIive Io Ihe sIars. \aiI
a ull year, so Ihe EarIh is back in Ihe same spoI in space and ind JupiIer again.
The dierence in iIs posiIion rom one year Io Ihe nexI (shown on Ihe sky maps)
shows how ar JupiIer moves Ihrough space over Ihe course o 36S days. Erom
Ihis we ind IhaI JupiIer Iakes a liIIle under 12 years Io make one compleIe Irip
around Ihe Sun and Ihus appear again where iI sIarIed on Ihe sky.
Through a pair o Iypical binoculars you can see Ihe Iiny disk o Ihe planeI and
usually Iwo or more o Ihe Calilean moons. The moons will always appear in a
sIraighI line on eiIher side o JupiIer. InnermosI Io is never arIher Ihan 6 JupiIer
(jovian) diameIers away rom Ihe planeI while ouIermosI CallisIo is never more
Ihan 13 diameIers away. In many binoculars, Ihe glare rom JupiIer may hide Ihe
inner Iwo moons unless Ihey are aI Iheir maximum disIance rom Ihe planeI. I
you have a pair o binoculars o aI leasI 20, power (in a pair o 20,S0
binoculars, Ihe '20, ' reers Io Ihe magniicaIion, while Ihe 'S0' is Ihe diameIer
o Ihe aperIure in millimeIers) Ihen you have aI leasI as good a view as Calileo
had 400 years ago. In addiIion, Ihe larger Ihe aperIure, Ihe more lighI is leI in,
and Ihe more easily you will see ainI objecIs in Ihe sky.
AIgoI ~ the Demon Star
I you can see Ihe Milky \ay, look or Cassiopeia's big '\' and Ihen ollow Ihe
Milky \ay easI Io Ihe nexI prominenI grouping o sIars. ThaI's Ihe
consIellaIion o Ferseus. The brighIesI sIar in Ferseus is alpha Fersei, also
called Mirak. \hen noI eclipsed, Algol, Ihe second brighIesI sIar in Ferseus
(also called beIa Fersei) is nearly as brighI as Mirak and Ihe nearby sIar, gamma
Andromdeae. Use Ihe image o Ferseus in Eigure 3.24 Io ind Algol in relaIion Io
Ihese sIars and compare Iheir brighIness. Every 2.87 days, Algol is eclipsed or
10 hours as iIs unseen companion moves in ronI o Ihe brighIer sIar. As Ihe
eclipse begins, Algol slowly dims or ive hours. AI iIs ainIesI, Algol dims Io a
level near IhaI o epsilon Fersei, less Ihan hal as brighI as Mirak. This
minimum lasIs or 20 minuIes as Ihe companion passes ully in ronI o Ihe
brighIer sIar. As Ihe dimmer companion moves on, Algol's brighIness reIurns
unIil ive hours laIer iI is once again as brighI as beore. In Ihe end, a simple
comparison o Algol Io Mirak or gamma Andromdeae will Iell you i Algol is
currenIly being eclipsed.
Tldes on a cosmlc shore
Hold Lhe sLar map above your head wiLh Lhe Lop of Lhe map poihLed horLh. 1he cehLer of
Lhe map is Lhe sky sLraighL overhead aL Lhe zehiLh. |upiLer's posiLioh is marked relaLive Lo
Lhe backgrouhd sLars for each SepLember ahd March from 2010 uhLil 2020 (almosL ohe
full |oviah year). 1o fihd |upiLer durihg ahoLher mohLh, fihd iLs posiLioh beLweeh Lhe Lwo
closesL daLes Lheh cohsulL ohe of Lhe oLher mohLhly sLar maps Lo see if LhaL cohsLellaLioh
(ahd Lhus |upiLer) is above Lhe horizoh. While durihg ahy giveh mohLh of ahy giveh year
Lhere may be oLher plaheLs also visible, |upiLer is Lypically very brighL ahd hoLiceably
yellow.
eta Lyrae
The consIellaIion o Lyra is besI known or iIs brighIesI sIar Vega, which can be
seen rom even lighI polluIed suburbs. Lyra Ihe Harp is really Iwo small
geomeIric igures Iied IogeIher. Vega is one corner o an equilaIeral Iriangle (all
sides equal in lengIh). Erom Ihe souIheasI corner o Ihis Iriangle, a parallelogram
(Iwo long sides and Iwo shorI sides, joined aI an angle) hangs down Io Ihe souIh.
The Iwo sIars aI Ihe ar end o Ihe parallelogram are Ihe brighIesI. O Ihese Iwo,
Ihe one closesI Io Vega is beIa Lyrae while Ihe oIher is gamma Lyrae. AI iIs
brighIesI, beIa Lyrae is very nearly Ihe same brighIness as gamma Lyrae. Over iIs
13-day period, beIa Lyrae changes brighIness conIinuously unIil aI iIs ainIesI,
when Ihe brighIer sIar is eclipsed by iIs ainIer companion, beIa Lyrae is as ainI
as Ihe oIher sIars shown in Ihe consIellaIion. See Eigure 3.26 or a phoIograph o
Ihe consIellaIion wiIh Ihe sIars labeled.
The Moon
FoinI even a modesI pair o binoculars aI Ihe Moon and you will see Ihe craIers,
mounIains, and smooIh dark plains (Ihe mara, LaIin or 'seas') IhaI irsI
convinced Calileo IhaI Ihe Moon was a world like our own. Again, Ihe besI views
are obIained when Ihe binoculars are held sIeady on a Iripod or wiIh arms and
elbows resIing on a Iable.
Mira ~ the WonderfuI Star
Use Ihe accompanying sky maps Io ind Mira, also called omicron CeIi, in Ihe
consIellaIion o CeIus Ihe \hale. \hile CeIus is only jusI rising in Ihe evening
hours in SepIember, use Eigure 3.21 and Ihe OcIober sky map in ChapIer 4, Io see
iIs ull shape in relaIion Io Ihe surrounding consIellaIions. I Mira is near
maximum (roughly a monIh or so on eiIher side o Ihe daIes below) iI should noI
be hard Io spoI. See i you can deIecI iIs red color relaIive Io Ihe oIher nearby
sIars. Using Ihe sky charI shown here, see i you can also spoI Mira's changing
brighIness over Ihe monIhs relaIive Io Ihese nearby sIars. Near iIs minimum,
Mira won'I be visible aI all. The AssociaIion o AmaIeur Variable SIar Observers
(AAVSO) runs an exIensive websiIe wiIh inormaIion on whaI variable sIars are
visible and whaI Ihey are currenIly doing.
Table 3.1 The brlghtness of Mlra
DaLe of Maximum DaLe of Mihimum
1 Nov 200 2 |ul 2010
17 OcL 2010 30 May 2011
14 Sep 2011 2 Apr 2012
11 Aug 2012 24 Mar 2013
|ul 2013 1 leb 2014
|uh 2014 17 |ah 2015
4 May 2015 15 Dec 2015
31 Mar 201 11 Nov 201
2 leb 2017 OcL 2017
24 |ah 2018 Sep 2018
22 Dec 2018 4 Aug 201
1 Nov 201 1 |ul 2020
M51 ~ the WhirIpooI GaIaxy
MS1 will noI be visible Io Ihe naked eye, nor will iI be noIiceable in a pair o
binoculars. However, wiIh a small Ielescope, Ihe cenIers o Ihe galaxies can be
seen rom dark locaIions. A medium sized Ielescope o 8-inches (20-cm) in
diameIer will begin Io show Ihe spiral Iidal arms. You can see where Ihe
\hirlpool Calaxy is by looking Iowards Ihe handle o Ihe Big Dipper. Erom Ihe
very lasI sIar in Ihe handle, drop down aI a righI angle Io Ihe oIher sIars in Ihe
handle. Imagine Ihis sIar is Ihe Iop o a small equilaIeral Iriangle where Ihe
corner on Ihe boIIom righI is aI Ihe posiIion o a nearly equally brighI sIar Ihere.
The boIIom leI corner o Ihe Iriangle alls on Ihe posiIion o MS1. \hile Ihere is
noIhing Ihere or Ihe eye Io see, you will know IhaI's where iI is, 37 million lighI-
years away. I looking or Ihis in a Ielescope, inding iI can Iake a biI o searching,
don'I give up. Take Ihe image o MS1 in Ihis book ouI wiIh you. Shine Ihe lighI
rom a red lashlighI on Ihe image and noIice how some o Ihe deIail in Ihe
galaxy is losI. This is whaI you are looking or Ihrough your Ielescope.
further reading
Natvc Amcrcan Storcs by Joseph Bruchac (11) Eulcrum Fublishing, ISBN
1SSS1047
BcyonJ thc Moon. A Convcrsatonal, Common Scnsc GuJc to UnJcrstanJng thc TJcs
by James Creig Mccully (2006) \orld ScienIiic Fublishing Company, ISBN
812S6644
Unmaslng Luropa. Thc Scarch jor Ljc on }uptcr's Occan Moon by Richard
Creenberg (2008) Springer, ISBN 038747368
DavJ Lcvy's GuJc to Varahlc Stars by David H. Levy (2006) Cambridge UniversiIy
Fress,
ISBN 0S21608600
Online Iide Iables or all over Ihe UniIed SIaIes.
hIIp:}}www.Iidesonline.com}
Sky and Telescope guide Io Ihe Top 12 Naked Eye Variable SIars
hIIp:}}www.skyandIelescope.com}observing}objecIs}projecIs}3304276.hIml
\ebsiIe or Ihe American AssociaIion o Variable SIar Observers (AAVSO)
hIIp:}}www.aavso.org}
Calaxy InIeracIions page by asIrophysicisI John Dubinski
hIIp:}}www.galaxydynamics.org}
4
Worlds of flre and lce
Thc nosc maJc hy thc huhhlng lava s not grcat, hcarJ as wc hcarJ t jrom
our lojty pcrch. . .. Thc smcll oj sulphur s strong, hut not unplcasant to a
snncr.
Mark Twain, Lcttcrs jrom Hawa
Crowing up in ForIland, Oregon, I have always loved Ihe mounIains. The
Cascade Range runs Ihe lengIh o Ihe wesIern horizon Ihere and on clear days (a
rariIy in Ihe Faciic NorIhwesI) iI's dominaIed by Iwo gianI mounIains: MI. Hood
and MI. SI. Helens. MI. Hood is Ihe biggesI and closesI, buI I loved MI. SI. Helens
as a kid, because iIs perecI cone maIched my ideas o whaI a mounIain should
be. So when small earIhquakes began Io rock Ihe mounIain in early180 I sIarIed
drawing daily picIures o Ihe peak in my school noIebook. On Ihe irsI day, I
remember someIhing dark sIained Ihe summiI. \iIhin a week a small craIer had
ormed and was evenIually joined by anoIher. On clear days rom my house, I
could see sIeam rising inIo Ihe sky.
Then on Ihe morning o May 18, a dark and cloudy day, my aIher woke me aI
dawn and drove me Io Ihe summiI o a nearby hill wiIh our liIIle JC Fenney
Ielescope. He didn'I Iell me where we were going or why, buI when we goI Io Ihe
small park aI Ihe Iop, he didn'I need Io say a Ihing. To Ihe norIhwesI, righI where
MI. SI. Helens should have been, a dark jumble o clouds Iowered inIo a sky Ihe
color o lead. EveryIhing was shades o grey, only IexIures and moIion
disIinguished Ihe heavy clouds rom Ihe rolling, boiling, slow-moIion plume.
As ar as I remember we spenI hours looking Ihrough Ihe Ielescope, spellbound
by whaI was unolding beore us. II was boIh beauIiul and Ierriying.
ThaI nighI iI snowed greaI ghosIly lakes o volcanic ash IhaI I shoveled Ihe
nexI day rom our driveway. \hen Ihe skies inally cleared a ew days laIer, Ihe
perecI cone was gone and Ihe mounIain looked like a craIer on Ihe Moon. The
enIire norIh ace had vaporized and iIs insides hollowed ouI. II was eerie, iI's noI
every day you geI Io wiIness Ihe planeI change beore your eyes.
\hen mosI people Ihink o volcanoes someIhing very speciic comes Io mind.
They usually Ihink o someIhing like my childhood MI. SI. Helens, or MI. Euji in
Japan. They picIure an enormous, sIeep-sided cone wiIh a black cloud coming
ouI Ihe Iop and probably molIen lava pouring down Ihe side. Volcanoes o IhaI
shape are sIraIovolcanoes. Their Ihick, blocky, viscous lava orms a sIeep-sided
cone as iI slowly builds up around Ihe venI. BuI Ihis isn'I Ihe lava mosI people
have in mind. Eor mosI people, lava brings Io mind greaI glowing rivers o ire
like IhaI ound in Hawai'i. BuI IhaI lava isn'I Ihe resulI o sIraIovolcanos. RaIher
IhaI kind o lava is Ihin, runny, low
viscosiIy magma IhaI only builds up
slowly like layer upon layer o low-
ing wax rom a candle. This Iype o
lava only orms big broad shield
volcanoes.
So, while everyone Ihinks Ihey
know exacIly whaI we mean by Ihe
word volcano, whaI Ihey acIually
know is a conglomeraIion o many
aspecIs o whaI a volcano could be.
So now consi der Yel l owsIone
NaIional Fark in norIhwesIern
\yoming. Ask any Fark Ranger and
Ihey will Iell you nearly every aspecI
o Ihe park, iIs geology, iIs geogra-
phy, iIs biology, chemisIry, and
hisIory is ''all abouI Ihe volcano.''
BuI where is Ihe volcano7 There is no
gianI cone. There aren'I even any
mounIains. There are no rivers o
lava. There is no gaping craIer. The
lisI goes on and on, buI in realiIy
Ihey are all here. They're jusI in
orms IhaI no one really noIices.
ExcepI, o course, everyone noIices
Ihe gianI sIeaming pools and geysers.
I'm visiIing YellowsIone during
one o iIs snowiesI winIers in years.
figure 4.1 1hree views of MouhL SL.
Helehs. 1op: As seeh from 8ear Cove, SpiriL
Lake ih 173 before Lhe erupLioh (.S.
loresL Service). Middle: Aerial view durihg
Lhe May 18, 180 erupLioh LhaL sehL
volcahic ash, sLeam, waLer, ahd debris Lo a
heighL of 0,000 feeL (18 km). 1he
mouhLaih losL 1,300 feeL (400 m) of
alLiLude ahd abouL 2}3-cubic mile (3-cubic
kilomeLers) of maLerial (AusLih losL).
8oLLom: MouhL SL. Helehs reflecLed ih SpiriL
Lake, Lwo years afLer Lhe May 18 erupLioh
(.S. Ceological Survey).
figure 4.4 CasLle Ceyser bubbles ahd
sLeams alohg Lhe lirehole kiver ih Lhe
pper Ceyser 8asih of ellowsLohe
NaLiohal lark. 8eehive geyser erupLs ih
Lhe disLahce (1. Nordgreh).
AI Old EaiIhul iI's been snowing or weeks and Ihe world is a sIudy in
shimmering whiIe. Mini-glaciers slowly advance down Ihe roo-lines o every
building, and icy sIalacIiIes hang low rom every edge. Snow is packed over a ooI
deep on Ihe boardwalks, and iI's unspeakably delighIul Io snowshoe or ski in
isolaIion where in summer Ihere would be Ihousands sIraining or phoIos. The
oIher amazing Ihing abouI Ihis Iime o year is IhaI iI makes obvious IhaI
someIhing unusual is going on beneaIh your eeI. \hen everyIhing is covered in
Ihree eeI o snow excepI or Ihe sIrangely warm spoI o land nexI Io Ihe gianI
reeking pool o uriously bubbling waIer you know someIhing odd is occurring.
AI iIs hearI, Ihis is whaI volcanism is: iI's Ihe inIernal heaI o a planeI inding
some way Io escape Io space. Big rocky planeIs like Ihe EarIh conIain vasI
quanIiIies o radioacIive elemenIs deep wiIhin Iheir inIeriors. As Ihese elemenIs
slowly decay over Ihe millennia, Ihe energy Ihey release heaIs Ihe inIerior o Ihe
planeI, creaIing molIen pockeIs o rock. Eive billion years aIer Ihe EarIh ormed,
Ihanks Io uranium, we sIill have a nice IoasIy planeIary inIerior looking Io ind
all sorIs o creaIive ways Io radiaIe IhaI heaI Io space.
Again, when people Ihink o volcanoes, Ihey imagine IhaI Ihe lava which
pours ouI o a greaI gaping hole reaches all Ihe way down Io Ihe molIen core o
figure 4.2 Mauha Loa ih Hawai'i volcahoes
NaLiohal lark is Lhe largesL shield volcaho oh
Lhe plaheL. lL Lowers 2.5 miles (4 km) above
sea level, 30,000 feeL ( km) above Lhe sea
floor beheaLh (1. Nordgreh).
figure 4.3 Lava from Hawai'i volcahoes
NaLiohal lark pours ihLo Lhe sea alohg Lhe
Chaih of CraLers koad (1. Nordgreh).
Worlds of flre and lce 107
figure 4.5 As Lhe NorLh Americah
cohLihehLal plaLe moves Lo Lhe
souLhwesL (blue arrow) over Lhe
ellowsLohe hoLspoL periodic
erupLiohs leave a Lrail of volcahic
feaLures across Lhe horLhwesLerh
hiLed SLaLes. ErupLioh daLes are
showh ih milliohs of years ago
(mya). 1he currehL bouhdary of
ellowsLohe NaLiohal lark is
showh ih greeh (NaLiohal lark
Service).
Ihe EarIh. In realiIy, Ihe molIen rock volcanoes Iap is usually ound quiIe close Io
Ihe planeI's crusI and comes rom nowhere near Ihe core. Erom seismic records,
we know Ihe hoI spoI IhaI currenIly siIs underneaIh YellowsIone NaIional Fark
begins abouI 12S miles (200 kilomeIers) beneaIh Ihe EarIh's surace. Erom Ihere
iI exIends upward Io abouI S0 miles (80 km) under our eeI where iI piles up
beneaIh Ihe NorIh American plaIe IhaI slowly carries our conIinenI Iowards Ihe
souIhwesI.
The molIen plume blossoms ouIward under Ihis plaIe, orming a mushroom
cap IhoughI Io be 300 miles (S00 km) wide. The heaI o Ihis magma mushroom
melIs greaI globs o Ihe overlying rock which slowly rise Ihrough Ihe
surrounding maIerial like a garganIuan Lava-Lamp (which is as accuraIe an
analog as Ihe name implies). All Ihis molIen 'goo' pools in a magma chamber
locaIed only ive Io eighI miles (abouI 10 km) beneaIh our eeI. Eons o
earIhquakes caused by Ihis hoI magma shiIing around in Ihe chamber have
repeaIedly broken and cracked Ihe surrounding bedrock. Cround waIer IhaI alls
as rain or snow on Ihis high plaIeau in Ihe Rocky MounIains evenIually geIs
channeled Ihrough Ihis neIwork o heaIed issures resulIing in a region-wide hoI
waIer plumbing sysIem. \here Ihis plumbing reaches Ihe surace, pools or
geysers orm.
1
In Ihe 180s and '0s a Ieam o researchers including geologisI and planeIary
scienIisI Susan Kieer and asIronomer Jim \esIphal sIudied Old EaiIhul Ceyser
Io deIermine Ihe exacI mechanism by which Ihe geysers work. In 12, Ihey
lowered an ice-covered miniaIure video camera inIo Old EaiIhul's venI Io IesI
dierenI models o geyser acIiviIy. \haI Ihey ound surprised Ihem. In a 17
Sccncc Ncws inIerview, Kieer explained, ''I was assuming a simple geomeIry or
1
The souIhwesI moIion o Ihe NorIh American conIinenI over Ihis hoI spoI is why iI looks
rom Ihe surace like Ihe volcanoes in Ihis area o Ihe UniIed SIaIes have been slowly moving
Io Ihe norIheasI, sIarIing irsI under Nevada, passing Ihrough Idaho, and now crossing Ihe
norIhwesI corner o \yoming. Had Ihe NaIional Fark Service exisIed 16 million years ago,
YellowsIone NaIional Fark would have been ounded along Ihe Oregon and Nevada border.
figure 4. A NaLiohal lark kahger displays Lhe cross secLiohal drawihg of Old laiLhful
geyser LhaL was revealed by lowerihg ah ice-covered camera ihLo Lhe vehL. NoLice Lhe
Lihy cohsLricLioh ih Lhe Lube aL 23 feeL (7 meLers) beheaLh Lhe surface LhaL helps creaLe
Lhe geyser (1. Nordgreh, based oh diagram by S. Kieffer ahd |. WesLphal).
Ihe issure and expecIed a complicaIed physical explanaIion or Ihe geyser's
behavior, Ihe video camera showed us iI was jusI Ihe reverse.''
\haI Ihey ound is IhaI Old EaiIhul, and presumably mosI geysers like iI, is a
raIher complex series o issures and channels where a main verIical Iube is
repeaIedly illed by hoI waIer pouring ouI o numerous inIersecIing cracks in Ihe
geyser wall. The mosI imporIanI eaIure or creaIing Ihe geyser, however, is a
narrow consIricIion aI Ihe Iop Ihrough which Ihe rising hoI waIers musI pass Io
reach Ihe surace. This consIricIion, as liIIle as a ew inches wide, creaIes a boIIle
neck prevenIing Ihe hoI gas-illed waIer rom moving reely up Io Ihe surace.
The weighI o Ihe waIer in and above Ihe consIricIion puIs enormous pressure on
Ihe hoIIer waIer in Ihe main channel below.
In exacIly Ihe same mechanism as a pressure cooker in a kiIchen, Ihe deep
pressurized waIer rapidly becomes superheaIed ar above Ihe boiling poinI o
waIer. EvenIually, Ihe waIer beneaIh becomes so hoI IhaI Ihe pressure pushing
upwards equals Ihe downward pres-
sure rom Ihe weighI o all Ihe cooler
waIer in conIacI wiIh Ihe ouIside air
above. AI Ihis poinI, sIeam bubbles
ri si ng and expandi ng upward
Ihrough Ihe Ihin conduiI, send jusI
enough o Ihe cooler, capping waIer
splashing ouI onIo Ihe surace IhaI
Ihe delicaIe balance suddenly shiIs.
The pressure cooker's lid is removed.
Like Iaking Ihe cap o a soda
boIIle, Ihis release o pressure begins
a chain reacIion as Ihe deep super-
heaIed waIer lashes Io sIeam and
rushes upward Ihrough Ihe consIric-
Iion aI Ihe speed o sound. The blasI
o scalding sIeam orces all Ihe waIer
sIill in Ihe Iube above iI high inIo Ihe
low pressure sky. II's or Ihis reason
IhaI Old EaiIhul and mosI oIher
geysers have some kind o splashing
'pre-show' ollowed by Ihe main
column o waIer, inished o wiIh a
jeI o sIeam.
\hen Ihe pressures inside are
released and Ihe waIer column is inally empIied, Ihe process o illing Ihe Iube
wiIh ground waIer begins anew unIil Ihe condiIions or erupIion are reached
once more. This is why geysers like Old EaiIhul are aiIhully periodic. MosI
imporIanIly, waIch any erupIion and noIe IhaI you are seeing one o Ihe inal
energeIic sIeps in a saga IhaI sIarIed deep wiIhin Ihe EarIh. Ceysers are a nuclear
powered way Ihe planeI cools iIsel.
How does Ihe process o planeIary cooling play ouI on oIher planeIs7 Eor
smaller bodies like Ihe Moon, Iheir size works or Ihem in Iwo imporIanI ways.
EirsI, because o Iheir small size, Ihey simply conIain less sIu, and hence have
ar ewer radioacIive heaIers, compared Io larger bodies like Ihe EarIh. \iIhouI
Ihese elemenIs, very liIIle heaI is ever generaIed in Ihe hearIs o asIeroids and
moons. Secondly, because Ihey are small, Ihey have relaIively liIIle volume per
surace area exposed Io space. \haI inIernal heaI Ihey do generaIe is rapidly
radiaIed away Io space. Look aI Ihe Moon and iIs lack o any recenI geologic
acIiviIy (oIher Ihan being pummeled by space debris) is obvious. Since our Moon
is one o Ihe larger moons in Ihe Solar SysIem, iIs lack o inIernal heaI and
exciIing geological surace processes should be abouI all you would ind on oIher
moons ouI Ihere around Ihe oIher planeIs.
ThaI was Ihe expecIaIion, Ihe problem was IhaI prior Io Ihe Space Age, no one
really knew. Civen IhaI a planeI's surace is a window Io iIs inIerior, consider
figure 4.7 HoL waLer ahd sLeam vehL ihLo Lhe
air durihg ah erupLioh of Old laiLhful geyser.
1he hoL waLer LhaL raihs back Lo EarLh ruhs off
ih sLreams LhaL melL Lhe surrouhdihg show (1.
Nordgreh).
figure 4.8 lamily porLraiL of Lhe Solar SysLem. lrom Lop Lo boLLom Lhe ma|or plaheLs are
Mercury, vehus, EarLh (wiLh iLs Mooh), Mars, |upiLer, SaLurh, rahus ahd NepLuhe.
NeiLher Lhe sizes hor disLahces separaLihg Lhem are Lo scale (NASA}|lL).
how liIIle we knew abouI our sibling planeIs prior Io Ihe 160s. Mercury, closesI
Io Ihe Sun, is small, no more Ihan S0% larger Ihan our Moon. Because iI is so
close Io Ihe Sun in space, we never see iI very ar away rom Ihe Sun in Ihe sky.
\hen Ihe Sun goes down (or shorIly beore iI comes up), Mercury is righI Ihere
on Ihe horizon, dulled and disIorIed by Ihe EarIh's Ihick aImosphere. In
Ielescopes large and small, Mercury is a airly eaIureless disk IhaI simply goes
Ihrough phases like Ihe Moon as iI goes around Ihe Sun.
Nearly equidisIanI beIween Ihe EarIh and Mercury is Ihe planeI Venus, a near
Iwin Io our EarIh in mass and size. As Venus orbiIs Ihe Sun we see Ihe planeI go
Ihrough phases Ioo. \hen iI comes ouI rom behind Ihe Sun we see iIs ully liI
side and iI appears as a small circular disk. Slowly, however, as iI Iravels around
Ihe Sun and begins Io overIake Ihe EarIh, we see more and more o iIs unliI nighI
side. To our eyes iI goes rom ull Io only hal-liI or irsI quarIer phase.
EvenIually, as iI passes almosI exacIly beIween us and Ihe Sun, we are presenIed
wiIh nearly Ihe enIire nighI side o Venus, and iI appears as a large Ihin crescenI
Ihrough even a decenI pair o binoculars. AI Ihese Iimes Venus is closer Io us
Ihan any oIher planeI in Ihe Solar SysIem.
2
Calileo saw Ihese phases 400 years ago in a Ielescope no more powerul Ihan a
Iypical pair o binoculars, and iI helped change our view o Ihe Universe rom an
EarIh-cenIered one Io one cenIered on Ihe Sun. BuI Ihose phases are all anyone
ever saw on Venus and preIIy quickly asIronomers realized IhaI Venus was
covered in perpeIual clouds. \haI was under Ihe clouds7 No one knew.
The nexI closesI planeI is Ihe one IhaI since Ihe laIe 1800s has been Ihe mosI
widely mapped: Mars. Frior Io Ihe space age, Ihe prevailing view was o a vasI,
globe spanning neIwork o . . . someIhing. \hile aI Ihe dawn o space lighI no
one sIill expecIed canals builI by a dead or dying civilizaIion, Ihe naIure o Ihe
uzzy, dark eaIures was a IoIal mysIery. Ferhaps Ihey were a lowly orm o planI
lie wiIh no chlorophyll (or Ihere was no sign o chlorophyll in specIra Iaken o
Ihe dark regions). Ferhaps Ihey were volcanic sand alIernaIely blown abouI or
uncovered by Ihe raging winds on Ihe surace. \ho knew7
These our planeIs (including Ihe EarIh) consIiIuIe Ihe inner Solar SysIem and
all are locaIed wiIhin an area IhaI exIends only one and a hal Iimes arIher ouI
rom Ihe Sun Ihan Ihe EarIh. Beyond Ihe orbiI o Mars is a whole hosI o small
rocky asIeroids orbiIing in a belI IhaI serves as Ihe dividing line beIween Ihe
inner and ouIer parIs o Ihe Solar SysIem.
EarIher ouI, Ihe planeIs become huge wiIh comparably large disIances
beIween Ihem. JupiIer aI iIs closesI is S Iimes arIher rom Ihe Sun Ihan EarIh,
while ouIermosI NepIune is 30 Iimes more disIanI Ihan we. In Ihe inner sysIem,
Ihe EarIh and Venus are Ihe big kids on Ihe block, wiIh Mars and Mercury being
10 and S0 Iimes less massive Ihan us respecIively. BuI in Ihe ouIer sysIem,
mighIy JupiIer, 300 Iimes more massive Ihan Ihe EarIh, dwars all o us puny
Sun-huggers compleIely.
2
See Ihe 'See or yoursel' secIion o ChapIer 6 or a diagram o Venus' phases during iIs orbiI.
I remember a book I had as a child showing a painIing o JupiIer's surace
where molIen lava poured over dark clis Io ill Ihe gianI lava sea IhaI was Ihe
CreaI Red SpoI. This spoI has been visible since abouI Ihe Iime o Calileo, and
along wiIh numerous dark bands, (and a ew shorIer-lived spoIs) is abouI all you
can see Ihrough Ielescopes. BuI poinI even a small Ielescope aI Ihe planeI and
Ihere in Ihe ield o view are our large moons. \hile each o Ihese Calilean
saIelliIes is abouI Ihe size o our Moon, beore modern observaIories Ihey were
no more Ihan eaIureless doIs.
Beyond JupiIer, Ihe nexI closesI planeI and perhaps Ihe mosI beauIiul objecI
visible in binoculars or Ielescope, is Ihe ringed planeI SaIurn. EarIher ouI Ihere is
blue-green Uranus (nearly 20 Iimes arIher rom Ihe Sun Ihan Ihe EarIh) ollowed
by iIs near Iwin NepIune. Each is a uzzy liIIle disk wiIh virIually no visible
eaIures, buI boIh shepherding Iheir own reIinue o moons. OuI aI NepIune Ihe
Sun's heaI is 00 Iimes less inIense Ihan whaI we experience on our own planeI
and Ihe condiIions ouI Ihere musI be very dierenI Ihan whaI we experience
here in Ihe inner Solar SysIem.
LasIly, Ihere is Ihe small icy body o FluIo, even smaller Ihan Mercury, in an
orbiI IhaI carries iI back and orIh across NepIune's paIh. Since Ihe 10s,
modern observaIories have discovered IhaI FluIo is simply Ihe irsI discovered
(and unIil Ihe discovery o Eris in 2003, Ihe largesI) o a new class o icy
'asIeroids' orbiIing in a belI jusI inside and beyond Ihe orbiI o NepIune. These
icy worlds, ouI in Ihe cold ouIer reaches o Ihe Solar SysIem, comprise Ihe Kuiper
BelI, buI only a ew shorI decades ago Ihey were compleIely unknown Io EarIhly
asIronomers.
And Ihere in only a Ihousand words is jusI abouI everyIhing IhaI was known
abouI Ihe geography (and mosI o Ihe geology) o eighI planeIs and a dozen or so
aIIendanI moons. II's or Ihis reason IhaI prior Io Ihe invenIion o spacecraI,
planeIary asIronomy was largely an unglamorous pursuiI. BuI once you had
spacecraI and could go Ihere, Ihe possibiliIies or discovery were enormous.
Less Ihan a hundred years beore spacecraI would sIarI Io map Ihe unknown
places in Ihe Solar SysIem, European and American explorers were sIill mapping
Ihe lasI remaining unknown places on EarIh: Ihe greaI inIeriors o Arica and
America (including many o Ihe places IhaI would become our naIion's naIional
parks) as well as boIh norIh and souIh poles. James F. Ronda in his oreword Io
Donald Jackson's book Thomas }cjjcrson anJ thc Rocly Mountans. Lxplorng thc
Wcst jrom Montccllo, wriIes IhaI explorers o Ihe eighIeenIh and nineIeenIh
cenIuries, such as ''Cook, Vancouver, La Fe rouse, and . . . Alejandro Malaspina
saw Ihemselves as parI o a worldwide scienIiic enIerprise.'' Their goal, along
wiIh Ihe scienIisIs and arIisI who accompanied Ihem, was noIhing shorI o Ihe
mapping o new lands and oceans, and Ihe caIaloging and caIegorizaIion o Ihe
peoples, planIs, minerals, and animals ound Ihere. ''EnlighIenmenI explorers,''
according Io Ronda, ''soughI useul knowledge more Ihan advenIure and
escape.''
\iIh ew changes o wording, Ihese goals are Ihe same IhaI NASA scienIisIs
pursue Ioday: mapping Ihe suraces o new planeIs or moons, idenIiying Iheir
composiIions and Ihe geological processes aI work, and perhaps mosI exciIing o
all, searching or evidence o lie. Even Ihe names Ihey choose or Iheir spacecraI
speak Io Iheir hisIory: Ihey are Explorers, Fioneers, Surveyors, and Mariners.
OuIward rom Ihe EarIh, we've senI Rangers, Voyagers, and FaIhinders
searching or New Horizons.
3
One o Ihe mosI amous o Ihe nineIeenIh cenIury scienIiic expediIions Io
Ihe American \esI was Ihe Hayden ExpediIion IhaI explored Ihe YellowsIone
plaIeau in 1871. Eor many years, advenIurers and Irappers known collecIively as
'mounIain men' had Iold Iall Iales o Ihe mounIainous \esI. The mosI amous
mounIain man o all, Jim Bridger seemed no excepIion when he Iold sIories o
Ihe YellowsIone basin's mounIain o glass (now called Obsidian Cli), ''Ihe place
where Hell bubbled up,'' (Ihe geysers and hoI pools IhaI sIeam and reek o sulur)
and described sIanding Irees peIriied by volcanic sedimenIs as ''peeIriied Irees
a-growing, wiIh peeIriied birds on 'em a-singing peeIriied songs.''
Eerdinand Vandeveer Hayden, geologisI o Ihe U.S. Ceological and Ceogra-
phical Survey, would lead Ihe irsI scienIiic expediIion Io Ihe area. Once Ihere,
Hayden was charged by Congress Io invesIigaIe Ihe geology, mineralogy,
zoology, boIany, and agriculIural resources o Ihe region. Eor Ihis purpose he
was given $40,000, 34 men, and seven wagons which seI ouI or Ihe IerriIory in
June, 1871. In WnJows nto thc Larth, a popular accounI o Ihe geology o
YellowsIone and Crand TeIon NaIional Farks, RoberI B. SmiIh and Lee J. Siegel
describe how by Ihe end o IhaI summer Hayden had managed Io piece IogeIher
a surprisingly compleIe undersIanding o Ihe YellowsIone counIry. In his reporI
Io Congress, Hayden wroIe:
This basin has been called by some Iravelers Ihe vasI craIer o some
ancienI volcano. II is probable IhaI during Ihe Fliocene period |~3
million years ago| Ihe enIire |YellowsIone| counIry . . . was Ihe scene
o as greaI volcanic acIiviIy as IhaI o any porIion o Ihe globe. II
mighI be called one vasI craIer, made up o Ihousands o smaller
volcanic venIs and issures ouI o which Ihe luid inIerior o Ihe earIh,
ragmenIs o rocks, and volcanic dusI were poured in unlimiIed
quanIiIies.
\haI Hayden was describing was Ihe YellowsIone Caldera. This is a vasI and
subIle eaIure measuring nearly S0 miles (80 km) across Ihe cenIral porIion o
YellowsIone NaIional Fark. \hile Ioday Ihe major maniesIaIion o Ihe volcanic
hoI spoI is Ihe sIeaming pools and bubbling geysers, Ihis was noI always Ihe case.
3
Explorers were Ihe irsI American saIelliIes in EarIh orbiI, while Ihe Fioneers wenI Io Mercury,
Venus, JupiIer and SaIurn. The Surveyors and Rangers explored Ihe Moon, while Mariners
wenI Io Venus and Mars. FaIhinder landed Ihe irsI rover on Mars, while Ihe Voyagers wenI
Io JupiIer, SaIurn, Uranus, and NepIune. In 2007 New Horizons lew by JupiIer on iIs way Io
FluIo, which iI will pass in 201S.
figure 4.9 1he sLeps ih Lhe
formaLioh of ellowsLohe's volcahic
caldera: a) A magma chamber
swells up, raisihg a bulge ahd cracks
ih Lhe surface above, b) Magma
erupLs Lo Lhe surface Lhrough
fissures LhaL break dowh Lo Lhe
subLerraheah chamber, c) 1he
surface collapses above Lhe parLially
empLied magma chamber, formihg
a caldera, d) New lava flowihg ouL
of cracks ih Lhe caldera floor spread
across Lhe surface, fillihg much of
Lhe caldera (NlS}1. Nordgreh).
Like geysers, Ihe pressure IhaI builds in Ihe buried magma chamber lasIs only so
long beore someIhing blows. AbouI every 6S0,000 years, Ihe YellowsIone hoI
spoI erupIs in whaI scienIisIs have come Io call a super volcano. During Ihe lasI
episode 600,000 years ago, 240 cubic miles o rock and ash (nearly a Ihousand
cubic kilomeIers) erupIed Ihrough venIs IhroughouI whaI is now Ihe park,
parIially empIying Ihe magma chamber beneaIh. \iIhouI Ihe supporI o Ihis
magma, Ihe ground above collapsed, dropping like a reighI elevaIor inIo Ihe
molIen rock below, creaIing Ihe caldera.
Erom Ihis cracked and broken landscape, subsequenI lava lows billowed
upward and ouI like Ihick bread dough, covering much o Ihe caldera loor. So
much o Ihe caldera was illed IhaI Ioday iI Iakes a sharp eye Io see Ihe signs IhaI
are sIill Ihere. You can see Ihese ancienI lava lows or yoursel when you explore
Ihe Upper Ceyser Basin and Old EaiIhul areas. Look around aI Ihe surrounding
laI-Iopped hills wiIh smooIhly rounded, sloping sides. These are Ihe now solid
lava lows IhaI welled up ouI o Ihe cracked EarIh aIer Ihe caldera's collapse.
The enIire souIhwesIern quadranI o Ihe park is a series o Ihree overlapping
calderas rom Ihe mosI recenI erupIions. The youngesI caldera is Ihe mosI
obvious, and is exacIly whaI Hayden saw wiIh his geologisI's eye when he
described Ihe landscape 140 years ago rom aIop MI. \ashburn near Ihe caldera's
norIhern rim.
BuI as any visiIor Io YellowsIone knows, words alone cannoI describe Ihe
sIrangeness and beauIy o Ihis place. According Io FeIer Hassrick in his book
Drawn to Ycllowstonc. Artsts n Amcrca's lrst Natonal Parl, Hayden made iI a
maIIer o course Io hire arIisIs as a way o enhancing his scienIiic observaIions
and reporIs. ''He undersIood ull well Ihe popular appeal and Ihe scienIiic value
o phoIographs and painIings. Eor him, 'collecIing phoIographs and picIures o
Ihe \esI was similar . . . Io collecIing ossils and naIural hisIory specimens.' ''
4
4
In a direcI IesIamenI Io Hayden's vision, Ihe Hubble Space Telescope owes iIs success Io iIs
hundreds o sIunning phoIographs jusI as much as iIs many scienIiic discoveries.
figure 4.10 1he mosL recehL erupLioh of Lhe ellowsLohe hoLspoL, 00,000 years ago,
creaLed Lhe ellowsLohe Caldera (dashed purple ouLlihe) LhaL lerdihahd Haydeh firsL
recoghized ih 1871 yeL is ofLeh overlooked by mahy currehL visiLors Lo Lhe park (NaLiohal
lark Service).
Hayden included in Ihe expediIion Thomas Moran, a young Fhiladelphia
painIer eager Io make a name or himsel in Ihe wide open wilderness ouI \esI,
and \illiam Henry Jackson, a pioneering pracIiIioner o Ihe new medium o
phoIography. Jackson and Moran would work side by side in YellowsIone, whaI
one would porIray in colored painI Ihe oIher would capIure on black and whiIe
plaIes. The Iwo became asI riends. Erom Moran's diary (wiIh iIs eclecIic spelling
and puncIuaIion) we can see Ihe magniicenI geology and exhilaraIing
advenIures Ihey experienced IogeIher IhaI summer as Ihey explored Ihe
YellowsIone counIry:
. . .passed over Ihe debris o a greaI land slide. where Ihe whole ace o
Ihe MounIain had allen down aI some Iime, laying bare a greaI cli
some S00 eeI high. The view o Ihe lake, as we approached iI, was
figure 4.11 1homas Morah's waLercolor paihLihg of CasLle Ceyser ih Lhe pper Ceyser
8asih, visiLed durihg Lhe 1871 Haydeh Survey Lo Lhe ellowsLohe LerriLory. Compare Lhis
wiLh Lhe phoLograph from hearly Lhe same posiLioh made by William Hehry |acksoh ih
ligure 4.12 (as well as a more recehL phoLograph made from a posiLioh Lo Lhe righL of
LhaL showh here, ih ligure 4.4) (NlS}1homas Morah).
figure 4.12 William Hehry |acksoh phoLograph of CasLle Ceyser Lakeh durihg Lhe 1871
Haydeh Survey. lor scale, hoLice Lhe persoh climbihg Lhe righL side of Lhe sihLer cohe
(hoL allowed Loday) (.S. Ceological ahd Ceographical Survey of Lhe 1erriLories (Haydeh
Survey)).
very beauIiul. II is a small pool ormed by Ihe widening o sIream aI
Ihis poinI, iI is noI more Ihan hal a mile in any direcIion. The
MounIains surrounding iI are abouI 11,000 eeI high & abouI 3000 I.
above Ihe level o Ihe lake having snow sIill upon Ihem. . .. Eor Ihe
irsI Iime in my lie I slepI ouI in Ihe open air. During Ihe nighI iI
rained a liIIle buI noI enough Io weI us Io any exIenI. CoI up early
enough in Ihe morning Io geI our BreakasI, & commence phoIo-
graphing as soon as Ihe sun rose. The ouIleI o Ihe lake is Ihrough an
immense gorge in Ihe MounIains bordered wiIh greaI clis & peaks o
LimesIone some o Ihem isolaIed & orming splendid oreground
MaIerial or picIures. SkeIched buI liIIle buI worked hard wiIh Ihe
phoIographer selecIing poinIs Io be Iaken. . .. EelI used up abouI 12
o'clock & sIarIed back Io Ihe camping ground where we prepared our
dinner & resIed an hour. Jackson goI 13 negaIives during Ihe day
which considering Ihe diiculIies quiIe a eaI I Ihink. . .. The view
rom The MounIains souIh easI o our Camp & on Ihe road Io Ihe lake
looking Ioward Ihe YellowsIone CounIry glorious, & I do noI expecI
Io see any iner general view o Ihe Rocky MounIains.
ExcerpI rom Thomas Moran's diary, 1871
TogeIher Jackson and Moran recorded or all Iime and or everyone Io see Ihe
volcano made maniesI. Eor an easIern public raised on landscapes o genIly
rolling hills and broad river valleys, Ihe Iwo arIisIs presenIed an alien landscape
o giganIic hoI spring Ierraces, bizarre mulIicolored pools, geysers spouIing rom
sIrange Iowers o sculpIed sIone, and Ihe kaleidoscopic beauIy o Ihe Yellow-
sIone's Crand Canyon. CommenIing on an 1873 exhibiIion o landscape
painIers IhaI included Moran's YellowsIone scenes, an arI criIic or Ihe Pcnn
Monthly wroIe, ''Eor mysel, I preer Thomas Moran's rich YellowsIone
counIry. . .. The schools o
science and impression in arI
seem Io be growing arIher and
arIher aparI, and iI is curious
Io see an observer like Mr.
Moran Iurn aside Io give us a
couple o bloIs, anIasIic 'sug-
gesIions,' he calls Ihem, ull o
weirdness and dream.''
In Ihe monIhs aIer Iheir
reIurn, Jackson's and Moran's
ar I wor k was c i r c ul aI ed
Ihrough Ihe halls o Congress.
U.S. Army Corps o Engineers
CapIain Hiram M. ChiIIenden
wroIe IhaI Iheir painIings and
phoIographs ''did a work
figure 4.13 1homas Morah's waLercolor paihLihg
ehLiLled '1ower lalls ahd Sulphur MouhLaih' based oh
his experiehces durihg Lhe Haydeh ExpediLioh of 1871
(NlS}1homas Morah).
which no oIher agency could do and doubIless convinced everyone who saw
Ihem IhaI Ihe regions where such wonders exisIed should be preserved Io Ihe
people orever.'' Seven monIhs aIer Ihe expediIion's reIurn, Ihe UniIed SIaIes
Congress made YellowsIone Ihe naIion's (and Ihe world's) irsI naIional park: a
naIional park or volcanism.
NineIy-one years laIer, Ihe landscapes being phoIographed or Ihe irsI Iime
were on oIher worlds. SIarIing wiIh Mariner 2's lyby o Venus in 162, Ihe
currenI generaIion o planeIary scienIisIs has had Ihe unique opporIuniIy Io be
Ihe irsI human beings Io Iransorm Ihe ainI uzzy disks in Ihe Ielescopes inIo
acIual worlds Io be mapped and explored. \hile Hayden and Ihe scienIiic
explorers o Ihe EnlighIenmenI may have been Ihe irsI whiIe men Io see Iheir
respecIive parIs o Ihe globe, Ioday we know IhaI wiIh ew excepIions, human
beings had been living in all o Ihese
places or Ihousands o years. Indeed,
many o Ihese scienIiic expediIions
relied upon Ihe local peoples Io show
Ihem Ihe sighIs Ihey would laIer
'discover.' BuI Ioday, wiIh each new
spacecraI mission Io visiI new pla-
neIs, moons, comeIs, and asIeroids,
we really are Ihe irsI human beings
Io see and explore New \orlds.
In 173, Ihe U.S. launched Mar-
iner 10 which ound Mercury Io be a
dark, dead, heavily craIered world
like our Moon.
S
Thanks Io SovieI and
U.S. spacecraI in Ihe 170s, '80s and
'0s, we now know IhaI beneaIh Ihe
clouds o Venus Ihe planeI is a
geologically acIive one covered wiIh
gaping riIs and meandering lava
lows. An almosI compleIe lack o
visible impacI craIers means IhaI like
Ihe EarIh, some orm o erosion musI
Iake place on Ihe Venusian surace
IhaI wipes away Ihese scars. BuI, on a
planeI where a runaway greenhouse
S
AI leasI iI ound one hemisphere Io be Moon-like. On each o Mariner 10's Ihree lybys iI lew
pasI Mercury when Ihe exacI same hemisphere was sunliI, placing Ihe opposiIe hemisphere
in absoluIe darkness. Only in 2008 wiIh Ihe arrival o a second spacecraI named MESSENCER
was Ihe oIher hemisphere inally seen. MESSENCER revealed a Moon-like surace wiIh some
subIle dierences IhaI will be Ihe subjecI o conIinued sIudy as Ihe spacecraI evenIually goes
inIo orbiI around Ihe planeI.
figure 4.14 view of Lhe plaheL Mercury Lakeh
by Lhe MESSENCEk spacecrafL. 8righL maLerial
e|ecLed from mulLiple impacL craLers spread
arouhd much of Lhe visible hemisphere. 1he
parL of Lhe plaheL Lo Lhe easL of Lhe cehLral
craLer had hever beeh seeh before Lhe 2008
flyby (NASA}|ohhs Hopkihs hiversiLy Applied
lhysics LaboraLory}Carhegie lhsLiLuLioh of
WashihgLoh).
eecI keeps Ihe surace aI a consIanI 00. E (480. C) wiIh an aImosphere IhaI is
Ihick and sluggish and no waIer exisIs, Ihe only orces Io do so are Ihe all-
encompassing heaI and volcanoes o globe-spanning proporIions.
In Ihe 170s, Mariner and Vikings 1 and 2 revealed a Mars wiIh a canyon
IhaI could hold Arizona's Crand Canyon in an insigniicanI IribuIary and a
garganIuan shield volcano whose summiI Iouches Ihe edge o space. And while
Ihere are ancienI signs o lowing waIer everywhere, Ioday Ihere is noI a liquid
drop Io be ound. \haIever acIiviIy Iook place Ihere seems Io have happened so
long ago IhaI Ihe only movemenI Ioday is Ihe genIle brush o sand blowing on
Ihe wind.
By Ihe Iime Voyager 1 reached JupiIer in 17, all Ihe gianI planeIs were
known Io be greaI gaseous worlds wiIh no solid suraces. The lasI remaining
worlds Io map and explore in our Solar SysIem would Ihereore be Iheir moons.
The majoriIy o Ihese worlds are small icy rocks, no larger Ihan our own Moon.
\ould Ihey be noIhing more Ihan cold, grey, craIered worlds locked in perpeIual
deep-reeze by Ihe eeble lighI o a dim, disIanI Sun7 Or would Ihere be surprises
in sIore7
Torrence Johnson is now a senior scienIisI aI Ihe JeI Fropulsion LaboraIory in
Fasadena Caliornia. ThirIy years ago, in Ihe spring o 17, he was a member o
Ihe Voyager camera Ieam. ''Beore Voyager, we knew rom Ielescopes, rom Ihe
color and specIra o Ihe Calilean saIelliIes, IhaI Ihey were going Io be a liIIle
dierenI rom Ihe Moon, we knew in some ways Ihey were going Io be weird.''
Three o Ihe Calilean saIelliIes, Europa, Canymede and CallisIo, were known
rom Iheir high relecIiviIy and specIra Io be made mosIly o waIer ice. II was
expecIed IhaI ice slowly lowing across Iheir suraces had probably obscured
many o Ihe older craIers, buI in general Ihey'd be preIIy eaIureless, laI places
wiIh liIIle acIiviIy Io shape Ihe landscape.
Io, on Ihe oIher hand, Ihe innermosI large moon o JupiIer (and only slighIly
smaller Ihan our own Moon) was parIicularly odd. II was noIiceably red in views
rom EarIh, and sulur had recenIly been deIecIed in iIs specIrum o relecIed
lighI. The prevailing view was IhaI Io would Iurn ouI Io have an old baIIered
surace coaIed in sulur compounds, rendering iI a reddish version o our own
Moon.
''\hen we saw Ihe irsI lighI and dark markings on Io's surace Ihey were
inIerpreIed as Ihe liI and shadowed sides o Iopographic eaIures. There were
Ihose who wanIed Io issue press releases saying we were seeing greaI circular
impacI eaIures like Ihose on Ihe Moon. BuI we waiIed, because we knew IhaI as
we goI closer Ihe view would only geI beIIer. II was a very exciIing Iime,''
Johnson vividly recalled.
Then, jusI Ihree days beore Voyager 1's closesI approach Io JupiIer, Ihe March
2nd issue o Ihe journal Sccncc hiI Ihe scienIisIs' mailboxes. II eaIured a paper by
SIanIon Feale aI Ihe UniversiIy o Caliornia showing IhaI radioacIive elemenIs
are noI Ihe only way Io heaI a moon. Feale claimed IhaI Ihe combinaIion o Io's
orbiI and JupiIer's mass could be surprisingly eecIive in heaIing Io's inIerior,
and Ihus Ihe moon mighI noI be as cold and dead as our own.
figure 4.15 voyager 1 images
lo ahd Europa passihg ih frohL
of |upiLer's cloud Lops. lo is
Lhe orahge ohe oh Lhe lefL
passihg ih frohL of Lhe CreaL
ked SpoL (NASA}|lL).
Here's how Feale calculaIed Ihe process works: JupiIer's Ihree large inner
saIelliIes (Io, Europa, and Canymede) are locked inIo muIual orbiIal resonances.
Eor every Irip Europa makes around JupiIer, Io makes exacIly Iwo (and or every
Iwo IhaI Europa makes, Canymede compleIes one). The resulI is IhaI or every
our Iimes Io Iravels around JupiIer, boIh Canymede and Europa are back in Iheir
original posiIions relaIive Io Ihe inner moon and Iheir combined graviIaIional
pull keeps Io's paIh around JupiIer rom becoming perecIly circular. Io's
ellipIical orbiI means iIs disIance rom JupiIer consIanIly changes.
BuI Ihe Iidal orces rom massive JupiIer IhaI sIreIch Ihe Iiny moon (raising
Iwo bulges poinIing Iowards and away rom JupiIer's bulk) are highly dependenI
upon Ihe disIance beIween Ihe Iwo. \iIh changing disIances come changing
Iidal orces. As Io circles JupiIer, Ihe graviIaIional orces conIinuously vary,
deorming Ihe poor moon over Ihe course o iIs 1.8 day orbiIal period. These
lucIuaIing orces sIreIch and squeeze Io's inIerior, generaIing ricIion IhaI
generaIes heaI IhaI melIs rock inIo magma. Feale calculaIed IhaI Ihe more Io's
inIerior melIs, Ihe easier iI is or Iidal orces Io deorm Ihe crusI, which in Iurn
figure 4.1 1his view of lo shows Lwo
simulLaheously erupLihg volcahoes. Ohe
is visible oh Lhe limb, (aL lower righL)
where volcahic maLerial rises more Lhah
150 miles (20 kilomeLers) above lo's
surface. 1he secohd is visible alohg Lhe
LermihaLor (Lhe lihe beLweeh day ahd
highL) where Lhe volcahic plume caLches
Lhe lighL of Lhe risihg Suh. WiLh Lhis
image Lihda A. MorabiLo, a |lL ehgiheer,
discovered Lhe firsL acLive volcaho
beyohd Lhe EarLh. lL was Lakeh by
voyager 1 oh March 8, 17, lookihg
back 2. millioh miles (4.5 millioh
kilomeLers) aL lo, Lhree days afLer iLs
closesL ehcouhLer (NASA}|lL).
generaIes even more heaI (melIing even more rock) in a process he called
''runaway Iidal heaIing.'' The inal line o Ihe opening Io Feale's paper said iI all,
''Consequences o a largely molIen inIerior may be evidenI in picIures o Io's
surace reIurned by Voyager 1.''
''As a resulI o Feale's paper,'' JohnsIon recalled, ''we knew Io keep an eye ouI
or Ihe possibiliIy o recenI volcanism. BuI 'recenI' probably meanI wiIhin Ihe
lasI million years.'' Then Johnson chuckled. ''As Voyager goI closer, Ihe views goI
clearer, unIil inally iI became obvious. There wasn'I jusI recenI volcanism on Io,
iI was going on Ihere righI now.''
Imagine being Ihe very irsI human beings Io see Ihe rockeIing plume o Old
EaiIhul or Ihe rainbow colors surrounding Crand FrismaIic Spring. AIer
Iraveling Ihrough green oresIs and grey mounIains, you are broughI ace Io
ace wiIh yellow and orange canyons, aquamarine pools, and boiling red
mudpoIs. Ear rom Ihe dead worlds Ihe lack o geological acIiviIy on Ihe Moon
ligure 4.17 Like hearly every ohe of Lhe images reLurhed by voyagers 1 ahd 2, Lhis
mohLage of |upiLer ahd iLs moohs is ah icohic image for me from my childhood. lrom
lefL Lo righL Lhe moohs (firsL visible Lo Calileo ahd sLill visible Lo ahyohe wiLh a decehL
pair of bihoculars) are lo, Cahymede, Europa ahd CallisLo (NASA}|lL).
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would lead us Io expecI, or even Ihe moderaIe levels o acIiviIy IhaI, ''recenI''
volcanism mighI imply, Io was vibranIly alive in Technicolor brilliancy wiIh
enormous volcanic plumes erupIing skyward above molIen lava lows and lava
lakes larger Ihan anyIhing on EarIh. ''During IhaI mission,'' Johnson mused,
''Ihe moons wenI rom being Ihese liIIle eaIureless spoIs in a Ielescope Io real
worlds in our phoIographs. Io was no longer jusI Ihe reddish one, iI was Ihe
world wiIh volcanocs, while Europa became Ihe one wiIh cracls, and CallisIo was
Ihe one wiIh cratcrs.''
In 1872 New Yorkers crowded ClinIon Hall Io see Moran's greaI wesIern
masIerpiece, Thc GranJ Canon oj thc Ycllowstonc. In 17 I breaIhlessly waiIed
along wiIh everyone else Io see Ihe laIesI phoIos rom JupiIer on my TV's nighIly
news. \hile Moran's kaleidoscopic painIing became an iconic represenIaIion o
Ihe wonder and majesIy o wesIern expansion and exploraIion, Voyager 1's
figure 4.19 1his color image shows Lwo volcahic plumes oh lo. 1he brighL plume oh
Lhe limb fouhLaihs 8 miles (140 kilomeLers) ihLo space. AL boLLom cehLer a secohd
circular plume erupLs direcLly Lowards Lhe camera from Lhe volcaho lromeLheus. lL
forms where a dark black lava flow curls ouL of a volcahic vehL ahd hiLs Lhe cold sulfur
dioxide frosL oh Lhe surface. Every spacecrafL sehL Lo |upiLer, wiLh |usL Lhe righL view of
lo, has seeh Lhis volcaho erupLihg, revealihg LhaL iL may have beeh cohLihuously acLive
for more Lhah 18 years (NASA}|lL}hiversiLy of Arizoha).
phoIos o Io wiIh iIs volcanic plumes rising over a kaleidoscopic limb have
become iconic images o humaniIy's ouIwards expansion and exploraIion o Ihe
Solar SysIem. Every planeIary scienIisI I know who worked on IhaI mission, rom
senior researchers Io undergraduaIe sIudenIs, has a avoriIe phoIograph Ihey sIill
remember.
Look aI a phoIograph o Io. Every single black speck and dark circle is a hoI
spoI like Ihe YellowsIone hoI spoI, every one is a volcano. The Iidal heaIing IhaI
produces Ihose volcanoes long ago boiled away all Ihe waIer and ice IhaI is sIill
ound on JupiIer's oIher moons. \haI's leI is a hellish wasIeland o sulur
compounds in neon yellows, oranges, reds, and whiIes. Eor anyone who's ever
visiIed one o YellowsIone's major geyser basins, Ihis descripIion isn'I Ioo ar
wrong. Take a deep breaIh. Any uIure asIronauI daring enough Io brave Io's
sulur ields will be hard pressed Io compleIely ilIer ouI IhaI smell. Eor me, iI's
Ihe disIincIive smell o volcanism.
YeI as similar as Io's volcanic eaIures may seem, in Iheir number and scale
Ihey creaIe a landscape uIIerly alien ouIside o nighImares. YellowsIone's mosI
recenI and visible caldera is less Ihan S0 miles (80 km) across aI iIs longesI, Ihis is
no more Ihan a Iypical, mediocre sized volcano on Io. By comparison, Io's largesI
volcano, and indeed Ihe largesI acIive volcano in Ihe enIire Solar SysIem, is Loki
FaIera,
6
measuring almosI 12S miles (200 km) across.
I, when visiIing YellowsIone, you should make Ihe drive rom Tower Ealls Io
Canyon Village, sIop or a momenI like Eerdinand Hayden did, and Iake in Ihe
view rom Dunraven Fass. Erom here on Ihe shoulders o MI. \ashburn, you can
figure 4.20 Ah acLive volcahic erupLioh oh
|upiLer's mooh lo was capLured ih Lhis
image Lakeh oh lebruary 22, 2000 by
NASA's Calileo spacecrafL. 1his image (a
composiLe of visible ahd ihfrared images)
shows 1vashLar CaLeha, a chaih of giahL
volcahic calderas. 1he orahge ahd yellow
ribboh aL lefL is a coolihg lava flow LhaL is
more Lhah 37 miles (0 kilomeLers) lohg.
1he Lwo small brighL spoLs are siLes where
molLeh rock is exposed Lo Lhe surface aL
Lhe ehds of lava flows. 1his picLure is abouL
155 miles (250 km) across (NASA}|lL}
hiversiLy of Arizoha).
6
A patcra looks like a caldera buI we have no idea i Ihe ormaIion mechanism is Ihe same. JusI
Io be sae, we use Ihis word which comes Io us rom Ihe name or ancienI Creek and Roman
saucer-shaped vessels or dishes.
figure 4.21 DifferehL sulfur
compouhds oh lo give rise Lo a rioL of
colors ih 1upah laLera. Named afLer a
8raziliah Lhuhder god, Lhe volcahic
depressioh, possibly a caldera like
ellowsLohe's, measures 47 miles (75
km) across ahd is surrouhded by cliffs
3,000 feeL (00 meLers) Lall (NASA}|lL}
hiversiLy of Arizoha).
figure 4.22 1he images used Lo creaLe Lhis ehhahced color composiLe of lo were
acquired by NASA's Calileo spacecrafL durihg iLs sevehLh orbiL of |upiLer. 1he acLive
volcaho, Loki laLera, is Lhe large, black, horseshoe-shaped lake hear Lhe bouhdary
beLweeh highL ahd day hear Lhe upper lefL. 1he big reddish-orahge rihg ih Lhe lower
righL is formed by maLerial deposiLed from Lhe erupLioh of lele, lo's largesL volcahic
plume (NASA}|lL}hiversiLy of Arizoha).
see clear across Ihe shorI-axis o Ihe YellowsIone Caldera Io iIs ar wall in Ihe
disIanI hills on Ihe horizon. I you could similarly sIand on Ihe rim o Loki
FaIera, Ihe molIen sea beore you would exIend our Iimes arIher and would be
hidden rom view as iI passed over Ihe disIanI horizon. JusI as Ihe very ground
wiIhin YellowsIone NaIional Fark radiaIes 40 Iimes as much heaI as Ihe average
or Ihe enIire UniIed SIaIes, so Ioo does every square inch o Iiny Io glow wiIh 40
Iimes Ihe volcanic heaI o EarIh.
Sadly, Voyagers 1 and 2 were only passing Ihrough Ihe JupiIer sysIem on Iheir
way Io Ihe oIher ouIer planeIs. In Iheir wake Ihey leI many quesIions: how
many volcanoes were Ihere on Io, how acIive were Ihey, whaI were Ihey made o,
were Ihey volcanoes like Ihe EarIh's or someIhing more exoIic like volcanoes o
pure sulur7 TwenIy years laIer NASA would revisiI Ihe Jovian worlds, buI Ihis
Iime wiIh an orbiIer called Calileo IhaI could ollow up on Ihe guesses and
hypoIheses o Ihe earlier missions. Models could be made and predicIions IesIed:
science could be done.
Since Ihe Voyager lybys, and conIinuing up Ihrough Ihe Calileo mission, a
Iiny handul o planeIary scienIisIs have been waIching Io - and Loki in
parIicular - rom disIanI hillIops here on EarIh. \haI Ihey lacked in qualiIy o
view Ihrough Ihe EarIh's IurbulenI aImosphere Ihey made up or in quanIiIy o
observaIions. \hile space-
craI may geI sIunningly
beIIer images, Iheir missions
oer only a single snapshoI
in Iime o whaI's happening
on a moon or planeI's sur-
ace. Usi ng I el escopes
locaIed in boIh \yoming
(on Ihe summiI o MI. Jelm
a hal hour's drive souIhwesI
o Laramie) and on Mauna
Kea, a dormanI volcano in
Hawaii, Ihese scienIisIs have
been waIching Io's long-
Ierm acIiviIy or nearly a
quarIer cenIury using inra-
red cameras sensiIive Io Ihe
ainI lighI given o by Ihe
disIanI heaI o Io's volca-
noes.
Once every 1.8 days Io
passes behind JupiIer as
viewed rom Ihe EarIh.
\hen I he or i enI aI i on
beIween EarIh, JupiIer and
Sun is jusI righI, Ihe re-
figure 4.23 lhfrared images of lo Lakeh from NASA's
lhfrared 1elescope laciliLy oh Lhe summiL of Mauha Kea
volcaho oh Lhe 8ig lslahd of Hawai'i. lmages were Lakeh
every couple secohds as lo (orahge) appears from behihd
Lhe disk of |upiLer (blue). 1he LoLal ihfrared brighLhess of
lo for each image is showh by Lhe yellow circles. As each
volcaho emerges from behihd Lhe plaheL, Lhe brighLhess
|umps by ah amouhL LhaL depehds oh Lhe size of Lhe
erupLioh. Six erupLiohs are showh (Lwo appear
simulLaheously ih Lhe lower lefL pahel). 1he brighLesL
erupLioh is always Loki (|. Spehcer}Lowell ObservaLory).
emerging moon is briely in JupiIer's shadow where no sunlighI aI all alls upon
iIs surace. AI Ihese Iimes Ihe only lighI coming rom Io is Ihe inrared glow o iIs
smoldering volcanoes. \hile Io iIsel may appear as noIhing more Ihan an
indisIincI and blurry blob, Ihese planeIary scienIisIs are able Io precisely
pinpoinI any erupIion's locaIion and magniIude by waIching Ihe eclipsed moon
slowly appear rom behind Ihe planeI's disk.
They accomplish Ihis by looking aI Ihe IoIal inrared power reaching Iheir
Ielescope as Ihe moon slowly appears. I Ihere are acIive volcanoes, Ihen as each
one appears, Ihe inrared lux suddenly increases: Ihe larger Ihe erupIion, Ihe
higher Ihe jump. By Iiming when Ihe jump occurs, Ihey idenIiy where on Ihe
moon (along a line norIh and souIh) Ihe ouIbursI occurs, and Ihus, which
volcano iI musI be.
Julie RaIhbun is Ihe mosI recenI planeIary scienIisI moniIoring Io's volcanoes.
She irsI joined Ihe projecI as a posIdocIoral researcher aI Lowell ObservaIory, seI
amid Ihe volcanic cinder cones o NorIhern Arizona. To moniIor Ihe long Ierm
acIiviIy o Io's volcanoes, and Loki in parIicular, RaIhbun uses observaIions o Io
spanning all Ihe way back Io Ihose begun in 187 by Bob Howell, a geologisI aI
Ihe UniversiIy o \yoming.
Erom Voyager phoIos, Loki appears Io be a molIen lava lake wiIh a cenIral
island. \haI exacIly goes on under Ihe molIen surace is unclear buI aIer nearly
20 years o observing iIs periods o erupIions and quiescence, RaIhbun made a
sIarIling discovery. Loki's ouIbursIs were periodic like a geyser's. Every S40 days
Loki would lare up, puIIing ouI as much as 1S% o Ihe volcanic moon's IoIal
heaI low. This would lasI or abouI 230 days and Ihen shuI o. Looking back aI
Ihe 20-year-old Voyager 1 images, RaIhbun and her colleagues could ainIly
make ouI wiIhin Ihe black lake a darker region near one shore. \as Ihis newer
lava, sIill dark and resh compared Io Ihe older, weaIhered rock around iI7 Eour
monIhs laIer when Voyager 2 passed by, Ihe region had increased in size and
grown around Ihe island.
figure 4.24 Loki is like hoLhihg seeh
elsewhere oh lo. 1he lava lake is Lhe -
shaped dark area abouL 125 miles (200
km) across. lh Lhis specially processed
image, darker, possibly molLeh lava is
visible Lo Lhe exLreme lefL, while possible
''icebergs'' are imbedded wiLhih Lhe
hardehed crusL of Lhe remaihder of Lhe
lake. 1he dark lava of Lhe lake is over
30. l (200. C) hoLLer Lhah LhaL of Lhe
surrouhdihg area (NASA}|lL).
\heIher on EarIh or Io, molIen lava is vasIly hoIIer Ihan Ihe air or vacuum o
space above. Once erupIed onIo Ihe landscape, Ihe surace o Ihe molIen lava
cools and hardens inIo an ever Ihickening crusI. \e see a process like Ihis every
winIer on EarIh as norIhern lakes reeze over on cold days. The longer iI's cold,
Ihe Ihicker Ihe ice crusI becomes. BuI waIer is dierenI rom rock. Ice is less
dense Ihan liquid waIer and so loaIs on a lake (or in your glass). Solid rock, by
conIrasI, is denser Ihan liquid, and so evenIually sinks. RaIhbun calculaIed IhaI
as Loki's lava crusI Ihickens, Ihe weighI becomes so greaI IhaI gianI slabs should
break aparI and sink inIo Ihe brighI, hoI, lower densiIy lava beneaIh iI. \iIh Ihe
exposure o hoI molIen lava, observers on EarIh see Ihe beginning o a Loki
'erupIion.' As adjacenI slabs sink, Ihe hole in Ihe crusI widens Io evenIually
become a cascading overIurn IhaI sweeps across Ihe surace o Ihe small lava sea.
As each new mile o liquid lava is exposed, Ihe erupIion RaIhbun sees aI her
Ielescope conIinues. \hen Ihe lasI slab sinks and Ihe exposed lava has once
more begun Io cool, harden and dim, Ihe ouIbursI ends. By Ihe relecIed lighI o
JupiIer's disk, Ihe lake siIs silenI and sIill, Ihe crusI growing Ihicker as iI cools,
unIil once again iI becomes Ioo heavy Io loaI and Ihe process begins anew.
Mark Twain, visiIing Ihe Kilauea caldera on Ihe big Island o Hawai'i in 1866,
wroIe o seeing jusI such a phenomenon wiIhin whaI is Ioday's Hawai'i
Volcanoes NaIional Fark:
Eor a mile and a hal in ronI o us and a hal a mile on eiIher side,
Ihe loor o Ihe abyss was magniicenIly illuminaIed. . .. The greaIer
parI o Ihe vasI loor o Ihe deserI under us was as black as ink, and
apparenIly smooIh and level, buI over a mile square o iI was ringed
and sIreaked and sIriped wiIh a Ihousand branching sIreams o
liquid and gorgeously brillianI ire!. . . Occasionally Ihe molIen lava
lowing under Ihe superincumbenI crusI broke Ihrough spliI a
dazzling sIreak, rom ive hundred Io a Ihousand eeI long, like a
sudden lash o lighIning, and Ihen acre aIer acre o Ihe cold lava
parIed inIo ragmenIs, Iurned up edgewise like cakes o ice when a
greaI river breaks up, plunged downward and were swallowed in Ihe
crimson cauldron. Then Ihe wide expanse o Ihe ''Ihaw'' mainIained
a ruddy glow or a while, buI shorIly cooled and became black and
level again.
Mark Twain, Lcttcrs jrom Hawa, June 3, 1866
Nearly 130 years aIer Mr. Twain's observaIions, Ihe Calileo spacecraI inally
reached JupiIer orbiI and over Ihe nexI eighI years passed by Io six Iimes. Calileo
carried inrared insIrumenIs speciically designed Io measure Ihe IemperaIures o
Io's volcanic eaIures. During Ihe Io encounIers Ihese cameras discovered hoI
lava lows pouring rom volcanic venIs and enormous ounIains o ire near Io's
NorIh Fole. In addiIion, Ihe plumes observed by Voyager are now suspecIed Io be
due Io molIen basalI (like IhaI ound on EarIh) pouring ouI o issures onIo a
surace covered in a sulur dioxide snow. \here Ihe 1,800. E (80. C) rock comes
in conIacI wiIh Ihe -240. E (-1S1. C) surace, Ihe rosI lashes Io a sulurous sIeam
ligure 4.25 Lava lake ahd fire
fouhLaih durihg Lhe AugusL 13
erupLioh of Kilauea volcaho
wiLhih Hawai'i volcahoes
NaLiohal lark. lor a sehse of scale,
hoLice Lhe Lrees wiLhih Lhe caldera
ih Lhe upper lefL illumihaLed by
Lhe blazihg fouhLaih. Colorized
versioh of phoLo by 1. Miyasaki
(.S. Ceological Survey).
IhaI creaIes Ihe enormous plumes we
see arcing ouI inIo space. In Ihis way,
Ihe parIicles in Ihe plumes slowly
seIIle over Ihe enIire surace o Ihe
moon, covering every square inch in
Ihe sulurous sIu. Add up all Ihe
sulur and rock erupIed by all Ihe
volcanoes, and every spoI on Io is
buried Io a depIh o hal an inch (1
cm) every year.
7
Eor Loki, Ihese inrared insIru-
menIs showed IhaI beIween Iwo
separaIe lybys warm IemperaIures
swepI around Ihe paIera in jusI Ihe
same manner and aI jusI Ihe same
raIe as predicIed by Ihe groundbased
observaIions. By modeling all Ihe
daIa rom Ihree spacecraI and 20
years o observaIions, RaIhbun and
her colleagues were able Io noI only
explain whaI Ihe volcano was, buI
predicI iIs nexI erupIion.
UnorIunaIely, aIer publicaIion
o whaI's become known as Ihe
RaI hbun Model , s ubs equenI
ground-based Loki observaIions
figure 4.2 Desigh for a posLer adverLisihg Lhe
mahy aLLracLiohs of Loki laLera for fuLure
LourisLs Lo Lhe lo volcahoes (1. Nordgreh).
7
Because sulur rapidly seIIles on any exposed surace on Io, Ihis is why resh new lava in
Loki's lake should be blacker Ihan Ihe older, cooler lava.
figure 4.27 1he Cassihi spacecrafL capLures Lhis image of SaLurh ahd iLs rihgs upoh iLs
arrival ih orbiL ih 2005. LighL filLerihg Lhrough Lhe rihgs colors SaLurh's cloud-Lops blue
(NASA}|lL}Space Sciehce lhsLiLuLe).
showed IhaI whaI or Iwo decades had been regular as clockwork suddenly
changed compleIely. Sighs RaIhbun, ''I guess IhaI's whaI we geI or naming a
volcano aIer a IricksIer god.'' BuI Ihen RaIhbun says, ''\henever I ind mysel
Ihinking Ihe model is compleIely wrong, I jusI look back aI IhaI Voyager image
o Loki where you can acIually see Ihe dierenI lava raIs loaIing in Ihe lake, and
I know IhaI we'll igure ouI Ihis new behavior evenIually.''
And so her observaIions conIinue.
Over a year and a hal aIer passing by JupiIer and iIs moons, Voyagers 1 and 2
encounIered SaIurn.
8
Like JupiIer, SaIurn is anoIher mini-solar sysIem wiIh a
gianI gaseous planeI surrounded by a horde o small aIIendanI moons. And o
course Ihere are Ihe rings. The rings Ihemselves are billions o snowlakes,
snowballs, and icebergs orbiIing above Ihe cloud Iops in Ihe inely ordered
precision o Kepler's laws. More Ihan 1S6,000 miles (2S0,000 km) in diameIer,
Ihe rings are no more Ihan 33 I (10 m) Ihick in places. I SaIurn and iIs rings
were shrunk down Io a diameIer o 60 miles (100 km), jusI wide enough Io iI
wiIhin YellowsIone's boundary, Ihe rings would be no Ihicker Ihan Ihe olded up
park map you geI when you visiI.
OuI Ihere in Ihe cold ringes o Ihe ouIer Solar SysIem, Ihe rings aren'I Ihe
only Ihings made ouI o ice. The moons Ihemselves are ice worlds: greaI balls o
rock and waIer ice locked in a perpeIual deep reeze. \hen Ihe Voyagers lew by,
Ihey saw moons like our own, excepI every ridge, riI and craIer is ormed, noI
ouI o rock, buI raIher ouI o waIer, rozen as hard as graniIe. And, aI long lasI,
Ihere were moons covered in craIers, pummeled by eons o debris passing
Ihrough SaIurn's graviIaIional domain. Tiny Mimas was hiI wiIh an impacIor so
8
Voyager 1 passed by SaIurn in November 180, while Voyager 2 lew by in AugusI 181.
BeIween waIching Ihese Iwo encounIers on TV, I saw Ihe erupIion o MI. SI. Helens.
figure 4.28 1he orahge, smoggy
aLmosphere of SaLurh's mooh, 1iLah, is
cohLrasLed by Lhe small brighL body of
ahoLher mooh, Ehceladus. Oh 1iLah, yeL
uhdefihed processes are supplyihg Lhe
aLmosphere wiLh meLhahe ahd oLher
chemicals LhaL are brokeh dowh by
suhlighL. 1hese chemicals are creaLihg Lhe
Lhick yellow-orahge haze LhaL is spread
Lhrough Lhe aLmosphere ahd, over geologic
Lime, coaLs Lhe surface (NASA}|lL}Space
Sciehce lhsLiLuLe).
large IhaI Ihe resulIing craIer dominaIes an enIire hemisphere.
There was also

Ihe Iwo-aced IapeIus, wiIh one side as brighI as new allen snow, and one
hemisphere as dark as blackesI coal.
BuI Ihe largesI moon o all was also Ihe mosI inIeresIing. TiIan, as beiIIing iIs
name, is larger Ihan even Ihe planeI Mercury, wiIh a Ihick and impeneIrable
aImosphere unlike any oIher moon in Ihe Solar SysIem. \ere iI noI in orbiI
around SaIurn, TiIan would be a planeI in iIs own righI. \hen Ihe Cassini
spacecraI was senI Io orbiI SaIurn 28 years aIer Ihe Voyagers passed by, one o
iIs primary missions was Io divine Ihe secreIs o TiIan, Io inally look beneaIh Ihe
globe spanning clouds.
II is in Ihese momenIs IhaI one realizes whaI a privileged Iime iI is Io be a
scienIisI. Here would be a new world, revealed Io human eyes or Ihe very irsI
Iime. And unlike Ihe explorers o Ihe lasI couple cenIuries, we wouldn'I be
merely reporIing back on Ihe discovery o landscapes and perecIly happy people
in no mood Io be ''discovered.'' In sailing beneaIh TiIan's clouds and gazing on
prisIine panoramas we really would be Ihe irsI people Io see Ihe Crand Canyon
or dip our Ioes in Ihe Faciic Ocean. \iIh Ihe excepIion o ar o FluIo and Ihe
rozen ice-balls wiIh which iI shares IerriIory in Ihe Kuiper BelI beyond NepIune,
TiIan's would be Ihe very lasI landscape IoIally new Io human eyes in our Solar
SysIem.
In addiIion Io cameras wiIh which we'd aIIempI Io peer Ihrough Ihe murky
clouds, Cassini also carried a radar IransmiIIer and receiver designed Io clearly
map Ihe surace o Ihe moon. II works by bouncing radio waves o Ihe surace aI
an angle as Ihe spacecraI passes by: no radar reIurn and we know a region is
smooIh and Ihe radio waves have simply bounced away ouI Io space, a brighI
And or a generaIion raised on SIar \ars movies, we aI lasI knew Ihe DeaIh SIar was real!
radar relecIion and we know Ihe region is rough and jagged and Ihe radio waves
are scaIIering in all direcIions, some o Ihem righI back aI Ihe spacecraI.
Cassini's orbiI around SaIurn was devised so IhaI iI would make numerous
passes by Ihe cloudy moon and on each pass a swaIh across Ihe surace is
'imaged,' slowly building up a map, one IanIalizing sIrip aI a Iime. BuI while
Cassini is an orbiIer, on board Cassini was a lander IhaI would be dropped rom
on high as Ihe spacecraI made iIs irsI approach. The Huygens lander, a
European conIribuIion Io Ihe inIernaIional mission, would dive Ihrough Ihe
ligure 4.2 1he Europeah Space Agehcy's Huygehs probe capLured Lhese images of Lhe
surface of 1iLah as iL dropped by parachuLe Lhrough Lhe mooh's Lhick aLmosphere. Each
row shows Lhe view horLh, souLh, easL ahd wesL, aL differehL alLiLudes above 1iLah's
surface: 100 miles, 20 miles, 5 miles, 1 mile, ahd 0.2 miles (10 km, 32 km, 8 km, 0.32
km). 8righL, mouhLaihous highlahds cohLrasL wiLh dark, flaL, lowlahds ihLo which a
humber of dry 'river chahhels' appear Lo flow (ESA}NASA}|lL}hiversiLy of Arizoha).
figure 4.30 Cassihi's radar ihsLrumehL
views a swaLh of 1iLah's horLh polar regioh.
1hrough 1iLah's Lhick aLmosphere we see,
for Lhe firsL Lime, feaLures LhaL look exacLly
like chahhels, islahds, ahd bays Lypical of
LerresLrial coasLlihes. 1he liquid, mosL likely
a combihaLioh of meLhahe ahd eLhahe,
appears very dark Lo Lhe radar ihsLrumehL
ahd is showh ih false color meahL Lo
emphasize Lhe differehce beLweeh Lhe
radar-dark lakes ahd rough ahd |agged,
highlahds. Some of Lhe observed chahhels
flowihg ihLo Lhese lakes have well-
developed LribuLary sysLems ahd draih
mahy Lhousahds of square kilomeLers of Lhe
surrouhdihg Lerraih. 1hese lakes are likely
cohhecLed ahd may form parL of a larger
sea (NASA}|lL).
aImosphere, suspended by parachuIe, acquiring images in visible lighI as iI saw
whaI you or I would see i we ever came in or a landing on Ihe rozen surace.
Because Ihe moon s rozen. \iIh an average surace IemperaIure o -20. E
(-180. C) Ihe world is in a permanenI deep reeze, buI a special deep reeze near
Ihe Iriple-poinI o meIhane, one o Ihe main consIiIuenIs o iIs aImosphere. \e
live in a special place on EarIh near Ihe Iriple-poinI o waIer, where waIer can
exisI in all Ihree o iIs phases: solid, liquid and gas. This morning I sIood beside
Morning Clory Fool in Ihe Upper Ceyser basin, and saw sIeam blow againsI Ihe
blue surace o Ihe scalding waIers seI againsI Ihe brighI whiIe o Ihe surrounding
winIer snow. On TiIan, Ihe IemperaIure may allow meIhane (Ihe primary
componenI o naIural gas) Io play Ihe parI IhaI waIer does here and exisI in all
Ihree o iIs orms.
Erom orbiI, Cassini's radar shows greaI regions o Ihe poles covered in
someIhing dark and perecIly smooIh. These dark area's well-deined borders are
evocaIive o liquid shorelines inIo which are whaI appear Io be perecIly normal
river channels cuI Ihrough rough mounIains. Eor all Ihe landscape's apparenI
normalcy Ihough, Io peer down Ihrough TiIan's cloudy veil is Io see a rigid,
alien EarIh where meIhane rain alls on jagged hills o solid waIer, where
meIhane sIreams grow Io cuI canyons Ihrough icy ground, and where meIhane
rivers wash inIo arcIic hydrocarbon seas. And everywhere is Ihe sign o geological
acIiviIy: coasIlines and river channels, dune ields and seashores, weaIher and
erosion. On no oIher world in our Solar SysIem have we ound someIhing so like
home, and yeI so uIIerly alien.
As Cassini swepI on rom iIs irsI encounIer wiIh TiIan, iI passed by Ihe Iiny
moon Enceladus. Enceladus is small enough Io iI wiIhin Ihe borders o
\yoming (abouI Ihe same size as CreaI BriIain), small enough IhaI all inIernal
heaI should long ago have escaped
and all geological acIiviIy slowed Io a
sIop. BuI even as ar back as Voyager
2's lyby in 181, images o Ihe
moon showed a ascinaIing place
where someIhing special had hap-
pened, or mighI sIill be happening.
Enceladus is Ihe brighIesI moon in
Ihe Solar SysIem, iIs surace is as
whiIe as newly allen snow.
Here in Ihe Old EaiIhul area, iI's
been snowing every day or weeks
now, and snowshoeing across Ihe
driIs in Ihe middle o Ihe nighI
when Ihe sIars are ouI, I wonder
whaI iI would be like Io Irek across
Ihe snows o Enceladus. \ould I
hear Ihe resh whiIe powder crunch
Ihrough Ihe soles o my booIs7 I leI
my imaginaIion Iake me Io IhaI
disIanI moon and gaze in wonder aI
Ihis new world around me.
As is Irue on EarIh, Ihere are
relaIively ew craIers here on Encela-
dus, whaI ew craIers are ound
depend on whaI parI o Ihe moon
figure 4.32 SaLurh's mooh Ehceladus is
Lhe brighLesL mooh ih Lhe Solar SysLem, as
brighL as hew falleh show. lLs surface is a
bizarre mix of craLers ahd vasL regiohs of
hoLhihg buL ridges ahd wrihkles ihdicaLihg
LhaL some geological process musL be
rearrahgihg iLs surface. 1he boLLom Lhird of
Lhe visible disk is cehLered oh Lhe mooh's
souLh pole which is crossed by mulLiple
brighL blue crevasses (called 1iger SLripes).
lhfrared observaLiohs by Cassihi show Lhe
souLh pole is warmer Lhah Lhe resL of Lhe
mooh (NASA}|lL}Space Sciehce lhsLiLuLe).
figure 4.31 Desigh for a posLer
adverLisihg Lhe aLLracLiohs of Lhe 1iLah
seashore for fuLure LourisLs Lo Lhis exoLic
mooh (1. Nordgreh).
you are on. Like our Moon does Io Ihe EarIh, Enceladus always keeps Ihe same
ace poinIed Iowards SaIurn. On Ihe leading hemisphere (Ihe parI o Ihe moon
IhaI aces orward in iIs direcIion o moIion around SaIurn, where Ihe planeI
appears Io orever resI on Ihe easIern horizon) Ihere are almosI no craIers aI all.
\hile snow does cover Ihe surace, Ihere is no way IhaI Ihe Ihin layer could hide
Ihe Iypes o impacI scars Iypically ound on our own Moon. No, someIhing has
erased Ihe craIers, some inIernal acIiviIy has erased whaI should be here. This
means someIhing deep down is sIill acIive, or was unIil recenIly. I see iIs
presence, noI jusI in Ihe lack o craIers, buI in Ihe cracks and ridges IhaI criss-
cross Ihe counIryside. Images rom orbiI show Ihe enIire SouIh Folar Region is
covered in wrinkles.
Ringing Ihe pole iIsel is an almosI conIinuous IransiIion zone o ridges and
valleys meeIing aI sIrange V-shaped inIersecIions IhaI look as i some gianI child
poked and pulled iIs inger Ihrough a Iub o soI-serve ice cream. The enIire pole
is separaIed rom Ihe resI o Ihe moon by Ihis sIrange neIwork o eaIures, and Io
sIand upon Ihe inal scarp overlooking Ihe polar basin is Io behold a view as
sIrange and beauIiul as IhaI IhaI Hayden saw rom Ihe edge o Ihe YellowsIone
Caldera.
Beore me begins Ihe irsI o Ihe enormous parallel cracks called 'Tiger SIripes'
seen in images rom Cassini's Ihird pass by Ihe icy moon, Ihe irsI Io geI a view o
iIs souIhern pole. Each riI is abouI a mile and a quarIer (2 km) across lanked by
ridges running over 300 eeI (100 m) above Ihe surrounding plains. \iIhin Ihe
bounds o Ihese Iroughs Ihe loor sinks away inIo darkness ive Iimes deeper,
shadowed rom Ihe lighI o SaIurn now resIing upon Ihe norIheasIern horizon
behind me. Cassini's inrared cameras, similar Io Ihose carried by Ihe Calileo
spacecraI, passed over Ihis riI sysIem in 200S and deIecIed Ihe irsI signs o heaI
radiaIing up rom ouI o Iheir depIhs.
A graviIaIional resonance wiIh
neighboring Dione, a moon iIeen
Iimes larger, keeps Enceladus in a
modesIly eccenIric orbiI around
SaIurn, jusI like Europa causes Io Io
do around JupiIer. The changing Iidal
orces rom SaIurn once again cause
ricIion deep wiIhin Ihe moon IhaI
generaIes Ihe souIh polar heaI. \hy
Ihere's no comparable warming aI
Ihe NorIh Fole is sIill a mysIery.
My presence here coincides wiIh
Enceladus' closesI passage wiIh
SaIurn. The minuIes pass, and Ihe
geomeIry beIween riI and SaIurn
slowly changes unIil, jusI as I grow
impaIienI, I see Ihe irsI spouI
become a IorrenI as a jeI o waIer
figure 4.33 1he Suh's rays backlighL waLer
geyser's erupLihg from Ehceladus' souLh pole
vapor rockeIs rom deep wiIhin one o Ihe Tiger SIripes in Ihe disIance. EirsI one,
Ihen oIhers orm. A dozen geysers soon Iouch Ihe sky as Iidal orces rom SaIurn
pull aparI dierenI secIions o Ihe pole-crossing cracks, exposing Io space unseen
reservoirs o liquid waIer below.
Cassini irsI saw Ihe plumes in 200S when during one parIicular lyby iI
looked back Io caIch a phoIo o Ihe lunar nighI-side. Exposed Io Ihe Sun was a
razor Ihin crescenI o daylighI and beauIiul back-liI sIreamers radiaIing rom Ihe
moon's SouIh Fole. The prevailing hypoIhesis is IhaI Ihe inIernal heaI warms Ihe
ice creaIing gianI reservoirs o liquid waIer underneaIh Ihe polar ice cap. \hen
Ihe orienIaIion wiIh SaIurn is jusI righI, Ihe planeI's Iidal orces open Ihe cracks
IhaI cross Ihe lunar surace. AI Ihese momenIs Ihe high pressure underground
waIers erupI high inIo Ihe surrounding sky, jusI like in YellowsIone NaIional
Fark, 800 million miles (1.3 billion kilomeIers) away.
\hen planeIary scienIisIs irsI realized whaI Ihese were, Ihey called Ihem
Cold EaiIhul aIer Ihe mosI amous geyser on EarIh. The IoIal ouIpuI o waIer
rom Ihese alien geysers is sIrikingly similar Io Ihe waIer ouIpuI o Iheir
namesake back on EarIh. AbouI 8,000 gallons (30,000 liIers) o waIer are shoI
inIo Ihe sky during each ouIbursI, buI because o Ihe lower graviIy here on
Enceladus, Ihe geyser plumes seem
Io converge aI a poinI high over-
head, six hundred miles (1000 km)
ouI inIo space. No need Io crowd on
Ihe boardwalk Io geI a decenI picIure
o IhaI.
BuI parI o Ihe reason Old EaiIhul
is amous, and Ihe reason iI has Ihe
name IhaI iI does, is because Ihe
mechanism IhaI makes Ihe geyser
also makes iI periodic. Old EaiIhul
erupIs nearly every 0 minuIes once
iIs plumbing sysIem has reilled and
repressurized aIer Ihe previous erup-
Iion. According Io Terry Hurord o
Ihe Coddard Space ElighI CenIer in
Caliornia, as Enceladus orbiIs SaIurn
Ihe orienIaIion o Ihe crevices slowly
changes wiIh respecI Io Ihe Iidal
orces rom SaIurn. AI closesI
approach in iIs ellipIical orbiI, Ihe
graviIaIional orces rom SaIurn
cause Ihe cracks Io open and Ihe
geysers Io erupI. As Enceladus con-
Iinues on in iIs orbiI, however, Ihe
orienIaIion and disIance rom SaIurn
changes and Ihe orces IhaI irsI
figure 4.34 Desigh for a posLer ihLroducihg
fuLure LourisLs Lo Lhe aLLracLiohs of icy Ehceladus
ihcludihg Lhe specLacular Cold laiLhful geysers
(1. Nordgreh).
figure 4.35 Model of how
Lidal heaLihg warms
Ehceladus' ihLerior,
producihg Lhe liquid waLer
LhaL erupLs from Lhe souLh
polar 1iger SLripes Lo produce
Lhe observed geysers (NASA}
|lL}Space Sciehce lhsLiLuLe).
figure 4.3 HeaL radiaLes from Lhe ehLire
lehgLh of Lhe 5 mile-lohg (150 km) '1iger
SLripe' fracLures sLreLchihg across Lhe souLh
pole of SaLurh's ice mooh Ehceladus. 1he
source of Lhe geysers (showh by sLars) Lehd Lo
be locaLed ih Lhe warmesL parLs of Lhe
fracLures. 1he brighLesL fracLure, Damascus
Sulcus ih Lhe lower lefL, is aL a LemperaLure of
aL leasL ~135. l (~3. C) compared wiLh Lhe
surrouhdihg polar regioh aL LemperaLures
below ~330. l (~200. C) (NASA}|lL}CSlC}
Swkl}SSl).
figure 4.37 1his image was Lakeh durihg
Cassihi's very close flyby of Ehceladus aL a
heighL of 2,47 miles (4,742 km) above Lhe
surface. Damascus Sulcus, crossihg Lhe upper
parL of Lhe image, is Lhe warmesL of Lhe 1iger
SLripes ahd Lhe source of Lwo of Lhe observed
polar geysers. 1he smallesL feaLures visible
wiLhih Lhe Damascas crevasse are ohly a
couple huhdred feeL across (NASA}|lL}Space
Sciehce lhsLiLuLe).
pulled Ihe crevices open now begin Io push Ihem closed. One by one Ihe geysers
sIop. BuI every 1.37 days as Enceladus circles round SaIurn, Ihe orces begin Io
build again and i observaIions conirm Hurord's calculaIions, Cold EaiIhul
Iruly is.
II's Io experience or mysel whaI iI mighI be like Io see Ihe erupIion o
Enceladus' geysers IhaI I've oughI my body's naIural desire Io sIay warm, and
gone ouI inIo a \yoming winIer Io see Old EaiIhul erupI by sIarlighI. \eaIher
paIIerns in Eebruary make Ihis one o Ihe coldesI places in Ihe conIinenIal
UniIed SIaIes and on a clear nighI wiIhouI Ihe warming blankeI o clouds iI geIs
even colder. Eor whaIever reason, righI now beore dawn is Ihe one Iime Ihe sIars
seem Io come ouI and so our hours beore IwilighI begins I'm ouI in Ihe cold
nighI air IhaI makes my eyeballs reeze. I'm wearing a parka lenI Io me by an
arcIic researcher (iI has a neon orange 'Folar Bear AlerI' Iag on Ihe ronI) and iI
comes in handy as I snowshoe my
way over Io Ihe quiIe empIy Old
EaiIhul viewing area. SIarlighI (and
my head lamp) illuminaIes Ihe snow-
covered paIh as I aIIempI Io avoid
Ihe bison in Ihe area. I am Iold Iheir
eyes glow green in Ihe lighI buI
suspecI i I geI close enough Io Iell
I'm already Ioo close. By Ihe Iime I
make iI Io Ihe geyser I happily noIe
SaIurn in Ihe sIarry sky above me,
jusI as i I really was on Ihe sub-
SaIurnian side o IhaI Iiny ar away
moon.
AI 4:40 am under a moonless sky, I
hear Old EaiIhul erupI jusI as I
arrive. I planI my camera, snap my
phoIos, and eel someIhing begin Io
brush againsI my ace. The super-
heaIed waIer erupIing rom Ihe hole
in Ihe icy ground is reezing in Ihe air
above me and raining down as genIle
snow. I look up aI SaIurn. On Ence-
ladus where Ihe orce o graviIy is so
much lower, mosI o Ihis lash rozen
waIer doesn'I all back Io ground, buI
raIher conIinues upward Io go even-
Iually inIo orbiI around Ihe planeI.
There iI becomes SaIurn's E ring,
caIching Ihe lighI o Ihe disIanI Sun
Io become one o Ihe mosI beauIiul
sighIs in Ihe enIire Solar SysIem. How
figure 4.38 Old laiLhful erupLs by sLarlighL ih
ellowsLohe NaLiohal lark. 1he hoL waLer
flashes Lo show as iL comes ih cohLacL wiLh Lhe
cold highL air. 1he brighL whiLe 'sLar' seeh
wiLhih Lhe plume aL cehLer is Lhe plaheL SaLurh.
WiLhih LhaL sihgle, feaLureless doL is Lhe plaheL,
iLs rihgs, ahd moohs, ihcludihg 1iLah ahd
Ehceladus (1. Nordgreh).
figure 4.39 LiL by reflecLed lighL from SaLurh, Ehceladus appears Lo hover above Lhe gleamihg
rihgs, iLs geysers sprayihg a cohLihuous hail of Lihy ice graihs. Showflakes LhaL escape Lhe Lihy
mooh's graviLy go ihLo orbiL arouhd SaLurh, creaLihg iLs E-rihg ih which Ehceladus resides
figure 4.40 ArL ahd asLrohomy are combihed ih Lhe sciehLific exploraLioh of Lhe Solar SysLem.
pper lefL: |upiLer's LurbulehL cloud Lops from Lhe voyager 1 spacecrafL (NASA}|lL), pper righL:
lo hahgs before Lhe clouds of |upiLer (NASA}|lL}Space Sciehce lhsLiLuLe), Lower lefL: Cassihi arrives
aL SaLurh ahd caLches Lhe Lihy mooh, Mimas, agaihsL Lhe shadow of SaLurh's rihgs (NASA}|lL}
Space Sciehce lhsLiLuLe), ahd Lower righL: Comihg full circle, arLisL Mohica leLLy Aiello creaLes
ihLerpreLaLiohs of plaheLary forms revealed by NASA spacecrafL, ih Lhis case lele's volcahismoh Lhe
surface of lo (compare wiLh ligure 4.22) (Mohica leLLy Aiello).
sIrange IhaI someIhing so alien should be Ihe resulI o Ihe earIhly phenomenon
beore me.
As I see SaIurn disappear inIo Ihe geyser's plume, I relecI back on Ihe
explorers who've come beore me here: rom Ihe irsI NaIive Americans Io ind
Ihis place Io Jim Bridger and Eerdinand Hayden, rom Ihe arIisIs who capIured iIs
likeness, such as Thomas Moran and \illiam Henry Jackson, Io Ihe scienIisIs
who conIinue Iheir IradiIion Ihrough Ihe elecIronic eyes o Voyager, Calileo and
Cassini. ExploraIion, arI, and science are whaI make us human. Through Ihem
we learn abouI ourselves, our planeI, and Ihe Universe in which we all belong,
and Ihey are Ihe passions IhaI sIir my soul here where Ihe hearI o my planeI
inally Iouches Ihe sky.
See for yourseIf: the SoIar System
ModeI SoIar System
To puI inIo perspecIive how large Ihe Solar SysIem is, here is a simple model you
can make where boIh Ihe sizes o Ihe planeIs and Ihe disIances beIween Ihem are
Io scale. The enIire model, rom Sun Io disIanI FluIo in Ihe Kuiper BelI, is 600
yards (or meIers) long. This can easily iI wiIhin a large meadow, your
neighborhood, or along Ihe Irail rom Old EaiIhul Io CasIle Ceyser in
YellowsIone NaIional Fark.
The ollowing Iable lisIs Ihe disIance o each planeI rom Ihe Sun in yards}
meIers, Ihe size o each planeI in inches and millimeIers, and a Iypical iIem o
abouI Ihe righI size. NoIe: One yard or meIer works ouI Io abouI one large sIep.
There is no need Io be picky abouI geIIing Ihis exacI.
Table 4.1 5cale model of the 5olar 5ystem
PIanet Distance Size Object
from Sun
Suh 0 yards 5 ihches (130 mm) CrapefruiL}large sLohe
Mercury 0.02 (0.5) loppy seed}sahd graih
vehus 10 0.04 (1.0) Cahdy sprihkle}Lihy pebble
EarLh 15 0.04 (1.0) Cahdy sprihkle}Lihy pebble
Mars 25 0.02 (0.5) loppy seed}sahd graih
AsLeroid 8elL 30-50 yards ~ DusL
|upiLer 80 0.5 (13.0) Cahdy M&M}small sLohe
SaLurh 140 0.4 (10.0) Cahdy M&M}small sLohe
rahus 20 0.2 (5.0) leppercorh}large pebble
NepLuhe 450 0.2 (5.0) leppercorh}large pebble
lluLo}Kuiper
8elL 00-? 0.01 (0.2) loppy seed}sahd graih
Lhe map is Lhe sky sLraighL overhead aL Lhe zehiLh. SaLurh's posiLioh is marked relaLive Lo
Lhe backgrouhd sLars for each OcLober ahd April beLweeh 2010 ahd 2038 (hearly a full
SaLurhiah year). 1o fihd SaLurh durihg ahoLher mohLh, fihd iLs posiLioh beLweeh Lhe Lwo
closesL daLes Lheh cohsulL ohe of Lhe oLher mohLhly sLar maps Lo see if LhaL cohsLellaLioh
(ahd Lhus SaLurh) is above Lhe horizoh. While durihg ahy giveh mohLh of ahy giveh year
Lhere may be oLher plaheLs also visible, SaLurh is Lypically quiLe brighL ahd hoLiceably
yellow (Lhough hoL as brighL or yellow as |upiLer). NoLe LhaL beLweeh 2014 ahd 2017,
SaLurh is movihg Lhrough Lhe cohsLellaLiohs of Scorpius, Ophiuchus, ahd SagiLLarius ahd
Lhus hoL visible oh eiLher of Lhese maps. Durihg Lhose years, make a hoLe of how far ih
Lhe sky SaLurh Lypically moves each year alohg Lhe eclipLic ahd Lheh check Lhe summer
sky maps LhaL show Lhese cohsLellaLiohs Lhe besL.
Eind a large sIone in a cenIral locaIion or place a large graperuiI someplace
you can see iI (noIe IhaI in Ihe naIional parks you should noI pick up and move
rocks around). In walking rom one planeI Io Ihe nexI, be aware IhaI in realiIy
Ihe planeIs are never all lined up as we are doing in our model. AI any one Iime
Ihere are almosI always planeIs on opposiIe sides o Ihe Sun.
Once you geI ouI Io JupiIer and beyond, noIice jusI how ar Ihese planeIs are
away rom Ihe Sun. This is why iI is so cold ouI here, and why nearly every moon
is composed largely o ice. The planeIs in Ihe inner Solar SysIem, by comparison,
are IighIly bunched around Ihe warmIh o Ihe Sun.
AI SaIurn: when you see iIs rings in a pair o binoculars, you are seeing lighI
IhaI has Iraveled Ihe 140 yards}meIers rom Ihe Sun, relecIed o Ihe ice crysIals
in Ihe rings, and Ihen Iraveled all Ihe way back Io observers on EarIh, 13S yards}
meIers away.
\hen you geI Io FluIo and Ihe edge o Ihe known Solar SysIem, look back
Iowards Ihe EarIh. II Iakes lighI, Ihe asIesI Ihing in Ihe Universe, S.S hours Io geI
here rom Ihe Sun. I you walked Ihe same disIance in 1S minuIes, you would be
walking 22 Iimes asIer Ihan Ihe speed o lighI on Ihis scale. The New Horizons
spacecraI on iIs way Io FluIo is Ihe asIesI machine ever builI by humaniIy and iI
will Iake nine years Io Iravel Ihis same disIance.
On Ihe same scale as Ihis model Solar SysIem, Ihe nearesI sIar like our Sun is
2,400 miles (3,800 km) away. Now, hold up your Ihumb. On Ihe scale o Ihis
model, Ihe disIance beIween Ihe EarIh and Moon is no more Ihan Ihe widIh o
your Ihumb. This is Ihe arIhesI human beings have so ar personally Iraveled ouI
inIo space.
Observing |upiter's moons through binocuIars
FoinI binoculars aI JupiIer wiIh a magniicaIion o 18, or 20, and you will see
one or more o iIs moons. You need Io keep Ihe binoculars sIeady by using a
simple camera Iripod. I you do noI have a Iripod, Iry siIIing in a way IhaI you
can resI boIh o your elbows on a Iable or oIher solid surace. AlIernaIely, sIand
nexI Io a Iree Irunk or pole and press Ihe side o Ihe binoculars againsI Ihe
verIical supporI as a way Io sIabilize Ihem. LasIly, Ihere are some brands o
binoculars IhaI now include inIernal image sIabilizaIion Io counIer Ihe naIural
shaking o our hands. Makers o Ihe Calileoscope sell a plasIic Ielescope or $20
wiIh Ihe same magniicaIion as Calileo's original.
Use Ihe SepIember and March sky maps (ChapIer 3) Io ind JupiIer's posiIion
relaIive Io Ihe background consIellaIions over Ihe nexI 11 years. II will be one o
Ihe brighIesI, i noI Ihe brighIesI 'sIar' in Ihe sky when you ind iI. Observe
JupiIer rom nighI Io nighI and you will see one or more o iIs Calilean moons.
Io, Ihe innermosI and asIesI moving moon, will even show moIion aIer only a
ew hours.
On Ihe lines beneaIh, Iry recording Ihe posiIions o Ihe moons over several
nighIs. Each row shows a single nighI, wiIh Ihe cenIral circle represenIing
JupiIer's disk (i you have a Ielescope, see i you can deIecI Ihe cloud bands or
even Ihe CreaI Red SpoI on JupiIer). Use Ihe size o JupiIer's disk in your view Io
gauge how ar away each moon is. CallisIo, Ihe mosI disIanI moon, will never
look arIher away rom Ihe planeI Ihan 13 JupiIer disks (Ihe ends o Ihe
horizonIal line). In a liIIle less Ihan 17 days CallisIo will make one compleIe
orbiI.
Observing Saturn through binocuIars
SaIurn, wiIh iIs rings, is Ihe mosI beauIiul planeI visible Ihrough a Ielescope or
pair o binoculars. As shown in Eigure 4.41, even wiIh a magniicaIion o jusI
20,, Ihe rings are visible o Io eiIher side o SaIurn's disk. Through higher
power binoculars, or a small Ielescope, Ihe rings are easily discernable as
wrapping compleIely around Ihe planeI. In addiIion, you will also begin Io see
SaIurn's moons, Ihe brighIesI o which is TiIan.
figure 4.41 Drawihg of SaLurh Lhrough
a 25, Lelescope. (1. Nordgreh).
further reading
Volcanc WorlJs. Lxplorng thc Solar Systcm's Volcanocs ed. Rosaly M.C. Lopes and
Tracy K.F. Cregg (2004)
Springer-Fraxis, ISBN 3S4000431
Supcr Volcano. Thc Tclng Tmc Bomh Bcncath Ycllowstonc Natonal Parl by Creg
Breining (2007)
Voyageur Fress, ISBN 780760322S2
WnJows nto thc Larth. Thc Gcologc Story oj Ycllowstonc anJ GranJ Tcton Natonal
Parls by RoberI B. SmiIh and Lee J. Siegel (2000)
Oxord UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 01S10S74
Drawn to Ycllowstonc. Artsts n Amcrca's lrst Natonal Parl by FeIer H. Hassrick
(2002)
UniversiIy o \ashingIon Fress, ISBN 02S81733
The Nine FlaneIs Solar SysIem Tour
hIIp:}}www.nineplaneIs.org}
The NASA FhoIojournal o spacecraI imagery
hIIp:}}phoIojournal.jpl.nasa.gov}index.hIml
YellowsIone's Old EaiIhul \ebcam
hIIp:}}www.nps.gov}archive}yell}oldaiIhulcam.hIm
YellowsIone NaIional Fark Archive o Thomas Moran painIings
hIIp:}}www.nps.gov}archive}yell}slideile}hisIory}moranandoIherarI}Fage.hIm
The Calileoscope, a high qualiIy plasIic replica o Calileo's Ielescope
hIIps:}}www.galileoscope.org}
Monica FeIIy Aiello's Callery o planeIary surace-inspired arIwork
hIIp:}}www.Iandmaiello.com}
5
Red rock planet
All ths s thc musc oj watcrs.
John \esley Fowell, 18S
lrrgaton, anJ upon as vast a scalc as posshlc, must hc thc all-cngrossng
Martan pursut.
Fercival Lowell, 18S
lollow thc watcr.
NASA, oicial Mars exploraIion Iheme, 2003
Every Iwo years and Iwo monIhs Mars glows red in a dark black sky. As Ihe EarIh
overIakes and draws close Io iIs slower cosmic kin, Mars grows brighIer Ihan any
oIher sIar in Ihe sky. Then, jusI as quickly, Ihe process reverses, Ihe EarIh sweeps
onward, and Mars ades away Io become one more lighI in a cold sIarry sky. Eor
Ihose ew monIhs IhaI we spend under a oreboding blood red sIar, iI's no
wonder Ihe planeI was named or Ihe god o \ar.
BuI Mars is no harbinger o doom, iI's simply a planeI, Ihe ourIh planeI rom
Ihe Sun. II's smaller Ihan Ihe EarIh, wiIh a surace area a liIIle more Ihan a
quarIer IhaI o Ihe EarIh's - or roughly
equal Io Ihe dry land mass o our own
world. Unlike all oIher heavenly bodies
(save Ihe Moon) Mars reveals a land-
scape Io Ihe Ielescopic observer. During
each near encounIer even a small
Ielescope reveals a whiIe polar cap o
ice or snow. AI Ihese Iimes, iI is easy Io
see Ihrough Ielescopes IhaI Mars is a
reddish-ocher world wiIh occasional
markings o a darker blue-green. The
movemenI o Ihese markings across Ihe
disk reveals Mars has a day only 40
minuIes longer Ihan ours. Their move-
menI also shows IhaI Mars' axis o
roIaIion is IilIed only a couple o
degrees greaIer Ihan our own. Mars
Ihereore goes Ihrough iIs seasons, jusI
as we go Ihrough ours.
figure 5.1 1he plaheL Mars as seeh
Lhrough a small Lelescope ih 2003 (1.
Nordgreh).
Through our Ielescopes we can see IhaI Mars has an aImosphere. \hile iI is
Ihinner Ihan ours, iI is composed in large parI o waIer vapor IhaI keeps Ihe
MarIian climaIe relaIively mild Ihough no Irace o snow or ice is ever seen
ouIside Ihe polar caps. ObservaIion o Ihese caps and Ihe blue-green regions
show Ihey change in size, darkness and color wiIh Ihe seasons. Erom winIer Io
summer Ihe polar cap shrinks. As iI does so, a neIwork o globe girdling lines
becomes apparenI and Ihe equaIorial blue-green regions grow in size and deepen
in color. Erom all Ihese observaIions we may logically conclude IhaI Mars is a
warm, dry, deserI world where a globe spanning neIwork o canals has been builI
Io irrigaIe vasI agriculIural regions susIaining a civilizaIion IhaI, by iIs
engineering skills, musI be greaIly superior Io our own.
This is Ihe sIaIe o our knowledge o Mars, as observed and deduced by Ihe
mosI prominenI asIronomer o Ioday.
Frovided IhaI by ''Ioday'' I mean 18S. A liIIle over a hundred years laIer our
view o Mars could hardly be more dierenI.
In Ihe spring o 184 Fercival Lowell, genIleman asIronomer, and son o one
o Ihe rich and mighIy 'BosIon
Brahmin' amilies o Massachu-
seIIs, builI an observaIory in
ElagsIa, Arizona TerriIory, or
Ihe purpose o observing Mars.
Frior Io Lowell, iI had been Ihe
pracIice or asIronomers Io build
Iheir observaIories wherever Ihey
happened Io already have Iheir
oices. The UniIed SIaIes Naval
ObservaIory, Ihe observaIory
charged by Congress wiIh obser-
ving sIars and Iheir posiIions in
Ihe aid o navigaIion
1
was
locaIed in Ihe hearI o \ashing-
Ion D.C. in a place called Eoggy
BoIIom o all Ihings.
Lowell was one o Ihe irsI
people Io recognize IhaI Ihe
qualiIy o whaI can be seen
Ihrough a Ielescope depends
upon more Ihan i iI jusI happens
Io be a clear nighI. You can see
Ihis or yoursel on a hoI summer
day as you look across a sun-
figure 5.2 lercival Lowell siLs aL Lhe eyepiece of Lhe
24-ihch (1-cm) Lelescope wiLh which he observed
Mars (Lowell ObservaLory Archives).
1
The U.S. Naval ObservaIory, now Ihe residence or Ihe Vice FresidenI o Ihe UniIed SIaIes,
was also where Ihe moons o Mars, Fhobos and Deimos, were discovered.
figure 5.3 1he 24-ihch (1-cm) Lelescope aL Lowell ObservaLory sLill offers views of Lhe
ked llaheL from Lhe Lop of Mars Hill ih llagsLaff, Arizoha (1. Nordgreh).
baked parking loI. \aves o heaI rise o Ihe black surace, causing Ihe horizon Io
ripple and wave in Ihe IurbulenI air. Eine deIail in Ihe disIanI landscape is
obscured in Ihe disIorIing shimmer. \e see Ihe same eecI every nighI in Ihe sky
as aImospheric Iurbulence and pockeIs o diering IemperaIures and densiIies
cause Ihe sIars Io Iwinkle.
Through a Ielescope, our aImosphere causes Ihe view o sIars, planeIs, and
disIanI galaxies Io dance and blur in Ihe eyepiece or image. \roIe Lowell in his
18S book Mars, ''A large insIrumenI in poor air will noI begin Io show whaI a
smaller one in good air will. \hen Ihis is recognized as iI evenIually will be, iI
will become Ihe ashion Io puI up observaIories where Ihey can see raIher Ihan
be seen.''
AsIronomers call Ihe sIeadiness o Ihe air Ihe 'seeing.' Cood seeing is a maIIer
o Ihe geography and Ihe way in which Ihe air lows over iI. The American
souIhwesI wiIh iIs dry condiIions and high mounIains has many locaIions o
excellenI seeing and Lowell's exIensive IesIing o siIes beore seIIling on ElagsIa
or his observaIory was a harbinger o Ihe greaI observaIories like Falomar and
KiII Feak IhaI would, in Iime, make Ihe deserI souIhwesI Iheir home.
As orward Ihinking as Lowell was, his observaIions and analysis o Ihe
MarIian condiIion drew heavy criIicism rom oIher asIronomers. And, as we now
know, Ihese criIics were almosI compleIely correcI. The problem was Ihe naIure
o observing Mars in Ihe days beore spacecraI could go Ihere. As seen rom Ihe
EarIh, Mars is Iiny and subIle deIails are ar Iinier sIill. BuI as bad as Ihe siIuaIion
may be, Ihere arc Iimes when Ihe view geIs subsIanIially beIIer.
Mars appears aI iIs largesI - and brighIesI - when viewed Ihrough Ihe Ielescope
during Iimes o opposton. OpposiIions occur when Ihe EarIh overIakes Mars, and
Ihus Ihe Iwo planeIs come closer Ihan aI any oIher Iime in Iheir orbiIs. AI Ihese
Red rock planet 14
figure 5.4 1his illusLraLioh shows Lhe posiLiohs of EarLh ahd Mars aL each opposiLioh
beLweeh 15 ahd 2007. AL opposiLioh, Lhe Lwo plaheLs are aL Lheir closesL durihg
which Lime Mars is oh Lhe cppcsite side of Lhe EarLh from Lhe Suh. 8ecause Mars' orbiL is
hoL circular, some opposiLiohs are closer Lhah oLhers. 1hese images of Mars show Lhe
plaheL's relaLive size as viewed by Lhe Hubble Space 1elescope ih EarLh orbiL. Compare
Lhe differehL disLahces aL opposiLioh wiLh LhaL showh for fuLure opposiLiohs ih Lhe 'See
for yourself' secLioh (NASA}ESA}Z. Levay (S1Scl)).
momenIs, Mars, EarIh, and Sun are all in a line and Mars appears oppostc Ihe Sun
as viewed rom Ihe EarIh.
BeIIer sIill, because Mars orbiIs Ihe Sun in an ellipIical orbiI, Ihere are some
opposiIions where Mars is closer Io Ihe EarIh Ihan oIhers. I Mars is aI or near
perihelion, (Ihe closesI parI in iIs orbiI Io Ihe Sun) during opposiIion, Ihen Ihe
disIance beIween EarIh and Mars will be unusually small. This was Ihe case or
Ihe opposiIion o 2003, when Mars was closer Io Ihe EarIh Ihan iI had been aI
any oIher opposiIion in nearly 60,000 years. YeI, even Ihen Mars appeared no
more Ihan 2S arcseconds wide. Eor comparison, Ihe ull Moon is only hal a
degree in diameIer as viewed rom Ihe EarIh, and so Ihrough even a Ielescope,
Ihe MarIian disk is less Ihan 1}60Ih Ihe size o Ihe ull Moon.
2
Typically Ihe seeing renders anyIhing smaller Ihan one arcsecond as a
eaIureless blur. BuI under momenIs o excepIional clariIy, eaIures Iwo or Ihree
Iimes smaller may be visible. So even aI iIs besI, only Ihose eaIures larger Ihan
1}S0Ih Ihe size o Mars iIsel are really resolved inIo someIhing oIher Ihan a
single blob. Eor comparison, Ihis is equivalenI Io someone Irying Io read Ihe daIe
on an American quarIer held by a riend more Ihan Iwo ooIball ields away
(abouI 200 meIers).
AI observaIories Ioday, I siI in a warm insulaIed conIrol room. I direcI Ihe
Ielescope operaIor Io poinI Ihe Ielescope aI my IargeI Ihen command Ihe
compuIer Io begin my phoIographic exposure. ShuIIers on a digiIal camera open
Io allow Ihe ainI lighI o sIars or galaxies Io slowly accumulaIe over many
minuIes or hours, building up deIailed images o disIanI sighIs IhaI can be
measured and checked, quanIiied and calibraIed aI my leisure over Ihe
ollowing hours, days or years.
Lowell had none o Ihese. AI Ihose momenIs o excepIional seeing, where Ihe
image o Mars in Ihe eyepiece suddenly crysIallized inIo sharp relie, Lowell
quickly skeIched whaI he saw beore memory and image aded and blurred. To
add insulI Io injury, Ihe opposiIion o 184 occurred in winIer. Clear nighI skies
in ElagsIa, wiIhouI Ihe insulaIing eecI o clouds, are exceedingly cold and in
Ihese condiIions Lowell spenI many hours in Ihe open aI his Ielescope's
eyepiece. A dark winIer's nighI became a long, cold collecIion o shorI, sharp
sighIs, relegaIed Io paper, Ihe precision o Ihe recording wholly dependenI upon
Ihe arIisIic skill o Ihe observer. Long aIer Ihe nighI was over, Ihe only record o
whaI was seen was Ihe arIisI's skeIch, Ihe image iIsel exisIing only in ading
memory.
To make maIIers worse, Ihe objecIs o mosI imporIance weren'I Ihe big
obvious sighIs, visible Io all, buI raIher Ihose elemenIs righI aI Ihe limiI o whaI
could be perceived. A eaIure's imporIance Io science Ihereore Iook on an
inverse relaIion Io iIs abiliIy Io be seen. \haI were ainI, even invisible markings
under normal condiIions, under hard and diiculI condiIions became a neIwork
o connecIed lines, geomeIric shapes, and oval inIersecIions, compleIely girdling
Ihe slowly spinning planeI.
These were Ihe canals o Mars, and asIronomers o Ihe day quickly became
grouped inIo Ihose who could see Ihem and Ihose who couldn'I. Edward
Emerson Barnard o Lick ObservaIory ouIside San Erancisco, was renowned
2
As a resulI o Ihis opposiIion Ihere is a Mars 'hoax' IhaI makes iIs way around Ihe inIerneI
every couple o years. Back in 2003, some knowledgeable asIronomer wroIe an email
explaining IhaI during Ihe upcoming close-approach, Mars would look through a tclcscopc
wth 0x magnjcaton, jusI as big as Ihe ull Moon looks when sccn wth thc nalcJ-cyc.
UnorIunaIely, Ihe leIIer long ago goI garbled, and now Ihe message sIaIes IhaI Ihis AugusI
(no year is included anymore) Mars will look as large as Ihe ull Moon. TrusI me, iI won'I.
Red rock planet 151
amongsI asIronomers or Ihe sensi-
IiviIy o his eyesighI, yeI he argued
vigorously IhaI he could see no
evidence whaIsoever or Ihese unna-
Iurally sharp linear eaIures. Lowell
would argue jusI as vigorously IhaI
Ihere was a dierence beIween a
sensiIive eye and an acuIe one.
DespiIe Ihese criIicisms, Lowell
would use his many observaIions o
unnaIurally precise eaIures on
anoIher world (observaIions made
under Irying circumsIances and aI
Ihe exIreme limiI - i noI slighIly
over Ihe limiI - o whaI was humanly
percepIible) Io draw logical iner-
ences and make maIhemaIical calcu-
laIions IhaI showed Ihe mosI
plausible explanaIion or whaI he
was seeing was Ihe one described in
Ihe opening paragraphs o Ihis chap-
Ier.
Now iI was noI losI on Lowell IhaI
Ihe Mars he saw in his mind's eye, i noI Ihrough his Ielescope, bore a sIrong
resemblance Io Ihe counIryside beyond Ihe borders o ElagsIa. The cold, high
alIiIude summiIs o Ihe San Erancisco Feaks, visible rom his observaIory home,
provided evidence Io his mind or why lie could easily survive Ihe cold winIers
and low aImospheric pressure he calculaIed or Mars.
OuIside Ihe alpine oresIs o ElagsIa, Ihe elevaIion drops Iwo Ihousand eeI
and Ihe landscape o norIhern Arizona and souIhern UIah is an arid plaIeau o
red rocks, mesas and buIIes where snow and rain rarely all. In his 106 book,
Mars anJ lts Canals, Lowell described Ihis deserI's similariIy Io Mars' color seen
Ihrough Ihe Ielescope, ''The pale salmon hue, which besI reproduces in drawings
Ihe general IinI o |Mars'| surace, is IhaI which our own deserIs wear. The Sahara
has Ihis look, sIill more iI inds iIs counIerparI in Ihe ar aspecI o Ihe FainIed
DeserI o norIhern Arizona. To one sIanding on Ihe summiI o Ihe San Erancisco
Feaks and gazing o rom IhaI isolaIed heighI upon Ihis oIher isolaIion o
aridiIy, Ihe resemblance o iIs lambenI saron Io Ihe Ielescopic IinIs o Ihe
MarIian globe is sIrikingly impressive.''
Eor Lowell, Ihis similariIy was noI by chance, buI raIher a relecIion o Ihe
naIural liespan o Ihe planeIs. Erom simple calculaIions Lowell showed IhaI Ihe
smaller a planeI, and Ihus Ihe weaker iIs graviIy (Ihe orce o graviIy on Mars is
only 38% o our own), Ihe quicker iIs aImosphere should escape away Io space
and Ihus iIs seas evaporaIe and iIs surace Iurn Io deserI. Lowell Ihen made Ihe
leap Io advocaIing IhaI Ihis is Ihe aIe o all planeIs. Thus by undersIanding Mars
figure 5.5 ComposiLe drawihg of lercival
Lowell's observaLiohs of Mars. Solis Lacus (Lhe
Lake of Lhe Suh) is Lhe dark oval Lo Lhe upper
righL from which mahy of Lhe 'cahals' radiaLe
oh Lheir way arouhd Lhe plaheL (Lowell
ObservaLory Archives).
figure 5. My owh drawihgs of Lhe same face of Mars made wiLh Lowell's 24-ihch (1-
cm) Lelescope durihg Lhe close opposiLioh of 2003. Solis Lacus is visible oh Lhe lefL of
each view. 1he differehL seeihg oh differehL highLs clearly shows differehces ih visible
deLail. NeverLheless, l was sLill able Lo see a 'cahal' for myself (1. Nordgreh).
and Ihe diering evoluIionary sIaIes o Ihe planeIs, he argued IhaI we learn more
o our own planeIary aIe.
Lowell saw evidence o Ihis MarIian ''DeaIh by DeserI'' in Ihe CreaI SalI Lake
o UIah wiIh iIs surrounding dry salI wasIes and ancienI shorelines in Ihe nearby
hills. In his lasI book, Mars As thc AhoJc oj Ljc, published in 108, Lowell
presenIed urIher evidence o Ihe growing deserIiicaIion o Ihe EarIh in Ihe orm
o ancienI ossilized Irees preserved in whaI is now FeIriied EoresI NaIional Fark,
100 miles (160 km) easI o ElagsIa.
Now Ihese deserI belIs are widening. In Ihe greaI deserI o norIhern
Arizona Ihe Iraveler, Ihreading his way across a sage-brush and cacIi
Red rock planet 153
figure 5.7 1he LiLLle laihLed DeserL wiLhih Lhe borders of Lhe Nava|o NaLioh horLheasL of
llagsLaff (1. Nordgreh).
plain shuI in by abrupI-sided shelves o
land rising here and Ihere some hun-
dreds o eeI higher, suddenly comes
upon a peIriied oresI.. . . The land
which once supporIed Ihese oresIs is
incompeIenI Io do so now. YeI noIhing
has changed Ihere since, excepI Ihe
decreasing waIer supply.. . . Froo o Ihis
is oered by Ihe greaI pine oasis IhaI caps
Ihe plaIeau o which Ihese peIriied
oresIs orm a parI, and is kernelled by
Ihe San Erancisco Feaks.. . . Two Ihou-
sand eeI upward Ihe verdure-line has
reIreaIed since Ihe ormer oresIs were.
All around him Lowell saw Mars, buI a Mars Ihe
EarIh was slowly becoming.
By Ihe publicaIion o Lowell's Mars in 18S,
Ihe nineIeenIh cenIury had seen Ihe greaIesI
mass movemenI o humaniIy in recorded hisIory.
figure 5.8 leaLure sLory from Lhe 8cstcn Icst,
December 8, 107.
Lowell's relocaIion rom MassachuseIIs Io Arizona TerriIory was parI o Ihis
headlong wesIward migraIion and evenIual seIIlemenI o whaI was known as Ihe
CreaI American DeserI.
Eor Ihose o us born and raised in Ihe Faciic NorIhwesI or easI o Ihe
Mississippi, Lowell's preoccupaIion wiIh waIer and Ihe growing desiccaIion o
Ihe planeI may seem hard Io undersIand. Erom my childhood in Oregon, my
memories are o rain IhaI once begun in OcIober never ceased unIil Ihe ollowing
summer. In my youIh, soI, luscious moss grew on any surace IhaI came in
conIacI wiIh Ihe air, and Ihe enIire counIryside was always green wiIh lie.
BuI Ihe wesIern American inIerior is an arid land. Eor Ihose who live Ihere, Io
wastc waIer means Io leI even a single drop o waIer go unused. However, in Ihe
orIy years previous Io Lowell, iI was Ihe subjecI o conjecIure IhaI Ihe very acI o
'opening' Ihe \esI wiIh arms would bring Ihe rains IhaI would Iransorm Ihe
bone-dry expanse inIo a new Carden o Eden. ''Rain Eollows Ihe Flow'' was Ihe
acIual climaIological claim
3
whereby Nebraska and Arizona would soon be as
green as New York and Alabama. This bizarre conclusion was based upon
noIhing more Ihan Ihe unorIunaIe coincidence IhaI Ihe beginning o Ihe
wesIward expansion o Ihe laIe 1870s and '80s was ollowed immediaIely by an
exIended period o above average rainall IhaI had never been seen beore (or
since). And, as aIe would have iI, Ihe droughI IhaI ineviIably ollowed was in ull
orce when Lowell arrived in Arizona TerriIory Io build his observaIory.
BuI Ihere'd been people living or Ihousands o years in Ihe parched counIry
Ihe whiIe men had jusI recenIly enIered. John \esley Fowell - a reIired Civil
figure 5.9 1he secohd lowell ExpediLioh seLs ouL from Creeh kiver, Wyomihg, 22 May
1871. |ohh Wesley lowell is sLahdihg oh deck ih Lhe middle boaL (Crahd Cahyoh
NaLiohal lark Museum CollecLioh).
3
Eor a ull accounI o American preoccupaIion and policy Iowards waIer in Ihe \esI read Marc
Reisner's CaJllac Dcscrt. Thc Amcrcan Wcst anJ ts Dsappcarng Watcr.
Red rock planet 155
\ar Army Major, geologisI, and
universiIy proessor - seI ouI rom
Creen River, \yoming in 186 Io
explore Ihe geology and people o
Ihe Colorado River canyon counIry
(Ihe lasI remaining blank spoIs on
nineIeenIh cenIury maps). Fowell
and his nine-man expediIion were
Ihe irsI whiIe men, and or all we
know Ihe irsI people aI all, Io
navigaIe Ihe lengIh o Ihe Colorado
River canyons by boaI. During his
Iwo hisIoric expediIions Ihrough
whaI would become a hosI o
naIional parks and monumenIs
(mosI amously Crand Canyon
NaIional Fark) Fowell mapped, mea-
sured and wroIe abouI Ihe specIacu-
lar landscape, all Ihe while learning
abouI Ihe people who made Ihis land
Iheir home. Fowell was inIensely
curious, whaI were Ihey like, whaI
were Iheir cusIoms, how did Ihey
survive and prosper in a land o such
magniicenI desolaIion7
\haI Fowell ound, he spenI Ihe
nexI IhirIy years popularizing Io Ihe
counIry. The same 18S IhaI saw
Fercival Lowell publish Mars (Ihe irsI
o his wildly popular accounIs o an
ancienI civilizaIion coming Io grips
wiIh Ihe arid deserI landscape o
Mars) also saw Fowell publish Canyons oj thc ColoraJo, his wildly popular
accounI o his exploraIion o Ihe Colorado River, Ihe landscape, and people righI
ouIside Lowell's observaIory doors.
''In cenIuries pasI,'' Fowell wroIe, ''Ihe San Erancisco FlaIeau was Ihe home o
pueblo-building Iribes, and Ihe ruins o Iheir habiIaIions are widely scaIIered
over Ihis elevaIed region.'' JusI a ew shorI miles rom Lowell's own observaIory,
Fowell described cli ruins o a ''vanished'' people IhaI ''builI sIairways Io Ihe
waIers below and Io Ihe hunIing grounds above'' in whaI is Ioday \alnuI
Canyon NaIional MonumenI. EarIher souIh o ElagsIa, where Ihe lasI greaI
IribuIary o Ihe Colorado drains much o presenI day Arizona and wesIern New
Mexico, Fowell ound:
In Ihe valley o Ihe Cila and on iIs IribuIaries rom Ihe norIheasI are
figure 5.10 Arouhd 800 years ago Lhe pueblos
LhaL make up WupaLki NaLiohal MohumehL
were a flourishihg meeLihg place oh Lhe
Colorado llaLeau. 1oday, iL is ah arid lahdscape
as Lhe Suh rises over Lhe ruihs of Wukoki lueblo
wiLhih Lhe mohumehL's bouhdary hear
llagsLaff, Arizoha (1. Nordgreh).
|Ihe Iribes o Ihe| Fimas, Maricopas, and Fapagos. They are skilled
agriculIuralisIs, culIivaIing Ihe lands by irrigaIion. In Ihe same region
many ruined villages are ound. The dwellings o Ihese Iowns in Ihe
valley were builI chiely o grouI, and Ihe ragmenIs o Ihe ancienI
pueblos sIill remaining have sIood Ihrough cenIuries o sIorm. . .. The
people who occupied Ihem culIivaIed Ihe soil by irrigaIion, and Iheir
hydraulic works were on an exIensive scale. They builI canals scores o
miles in lengIh and builI reservoirs Io sIore waIer.
The American \esI in which Lowell made his observaIory and observaIions
was Ihereore awash in sIories o ancienI civilizaIions and an ongoing baIIle or
waIer againsI Ihe all consuming deserI. Beyond Ihe IerriIory's borders, Ihe laIe
1800s was also a Iime or enormous engineering marvels. Major canals were
being builI all over Ihe world: Ihey linked Ihe major river sysIems o Erance,
Cermany linked Ihe NorIh Sea and BalIic, Ihe Suez Canal creaIed Ihe irsI
shorIcuI beIween Europe and Ihe Indian Ocean, and Ihe irsI aIIempI was made
aI a canal across Fanama. All o Ihese were major engineering underIakings, Ihe
Ialk o Ihe world, and Lowell, as a genIleman scholar and Iraveler, would have
had irsI hand-knowledge o Iheir engineering and indusIrial power.
\heIher Lowell ully realized iI or noI, Ihe 'logical' conclusions he drew rom
his observaIions were cerIainly colored by Ihe world in which he lived and
worked. DeserI planeI, droughI, ancienI civilizaIions, engineering marvels, and
canals, EarIh or Mars7 \ho's Io say which world he was really describing7
\haI is unambiguous is IhaI Ihanks Io Lowell, MarIian canals were seared
inIo Ihe public consciousness. The Mars IhaI Ihe world saw, heard, and read
abouI, was Lowell's Mars, noI Barnard's. MarIians were Ihereore everywhere.
They were in Ihe mass media rom H.C. \ells' War oj thc WorlJs novel published
in 188 Io Orson \ells' 138 radio broadcasI o Ihe same name. Thanks Io
Lowell, and Ihe mass media he courIed, or much o Ihe early IwenIieIh cenIury,
iI was possible Io look inIo Ihe nighI sky aI Ihe ominous Red FlaneI and know,
acIually lnow, IhaI you were seeing Ihe abode o alien lie. And IhaI iI was an
ntcllgcnt lie, gazing back down upon us, ar older and more advanced Ihan we. I
can'I imagine whaI IhaI musI have elI like, and I don'I know an asIronomer who
wouldn'I give anyIhing Io be able Io
eel IhaI way Ioday.
BuI by Ihe laIe 1S0s as eyepiece
and pencil gave way Io cameras and
phoIographic plaIes, Ielescopic
phoIos had ailed Io conirm any
semblance o Ihe arIiicially precise
global canal sysIem (alIhough many
Mars maps sIill showed some orm o
indisIincI linear eaIures). The chan-
ging naIure o Ihe 'blue-green'
regions conIinued Io supporI Ihe
figure 5.11 A favoriLe diher ih Sedoha,
Arizoha's red rock couhLry pays LribuLe Lo flyihg
saucers ahd Mars culLure (1. Nordgreh).
Red rock planet 157
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idea IhaI aI leasI some orm o lie,
albeiI probably noI inIelligenI lie,
mighI be ound Ihere. In 1S7, \alI
Disney's weekly DsncylanJ TV show
aired an episode in which Disney
''edu-Iained'' American audiences
abouI ''Mars and Beyond.
4
'' In his
inIroducIion, a Iouch o disappoinI-
menI in his voice, \alI asks i upon
our evenIual exploraIion o Mars iI is
possible we will ind ''no more Ihan
a low orm o vegeIable lie'' as i
IhaI was Ihe leasI we could hope or.
I only IhaI were so. \hen Ihe
irsI picIures o Mars were senI back
Io EarIh rom Ihe Mariner 4 space-
craI lying by in 16S (Ihe equiva-
lenI o children plasIered Io Ihe car
window gazing in awe aI Ihe road-
side aIIracIions wiIh no Iime Io sIop or a souvenir) Ihey showed a dry, dead,
craIered world like Ihe Moon. So much or Lowell.
BuI Mariner 4 (as well as Ihe laIer Mariners 6 and 7) all lew pasI Mars's
souIhern hemisphere. I Ihe only Ihings we knew abouI Ihe EarIh were gaIhered
rom a leeIing glimpse aI our own planeI's souIhern hemisphere, we mighI
suspecI our planeI was covered by noIhing buI waIer.
\hen Mariner wenI inIo orbiI around Ihe Red FlaneI our years laIer, iI was
or Ihe express purpose o carrying ouI Ihe irsI global reconnaissance. \hile iIs
cameras cerIainly conirmed craIers aplenIy, Ihe new views o Ihe norIhern
hemisphere revealed whaI appeared Io be vasI, dry riverbeds and canyon
neIworks like Ihose seen rom a Iypical IransconIinenIal lighI over Ihe American
souIhwesI. In addiIion, Ihere in Ihe window were volcanoes larger Ihan any on
EarIh and greaI riI valleys as long as Ihe UniIed SIaIes. TogeIher Ihese eaIures
were sIunning hallmarks o an acIive world, noIhing aI all like Ihe Moon. \hile
Ihe planeI mighI appear lieless Ioday,
S
orbiIal evidence showed a world IhaI
may noI always have been so.
A hundred years aIer Lowell wroIe Mars, I was an asIronomer aI Ihe very same
observaIory. Even Ihough I was working on sIar ormaIion in dwar irregular
figure 5.13 Mariher 4 image of Mars showihg a
heavily craLered surface like Lhe Mooh. 1he
image was Lakeh from 8,125 miles (13,000 km)
ahd measures 158 by 140 miles (253 by 225
km) (NASA).
4
And \ernher Von Braun showed Ihe plans he had or a leeI o aIomic powered ion-
propulsion saucers IhaI would carry dozens o asIronauIs Io explore Mars (all beore Ihe U.S.
had succeeded in placing a single spacecraI inIo orbiI).
S
The 'blue-green' regions are merely areas o dark brown maIerial periodically uncovered by
seasonal sand sIorms (Ihe color is an opIical illusion where Ihe eye sees in Ihe darkness Ihe
complemenIary color, blue-green, Io Ihe ever presenI brighI reddish-ocher surroundings).
Red rock planet 15
figure 5.14 A mosaic of Mariher
images shows a world of differehce
compared Lo whaL Mariher 4 saw. While
Lhere are sLill craLers, Lhe parL of Mars
seeh here has whaL appear Lo be dry
river chahhels flowihg from ouL of Lhe
cracks aL Lhe lower lefL. NoLice Lhe
curved ahd wavy feaLures alohg whaL
looks like ah ahciehL shore lihe alohg Lhe
Lop lefL porLioh of Lhe mosaic (l.
1homas}NASA).
galaxies, ''Uncle Fercy's'' hisIory was
all around me. \hile working on a
paper in which my colleague and I
aIIempIed Io undersIand Ihe com-
plex sIrucIure o gas knoIs in a
galaxy, I IhoughI I saw signs o
someIhing odd. By linking IogeIher
a number o Ihe ainI sIrucIures in an
image, I IhoughI I'd ound evidence
o a rare spiral arm. My colleague,
however, was noI so convinced.
''This is Lowell,'' she said, ''we're
very careul here abouI Irying Io
connecI small, uzzy blobs in a Iele-
scope.''
During my weekends, I used Io
hike Ihrough Ihe counIryside o Ihe
Eour Corners region, seeing Ihe very
places Lowell described a hundred
years beore. In Ihe red rock counIry
o souIhern UIah and ouI on Ihe
Hopi and Navajo ReservaIions I saw a
land so red IhaI on brighI summer days sunlighI relecIing o Ihe mesas and
buIIes colored Ihe undersides o Ihe aIernoon monsoon clouds a dusky rose and
crimson. SeI in a clear, dark blue sky, iI seemed on days like Ihis IhaI I walked in a
world o noIhing buI primary colors.
As o my Iime aI Lowell, humaniIy had successully landed only Ihree
spacecraI on Ihe surace o Mars. In every camera rame was a landscape
reminiscenI o Ihe dry, deserI, red rock counIry o UIah and Arizona (jusI like
Lowell described, minus Ihe canals). BuI in 2003, during Ihe unusually close
opposiIion, NASA was planning Io send a pair o rovers Io Mars. Like Fowell over
a hundred years beore, we would inally be able Io geI ouI and head Io Ihe
horizon and explore. A ormer proessor o mine aI Cornell UniversiIy, SIeve
figure 5.15 Mars mosaic made up of images
capLured by Lhe vikihg 1 OrbiLer. 1he cehLer of
Lhe MarLiah disk shows Lhe 1,875 mile (3,000
km) lohg valles Mariheris cahyoh sysLem. Alohg
Lhe wesLerh limb of Lhe plaheL are Lhree dark red
volcahoes of Lhe 1harsis 8ulge (NASA}SCS).
Squyres, was Ihe lead scienIisI or Ihe
rovers and he asked me Io help Iurn
Iheir color camera calibraIion IargeIs
inIo sundials as a way o reaching ouI
Io school children abouI Ihe exciIe-
menI o space exploraIion. So as I
hiked Ihrough Ihe landscape o Low-
ell and Fowell, rom Ihe red canyons
o Sedona, Arizona, Io Ihe red sIone
arches o Moab, UIah, I had Mars on
my mind. I was curious Io know how
ar Ihe similariIies wiIh Mars acIually
exIended. Looking around, jusI how
much Mars could I see and had iI
always been Ihis way7
Today is a hoI sunny day in Arches
NaIional Fark, in Ihe hearI o Ihe red
rock counIry ouIside Moab, UIah.
My booIs are powdered orange rom
Ihe Irail Ihrough Ihe Fark Avenue
monoliIhs - Iowering ins o rusI-
colored sandsIone IhaI border a
mosIly dry wash on Ihe edge o Ihe
park. In every direcIion I see red,
layers and layers o iI. Salmon-
colored sand Irickles o bu sand-
sIone ledges bordering a pink and
rosy Irail beneaIh my eeI while overhead sIand garganIuan blocks o crimson
sIained by deserI varnish in sIreams o maroon and purple.
figure 5.17 Ah arLisL's
illusLraLioh of ohe of Lhe Mars
ExploraLioh kovers. A camera
oh Lop of Lhe forward masL
reLurhs lMAX qualiLy images
as seeh from Lhe heighL of a
Lypical persoh. 1he 'Marsdial,'
a suhdial made from Lhe
camera's calibraLioh LargeL,
siLs oh Lhe back edge of Lhe
rear solar pahel aL lefL (NASA}
|lL-CalLech}Corhell).
figure 5.1 ked rock ahd blue sky come
LogeLher as a firsL quarLer Mooh peeks Lhrough a
sahdsLohe clefL ih ohe of Lhe icohic buLLes wiLhih
MohumehL valley Nava|o 1ribal lark sLraddlihg
Lhe Lah}Arizoha border (1. Nordgreh).
Red rock planet 11
figure 5.18 SahdsLohe sehLihels like CourLhouse 8uLLe, aL righL, Lower over Lhe
lahdscape ih Arches NaLiohal lark. How similar is Lhis red rock couhLry Lo whaL ohe
would see sLahdihg oh Lhe surface of Mars? (1. Nordgreh)
These awesome sIone senIinels are an iconic vision o Ihis counIry, MonumenI
Valley Navajo Tribal Fark, amous rom innumerable wesIern movies (and Road
Runner carIoons) is only a couple hours' drive Io Ihe souIh. Even Ihough no
MarIian lander or rover has yeI phoIographed a Iowering landscape like whaI I
see around me, iI is noI or iIs absence on Ihe Red FlaneI. RaIher, NASA scienIisIs
and engineers are conservaIive wiIh Iheir expensive spacecraI, and have Iaken
greaI care Io land Ihem where Ihey have precisely hccausc Ihey are devoid o
Iowering buIIes and breaIhIaking clis. BuI orbiIal imagery shows Ihey are Ihere
i we could buI drive ar enough Io visiI Ihem.
To experience Mars in person is a dream I have had since I was a boy. Long ago
iI became clear iI would noI happen or me. BuI Io do so now, Ihrough Ihe
knowledge gained rom Ihe spacecraI IhaI havc gone Ihere, all I need do is
menIally manipulaIe Ihe view beore me and creaIe, sIep by sIep, a Mars o my
imaginaIion.
EirsI, Iake away Ihe majoriIy o Ihe aImosphere and all Ihe oxygen I breaIhe.
As disIressing as Ihis mighI personally be, anoIher more visible IransormaIion
suddenly Iakes place. LighI rom Ihe Sun is composed o all Ihe colors o Ihe
rainbow. On EarIh, molecules in Ihe air scaIIer Ihe blue end o Ihe specIrum in
dierenI direcIions. This blue lighI bounces rom molecule Io molecule beore
evenIually inding iIs way Iowards Ihe EarIh and our eyes. Erom our perspecIive
on Ihe ground, we see Ihis lighI reach us rom every parI o Ihe sky, and Ihus Ihe
sky looks blue.
6
\iIh virIually no aImosphere on Mars: good bye blue sky.
6
The Sun's disk, on Ihe oIher hand, now looks somewhaI yellow since iI sIill shines wiIh all
Ihe colors o Ihe rainbow buI now wiIh a liIIle less blue Ihan iI did beore. In addiIion, as Ihe
Sun sinks Io Ihe horizon and iIs lighI passes Ihrough more and more air and dusI, so much
blue is scaIIered away IhaI Ihe Sun Iakes on iIs amiliar red o sunseI.
NexI, wiIh less Ihan one hundredIh Ihe aImospheric pressure o EarIh (and
correspondingly liIIle o Ihe greenhouse gasses IhaI keep us warm) Ihe surace
IemperaIure drops dramaIically. Move Ihe Sun S0% arIher away, and iI geIs even
worse. Only in summer near Ihe equaIor do Ihe IemperaIures on Mars Iop Ihe
reezing poinI o waIer. The humidiIy plummeIs, Ihe aImosphere becomes bone
dry and Ihe puy whiIe clouds above me disappear. There are sIill clouds, buI
Ihey are high Ihin clouds o Iiny ice crysIals.
The pressure and IemperaIure over Ihe resI o Mars means any waIer wiIhin a
ew meIers o Ihe surace is rozen solid, so Ihere are no puddles, sIreams, or
rivers. The Iiny Irickle o waIer aI my eeI rom yesIerday's spring rainsIorm over
Moab evaporaIes insIanIly as i iI was never here, as indeed rainsIorms on Mars
may never have been.
\iIh Ihe liquid waIer, Iake away everyIhing green. There's no planI or 'low
orm o vegeIable lie' or as ar as Ihe eye can see. This lasI one is a shock. MosI
places on EarIh IhaI are described as dry, arid, desolaIe, deserI, usually have some
kind o planI lie, be iI ever so drab or humble. Look around you and imagine
your landscape, noI jusI wiIhouI any Irees, eye-caIching lowers, or bushes, buI
wiIh noIhing. NoI a single scrap o grass, no maIIer how scraggly, noI a weed, a
lichen, noI even a piece o dry broken Iwig. In acI, geI rid o mosI o Ihe dirI you
see as, in addiIion Io Ihe minerals iI conIains, Ihe soil beneaIh your eeI is
composed largely o decayed planI maIIer and moisIure.
\haI Ihen is my new MarIian ground covered wiIh7 Rocks. Big rocks, small
rocks, crushed rocks, pulverized rocks, powdered rocks, and dusI. The lasI ew
billion years o sandsIorms have blasIed away aI Ihe sIony landscape, weaIhering
cli and mounIain down Io pebble and griI. And wiIhouI rain Io wash away dusI
and cause iI Io cloI, iI works iIs way as a ine powder inIo every microscopic nook
and cranny across Ihe enIire planeI's surace.
Iron in Ihe dusI reacIs wiIh whaI liIIle oxygen Ihere is in Ihe aImosphere (a
byproducI o ulIravioleI lighI rom Ihe Sun spliIIing aparI Ihe componenIs o Ihe
Ihin carbon dioxide aImosphere) orming iron-oxide - rusI - IhaI Iurns Ihe
whole world red. Here, aI lasI, is a change I don'I need Io make Io my
figure 5.19 lroh-oxide rusL gives Lhe ked llaheL iLs hame. Here, Lhe Mars ExploraLioh
kover SpiriL climbs across hill Lops ih red rock couhLry LhaL exLehds as far as Lhe eye cah
see. larLs of Lhe Americah SouLhwesL from Lhe deserLs of Arizoha ahd Nevada Lo DeaLh
valley NaLiohal lark ih Califorhia have beeh used Lo LesL Mars-bouhd spacecrafL because
of Lheir sLrohg resemblahce Lo views like LhaL showh here (NASA}|lL}Corhell).
Red rock planet 13
surroundings. The red rocks o Mars are red or Ihe same reason Ihe red rock
counIry is Ioo. Mars is Moab made global.
In addiIion, wiIhouI any moisIure Io hold and clump Ihe MarIian 'soil,' Ihe
loose red powder ills Ihe air and is picked up by Ihe winds. CreaI globe-girdling
dusI sIorms blow Ihe iron-oxide parIicles high inIo Ihe Ihin MarIian aImosphere,
Iurning Ihe sky orever pink and ocher. The Technicolor paleIIe o Ihe souIhwesI
Iransorms Mars Io variaIions on a russeI Iheme. The grandeur o Ihe souIhwesI,
however, is noI jusI in iIs color buI also in Ihe giganIic orms IhaI every year draw
visiIors rom around Ihe world. \haI are Ihe processes IhaI make Ihese mesas, and
buIIes, arches and hoodoos7 Are Ihey Ihe same processes aI work on Mars7 And i
so, whaI changes musI I make, Io make Ihem iI in my menIal MarIian scheme7
The blocky monoliIhs we see in Arches and all over Ihe souIhwesI are made o
greaI slabs o sandsIone. Each layer reveals a momenI in Ihe hisIory o Ihis place,
each layer Iells Ihe sIory o alIernaIing seas, and seashores, dune ields and
alluvial ans. Reading Ihe rocks, I see IhaI seas have come and gone 2 Iimes
where I sIand in Ihis arid parI o UIah. In IhaI Iime, nearby mounIain ranges
have risen and allen, and new ones have Iaken Iheir place. Rivers, rain, wind and
ice broke Ihose now orgoIIen mounIains down and washed Iheir remains
downhill Io wesI and easI covering Ihis region aIer Ihe seas dried up.
Each epoch o erosion leI iIs sand, silI, salI, mud and pebbles. New erosion
buries Ihese and, over Iime, liIhoies Ihe sedimenIs (cemenIing Ihem wiIh
pressure and heaI) Io orm solid rock like sandsIone, silIsIone, mudsIone, and
shale. The naIure o Ihe condiIions under which Ihe sedimenIs came Io resI
deIermines many o Ihe chemical and physical properIies o Ihe rock Ihey
became.
EnIrada sandsIone is Ihe smooIh dark red blocks IhaI make up Ihe orIress-like
walls o Ihe monumenIal Iowers around me. II was laid down abouI 160 million
years ago as sand dunes near an in-land sea IhaI was looded only occasionally
during sIorms or high spring Iides.
BeneaIh iI, arIher back in Iime aI 180 million years ago is Ihe pale pinkish-
ocher accumulaIion o mulIi-banded arcs IhaI make up Ihe Navajo sandsIone.
These are Ihe ossilized remains o enormous sand dune ields: an ancienI Sahara
covering Ihe souIhwesI beore Ihe mosI recenI seas appeared. Millennia o dry,
shiIing, sand dunes slowly driIing across Ihe endless miles are recorded in Ihe
Navajo's sweeping, crisscrossing bands.
BeIween Ihe EnIrada and Navajo sandsIones is a darker, lumpy, red-brown
layer called Ihe Carmel (or someIimes Dewey Bridge) ormaIion IhaI has iIs
origin in weI, muddy, Iidal laIs along Ihe easIern shore o Ihe evenIual inland
sea. TogeIher Ihese Ihree layers orm a sIack relecIing a 20 million year snippeI
o Iime here, buI are Ihemselves jusI a ew o Ihe many layers IhaI make up Ihe
Arches area.
Erosion and Iime evenIually buried Ihese layer sIacks, while IecIonics (Ihe
sIreIching, pulling, cracking and shiIing o a planeI's crusI) subsequenIly raised
Ihem ar above sea level. LaIer, rain waIer and snow-melI, washing down Io Ihe
sea, revealed Ihe layers once more in newly ormed cli walls.
Depending on how racIured, hard,
or porous layers are, dierenI layers
erode away in varying amounIs under
Ihe scouring acIion o waIer. \here
harder rocks siI on Iop o soIer ones,
erosion washes away Ihe soIer rock beneaIh. The harder cap rock is undercuI
and evenIually collapses in a process called sapping. Narrow canyons increase in
lengIh and widIh as Ihe harder rock above alls inward aIer rushing waIer
washes away iIs supporI. In Iime, canyon neIworks spread and broad plaIeaus
crumble inIo disconnecIed mesas, gradually narrowing inIo lone buIIes IhaI
slowly wear away Io soliIary pinnacles and hoodoos. EvenIually, Ihe lasI biI o
cap rock alls down and Ihe plain upon which Ihis all once sIood washes clean as
Ihe nexI layer down begins Io erode.
Balanced Rock wiIhin Arches NaIional Fark is nearing Ihe end o Ihis process
as a cap o smooIh EnIrada sIone siIs aIop a conical Iower o Ihe crumbling
figure 5.20 8locky red sahdsLohe aL Lop,
sLreaked wiLh deserL varhish, is ah example
of Lhe 10 millioh year old EhLrada
SahdsLohe. 8eheaLh iL are visible several
layers of Lhe dark, clumpy Dewey 8ridge
(or Carmel) formaLioh. 8eheaLh Lhese dark
red layers, ahd visible ih Lhe foregrouhd
are Lhe pale, pihk, Nava|o SahdsLohe
formed from ahciehL Sahara-like sahd
duhes. 1hese layers are visible LhroughouL
Arches NaLiohal lark, ihcludihg here aL Lhe
maih ehLrahce (1. Nordgreh).
figure 5.21 WaLer pourihg off Lhe dark, red
EhLrada sahdsLohe aL Lop (ahd seepihg Lhrough
more porous rock beheaLh iL) washes away
sofLer layers of sLohe beheaLh. EvehLually Lhe
overhahgihg EhLrada collapses ahd Lhe small
cahyoh ih which l sLahd grows |usL a liLLle biL
lohger. 1his process is called sappihg, ahd is aL
work all across Lhe cahyoh couhLry of Lhe
Americah souLhwesL. visible ih Lhe pool of
waLer is Lhe reflecLioh of DelicaLe Arch above,
shaped from Lhe same forces of waLer ahd
erosioh arouhd me (1. Nordgreh).
Red rock planet 15
Carmel mud and silIsIones IhaI resIs
upon a broad laI base o Navajo
sandsIone. In Iime Ihe Carmel pedes-
Ial will weaIher suicienIly ar IhaI
Ihe Balanced Rock will no longer do
so, and o iI will go. Once iI does, Ihe
soI Carmel mound will be ully
exposed Io Ihe elemenIs and quickly
weaIher away Io noIhing.
\hen seas more ancienI Ihan Ihe
Navajo sandsIone's evaporaIed, Ihey
leI behind Ihick layers o salIy resi-
due. The CreaI SalI Lake Io Ihe wesI is
an example o whaI was once here as
each sea receded. Over millions o
years Ihe salI rom Ihose seas was
buried beneaIh Ihe Ihick layers o
sandsIone above. Since Ihen, Iec-
Ionics has slowly pushed Ihe salI
wesIward inIo long norIh-souIh run-
ning masses IhaI builI up under Ihis
parI o Ihe sIaIe. As Ihe weighI o Ihe
overlying mass pushed down else-
where, Ihe salI had Io go somewhere,
and so welled upwards under Arches.
The upwelling salI cracked Ihe Ihick
sandsIone sIacks above iI. Rain and
ground waIer seeped downward, dis-
solving Ihe subIerranean salI. As Ihe
salI dissolved, Ihe landscape above buckled and drooped inIo Ihe caviIy IhaI
ormed. Along each shoulder o whaI became SalI Valley, Ihe overlying EnIrada
sandsIone cracked again, orming greaI parallel ins as Ihe cenIral valley sagged.
The arches we see Ioday are caused by sand weaIhering o Ihese sandsIone
ins.
7
Carbon dioxide rom Ihe aImosphere, reacIing wiIh rainwaIer, orms a very
weak carbonic acid loosening Ihe minerals IhaI hold Ihe sand grains IogeIher.
Sand accumulaIing around Ihe base o Ihe ins acIs like a sponge Irapping even
more corrosive rainwaIer againsI Ihe sIone. CaviIies appear. \aIer, running
down Ihe sides o Ihe ins and inIo Ihe caviIies, widens Ihe opening urIher.
figure 5.22 1he hard cap of EhLrada
SahdsLohe will someday collapse as Lhe sofLer
Carmel formaLioh makihg up Lhe pedesLal,
slowly weaLhers away. EvehLually, 8alahced
kock will do so ho more (1. Nordgreh).
7
The arches o Devils Carden and Eiery Eurnace orm wiIhin Ihe weaIhered ins running along
much o Ihe easIern edge o SalI Valley. The arches and windows o Ihe Klondike Blus and
\indows secIion o Ihe park are orming wiIhin Ihe sandsIone ins along Ihe wesI rim o Ihe
valley.
figure 5.23 lark service map showihg Arches NaLiohal lark. NoLice Lhe lohg depressioh
of SalL valley comihg ih from Lhe horLhwesL. Wheh grouhd waLer dissolved Lhe buried
salL, Lhe overlyihg layers of sahdsLohe buckled ahd collapsed. kaih waLer has
subsequehLly eroded away arches, wihdows, ahd fihs alohg Lhe cracked valley shoulders
ih such places as Devils Cardeh ahd liery lurhace (NaLiohal lark Service).
Red rock planet 17
figure 5.24 CraviLy acLihg oh Lhe overhahgihg sahdsLohe, causes rocks Lo fall ihLo Lhe
caviLy beheaLh, gradually widehihg Lhe spah of Double Arch. l sLahd ih ohe of Lhe
opehihgs, backliL by Lhe lighL of Lhe seLLihg Mooh (1. Nordgreh).
EvenIually Ihe caviIy breaks Ihrough Ihe in and you have a window. As windows
widen, graviIy dislodges Ihe hanging rock, orming small arches IhaI grow wiIh
Iime. EvenIually, Ihe resI o Ihe in may wear away compleIely, leaving
someIhing like DelicaIe Arch behind.
BuI Ihese are only IransiIory phases in an arch's lie. \aiI long enough, and
graviIy, rain and sand will wear an arch away Io noIhing. There have been many
more arches in Ihe hisIory o Ihe park Ihan Ihere are arches Ioday, and Ihere will
be many more in Ihe uIure. \e see each arch and window aI a special Iime in iIs
geologic lie. The beauIy and grandeur o Ihe parks and monumenIs o Ihe Eour
Corners region is a IesIamenI Io our acIive planeI's pasI. I Ihe hisIory o Ihe
souIhwesI had been monoIonous and unchanging, Ihen Ihere would be no
diering layers, and Ihe landscape we see would be ar less varied and beauIiul.
Thus Ihe majesIy o Ihe souIhwesI is due Io lucIuaIions in iIs pasI, and or much
o IhaI Iime, up Io and including Ihe presenI, iI is a pasI heavily inluenced by
waIer.
Is Ihere an Arches NaIional Fark or a MonumenI Valley on Mars7
\e know IhaI liquid waIer can'I exisI on Ihe surace o Mars Ioday. BuI ever
since Mariner iI was apparenI IhaI waIer did play some parI in Mars' pasI.
RecenI images rom Ihe Mars Reconnaissance OrbiIer, around Mars since 2006,
reveal landscapes o layered canyons, mesas, and buIIes. Erom an alIimeIer
aboard Ihe European Mars Express, in orbiI since 2003, we know IhaI some o
Ihese deserI buIIes Iower several Ihousands o eeI (hundreds o meIers) inIo Ihe
figure 5.25 A sprihg sLorm brihgs raih Lo Cahyohlahds NaLiohal lark. As arid as Lhis
cahyoh couhLry may be, waLer's resulLs are everywhere. 1he large, brahchihg cahyoh aL
cehLer is |usL ohe example of whaL evehLually happehs wheh waLer acLs oh sLohe for
lohg periods of Lime. A lohg Lime ago, Lhis impressive cahyoh sysLem probably had iLs
origihs as ho more Lhah a Lihy wash like LhaL ih ligure 5.21 (1. Nordgreh).
figure 5.2 Oh Lhe lefL are Lhe buLLes ahd cahyohs visible from Dead Horse SLaLe lark
beLweeh Arches ahd Cahyohlahds NaLiohal lark ih cehLral Lah. Oh Lhe righL is a secLioh
of Cahdor Chasma oh Mars as viewed by Lhe High kesoluLioh lmagihg Sciehce
ExperimehL (HiklSE) oh board Lhe Mars kecohhaissahce OrbiLer. larL of Lhe valles
Marihers cahyoh sysLem, iL shows mahy buLLes ahd cahyohs made from layers of
apparehLly sedimehLary rock like Lhose seeh aL lefL oh EarLh (1. Nordgreh (lefL), NASA}
|lL}hiversiLy of Arizoha (righL)).
Red rock planet 1
MarIian sky, Ialler Ihan Ihe cli walls around us. So here, aI lasI, Ihese monoliIhs
remain in my vision o Mars.
BuI why are Ihey Ihere, where did Ihey come rom7
Je Kargel in his book Mars, A Warmcr Wcttcr Planct describes in greaI deIail
Ihe evidence or waIer's role in Ihe creaIion o Ihe MarIian landorms we see
Ioday. Three main Iypes o landscape presenI in MarIian orbiIal images cry ouI
or liquid waIer as an explanaIion. The irsI are greaI rounded lobes or peIals IhaI
appear around many impacI craIers across Ihe planeI. Unlike craIers on Ihe dry
Moon, where perecIly sIraighI rays o blown maIerial spray ouIward rom Ihe
impacI siIe, on Mars a large number o craIers look as i someIhing large was
dropped inIo weI mud. These lobaIe shapes look as i Ihe orce o impacI Ihrew
up gianI ounIains o rock mixed wiIh waIer (wheIher Ihe waIer was already
liquid or was ice liqueied by Ihe heaI o impacI is noI clear).
figure 5.27 vikihg OrbiLer mosaic showihg
mulLiple clues LhaL Mars ohce cohLaihed
liquid waLer. Oh Lhe lefL are Lhree large
craLers LhaL appear Lo have formed wheh
ob|ecLs hiL a surface LhaL was weL (or aL leasL
cohLaihed a loL of waLer LhaL melLed upoh
impacL). Drop a rock ihLo Lhick mud, ahd iL
would creaLe Lhe peLal-shaped lobes arouhd
Lhe hole, |usL like Lhose seeh arouhd Lhe
craLers. Oh Lhe righL are Lear-shaped islahds
LhaL look as if greaL amouhLs of waLer flowed across Lhe surface, washihg away Lhe Lerraih arouhd
high craLers ahd hills (NASA}SCS).
figure 5.28 valley heLworks oh Mars ahd
EarLh. Oh Lhe lefL, Lhe HiklSE camera
capLures Lhe meahder of Nahedi valles. Oh
Lhe righL is a meahderihg cahyoh my
camera capLured oh a recehL flighL from Los
Ahgeles Lo Dehver. CrouhdwaLer sappihg
(where ruhhihg waLer uhdercuLs
overhahgihg layers LhaL subsequehLly fall
ihLo Lhe cahyoh, exLehdihg Lhe cahyoh's
lehgLh) is Lhe leadihg Lheory for Lhe MarLiah
valley. Cahyohs LhaL form Lhis way oh EarLh
Lypically have cohsLahL widLhs alohg Lheir
paLh, as well as rouhded (amphiLheaLer-
shaped) heads. 1hese are visible ih boLh Lhe
Mars image oh lefL (hoLice Lhe rouhded
valley LhaL ehds aL Lhe craLer) ahd Lhe image from EarLh oh Lhe righL (as seeh ih Lhe LribuLary
valley ih Lhe boLLom lefL of Lhe scehe). 1he rouhded cahyoh heads are also visible from Lhe
grouhd ih ligures 5.21, ahd 5.25. 1he meahderihg haLure of MarLiah valleys suggesLs
persisLehL or repeaLed flow |usL as Lhey are required Lo form meahders ih sLreams ahd valleys
oh EarLh (NASA}|lL}hiv. of Arizoha (lefL), 1. Nordgreh (righL)).
The second Iype o eaIure is whaI looks Io be enormous dry river beds where
lowing waIer carved channels and creaIed Iear-drop shaped islands around
craIers and hills in iIs paIh. These eaIures all seem Io originaIe ouI o greaI
circular basins o jumbled chaoIic Ierrain as i some massive underground
reservoir had been Iapped and Ihe overlying ground collapsed as Ihe waIers
lowed ouI. Huge regions o Ihe landscape appear Io have been swepI aside in
massive loods, yeI all on a planeI where Ioday liquid waIer cannoI exisI.
The Ihird caIegory o eaIures are numerous examples o small branching
channels IhaI look as i waIers draining rom a plaIeau had slowly grown
IogeIher Io orm deep river canyons on Iheir way Io some long gone lakes or seas.
In nearly every respecI Ihey look like winding canyons in Ihe American
souIhwesI where waIer has sapped away aI overhanging rock, creaIing long,
branching canyons, jusI like Ihose Fowell and his crew explored buI on a planeI
ar drier Ihan any he ever saw.
All Ihese eaIures appear in hundreds o picIures senI back by decades o
spacecraI. BuI picIures can be deceiving. Even when we have beauIiully clear
phoIographs o greaI branching canyon neIworks, or large ans o maIerial
lowing rom ouI o high mounIains down onIo lowland plains, iI is IempIing Io
inIerpreI Ihese in Ihe lighI o whaI we see around us and know so well. By Ihis
Ihinking, Ihe canyon neIworks become Ihe dried remains o waIer drainage
sysIems like Ihe Colorado River. Conical shapes become alluvial ans as waIer
washes ouI o mounIains, spreading rock and sand ouI onIo lood plains. BuI
inIerpreI Ihe picIure wrong, and a chain o very reasonable, logical conclusions
can lead Io a modern picIure o Mars as misIaken as a world o canals and ancienI
inIelligences.
Je Moersch is a planeIary scienIisI aI Ihe UniversiIy o Tennessee in
Knoxville. Raised in souIhern Caliornia, he earned a MasIers degree in Ceology
aI Arizona SIaIe UniversiIy, in beIween a Bachelor's degree in Fhysics and FhD in
AsIronomy aI Cornell UniversiIy in New York. He has spenI years Iramping
around Ihe souIhwesI sIudying Ihe rocks, learning how Io read Ihe counIryside,
and one o his inIeresIs is Ihe alluvial ans on Mars. He is a science Ieam member
or one o Ihe cameras on board Ihe Mars Odyssey spacecraI, in orbiI around Ihe
Red FlaneI since 2001. The camera he uses is called THEMIS (Ihe THermal
EMission Imaging SysIem) IhaI phoIographs Ihe planeI in inrared lighI,
recording Ihe heaI rom Ihe landscape as iI warms and cools over Ihe course o
Ihe MarIian day and nighI.
Though Ihe Sun has now seI, I can sIill eel Ihe rock radiaIing iIs dayIime heaI
here in Ihe Devils Carden Campground aI Arches. Erom my campire, I Iake ouI
Iwo baked poIaIoes, one very much larger Ihan Ihe oIher. \hile Ihe big one sIays
hoI or quiIe a while, Ihe liIIle one cools quickly as iIs smaller volume radiaIes
heaI Ihrough Ihe greaIer proporIion o surace area. SIand aI a disIance wiIh an
inrared camera and even i you couldn'I see Ihe dierence in poIaIoes wiIh your
eyes you could easily deIermine which was which by how quickly each cooled.
ThaI's exacIly whaI Moersch and his colleagues hope Io do wiIh Ihe poIenIial
alluvial ans on Mars. Because iI's Ihe size o Ihe sand and rock aI dierenI parIs
Red rock planet 171
figure 5.29 1hree views of alluvial fahs
where waLer appears Lo have washed ouL of
hills spreadihg rock ahd sedimehL ih iLs
paLh. AL Lop is a HiklSE image showihg
whaL appears Lo be ah alluvial fah pourihg
ouL of Lhe high rugged wall of Lhe apLly-
hamed Mo|ave craLer ih Lhe XahLhe 1erra
regioh of Mars. lL looks remarkably similar
Lo alluvial fahs ih Lhe Mo|ave DeserL of
souLheasLerh Califorhia (middle). Alluvial
fahs form as a resulL of heavy deserL
dowhpours, Lypically Lhuhdershowers.
8ecause deserLs are poorly vegeLaLed,
heavy ahd shorL-lived dowhpours creaLe a
greaL deal of erosioh ahd mass movemehL
of rock ahd debris ohLo hearby low lyihg
regiohs. Chahhels ih Lhe Mo|ave CraLer fah
begih aL Lhe Lop of ridges, cohsisLehL wiLh
precipiLaLioh as Lhe source of waLer, raLher
Lhah grouhdwaLer which would form
gullies begihhihg lower dowh. AL boLLom is
Lhe alluvial fah visiLed by Moersch ahd his
sLudehLs ih DeaLh valley NaLiohal lark
(hoLice Lhe road across Lhe base) (NASA}
|lL}hiv. of Arizoha (Lop), 1. Nordgreh
(middle ahd boLLom)).
o Ihe an IhaI reveal i lowing waIer Iruly creaIed Ihese eaIures. Elash loods
low ouI o high hills as veriIable rivers o moving earIh, carrying everyIhing
rom sand Io boulders along in Iheir wake. As Ihe waIer reaches Ihe valley loor iI
loses energy and slows. As iI does so, iI loses Ihe abiliIy Io carry Ihe largesI
boulders irsI, even as iI sIill lows asI enough Io carry Ihe resI o iIs muddy
conIenI along. EvenIually Ihough, Ihe slowing waIer drops ever smaller rocks,
pebbles and sIones, unIil inally, aI Ihe limiI o Ihe waIer's low (a genIle wash no
more Ihan an inch or Iwo in heighI) Iiny sand grains genIly come Io resI.
Measure Ihe cooling paIIern o possible MarIian ans and you deIermine Ihe size
disIribuIion o Ihe surace maIerial conirming Ihe mechanism IhaI ormed
Ihem.
In March 2007 I joined Moersch and his posIdoc, Chris \hisner, and graduaIe
sIudenI, Craig Hardgrove, in a Mars expediIion Io DeaIh Valley NaIional Fark in
Caliornia. There we Iraipsed Ihrough Ihe area around Ihe Eureka sand dunes Io
ilm Ihe ebbing heaI o an acIual alluvial an on EarIh and compare iIs inrared
signaIure Io Ihose IhaI were seen rom MarIian orbiI.
AI nighI Ihe inrared camera whirred away hour by hour recording iIs movie
o cooling sand (someIhing only slighIly more inIeresIing Ihan drying painI)
while by day we huddled in Ihe renIed RV's air-condiIioning Io escape Ihe
scorching heaI. AI Ihe end o Ihe weekend, Moersch and his group packed up and
lew back Io Tennessee and I drove home Io souIhern Caliornia. II will Iake Iime
or his group Io analyze Iheir daIa and compare iI Io Mars in whaI will evenIually
become Hardgrove's FhD Ihesis. \hen Ihey do, Ihey will have gaIhered
imporIanI 'ground-IruIh' or undersIanding whaI Ihey observed rom space.
These are Ihe lessons we learn rom Lowell.
Recalling IhaI Irip Io Ihe Eureka dunes, I cup my hands inIo Ihe soil back here
in UIah and leI iI all Ihrough my ingers, eeling Ihe dierenI grain sizes. The
sand grains I eel are made o quarIz. QuarIz crysIals are Ihe producI o erosion
wearing away aI graniIe which originally ormed as molIen rock cooling deep
inside Ihe EarIh under incredible pressure. On Mars Ihere are only Irace amounIs
o graniIe and Ihus hardly any quarIz. \iIhouI much quarIz Ihe MarIian sand is
mosI likely made o pulverized volcanic basalI (Ihe mosI common Iype o rock
seen on Mars so ar) and Ihus while Ihere may be MarIian sandsIones, Ihey will
be unlike any sandsIone I see around me. The chemical make-up o whaI's in my
hand is a sIory o Ihe waIer hisIory o Ihis planeI, in Ihis place.
To learn abouI Ihe waIer hisIory o Mars is Ihe primary mission o Ihe Iwo
rovers NASA senI Io Mars in 2003. They were designed Io explore Iwo dierenI
places where orbiIal images said waIer may once have been. Erom Ihe MarIian
surace, Ihese rovers, SpiriI and OpporIuniIy, would examine Ihe physical and
chemical properIies o Ihe rocks Io ind IhaI ground-IruIh Moersch was looking
or in DeaIh Valley. Only rom Ihe rocks Ihemselves would we read, aI long lasI,
Ihe hisIory o Mars.
The Iwo landing spoIs or Ihe rovers, which were expecIed Io lasI or 0 sols (a
sol is one MarIian day) and drive no more Ihan maybe a kilomeIer, were chosen
speciically or Iheir likelihood Io have once had waIer. SpiriI would go Io Cusev
CraIer, an enormous impacI basin wiIh a laI craIer loor, 100 miles (160 km)
across. Erom orbiI, iI has whaI appears Io be a river canyon lowing inIo iI, raising
Ihe possibiliIy IhaI Cusev may once have been a lake. Ferhaps in iIs boIIom
would be Ihe IellIale signs o sedimenIary rocks, sandsIones and silIsIones, or aI
Ihe very leasI Ihe chemical signs o rocks awash in waIer.
OpporIuniIy was senI Io Ihe opposiIe side o Ihe planeI Io explore a broad laI
expanse called Meridiani Flanum. Erom orbiI, inrared observaIions deIecIed Ihe
chemical signaIure o hemaIiIe, a dark grey iron mineral, IhaI on EarIh is usually
ormed in Ihe presence o waIer (alIhough someIimes Ihrough volcanism).
TogeIher, Ihe Iwo rovers were senI Io places IhaI scienIisIs suspecI should have
once been awash in waIer - one on Ihe basis o Ihe shape o Ihe landscape, Ihe
oIher on Ihe basis o iIs chemical signaIure.
Red rock planet 173
The summer o 2003 was Ihereore
an exciIing Iime Io be looking aI
Mars, NASA was sending Ihese Iwo
spacecraI Io Mars aI precisely Ihe
Iime IhaI Mars would be closer Io Ihe
EarIh Ihan iI had ever been beore in
recorded hisIory. I lew ouI Io Elorida
Io see Ihe launch o OpporIuniIy, Ihe
second o Ihe Iwo rovers. OuI Ihere
on Ihe sands o Cocoa Beach ouIside
Cape Canaveral, I joined Ihe oIher
members o Ihe Rover Ieam or laIe-
nighI music and beer, as everyone
gaIhered Io blow o sIeam rom
preparing Ihe rockeI or lighI.
My irsI nighI Ihere, Squyres came
up Io me and gave me a big happy
handshake. I had been a Ieaching assisIanI or him aI Cornell, and had known
him since he irsI submiIIed his rover proposal Io NASA Iwelve years beore.
figure 5.30 Ma'adim vallis is Lhe 375-mile-
lohg (00-km) chahhel LhaL appears Lo ruh
upwards ih Lhis image draihihg ihLo Lhe 100-
mile (10-km) wide-impacL basih of Cusev
CraLer. lf waLer ever did flow Lhrough Lhis
valley, Lhe elevaLioh of Lhe surrouhdihg
lahdscape shows LhaL iL almosL cerLaihly should
have pooled ihside Cusev, perhaps formihg a
lake. 1he floor of Cusev CraLer is Lhe lahdihg
siLe for NASA's SpiriL rover (NASA}|lL}SCS).
figure 5.31 Colors show Lhe presehce of Lhe
miheral hemaLiLe oh Lhe flaL MarLiah plaihs of
Meridiahi (showh ih grey). 1he locaLioh ahd
abuhdahce of hemaLiLe was mapped by Lhe
Lhermal emissioh specLromeLer oh NASA's
Mars Clobal Surveyor orbiLer. ked ahd yellow
ihdicaLes higher cohcehLraLiohs while greeh
ahd blue areas dehoLe lower levels. 1he black
ellipse shows Lhe area where NASA's
OpporLuhiLy rover was sehL (NASA}|lL}AS).
figure 5.32 1hree views of Lhe camera calibraLioh LargeL ('Marsdial') sehL Lo Mars
ohboard Lhe SpiriL ahd OpporLuhiLy rovers ih 2003. AL lefL is Lhe dial aL Lhe |eL lropulsioh
LaboraLory. Colored Labs ahd grey rihgs provide sciehLisLs wiLh ob|ecLs of khowh color
wheh siLLihg oh Lhe surface of Mars (middle ahd righL). 1he cehLral posL casLs a shadow
so LhaL sciehLisLs cah accuraLely ad|usL Lhe color of Lheir images Lo reflecL Lhe Lrue color
balahce for ob|ecLs ih boLh direcL suh ahd shadow. lf you khow Lhe oriehLaLioh of Lhe
rover, Lheh Lhe posiLioh of Lhe shadow will Lell you boLh Lhe local Lime ahd seasoh oh
Mars: hehce, iL's a suhdial. Oh Lhe surface of Lhe suhdial is Lhe daLe we lahded ahd Lhe
hame of Mars ih 1 differehL lahguages. A requiremehL of all suhdials is a moLLo: ours is
''1wo Worlds, Ohe Suh.'' 1he middle image shows Lhe SpiriL dial upoh lahdihg, while
Lhe righL image shows Lhe OpporLuhiLy dial afLer 5 miles (10 km) of Lravel (NASA}|lL-
CalLech}Corhell).
Erom Elorida's easI coasI, Mars was a brillianI red jewel in Ihe sky rising over Ihe
AIlanIic Ocean. LiIing his arm Io poinI ouI over Ihe sea aI Ihe planeI now
brighIer Ihan nearly any sIar in Ihe sky, he said ''ThaI's where we're going.'' I
could hear in his voice a career's worIh o eorI and planning Io geI Io Ihis poinI,
and now iI was all coming Irue or him. There beore us was Mars-rise, relecIed
in waIer, and iI was evidence o waIer we hoped Io ind when we goI Ihere.
SpiriI landed irsI in January 2004. I remember sIanding on my doorsIep
waIching Mars shine in a clear Caliornia sky. On NASA TV behind me, mission
conIrollers aI CalIech's JeI Fropulsion LaboraIory called ouI Ihe enIry and
descenI benchmarks: IhaI SpiriI had enIered Ihe aImosphere, IhaI iIs chuIes had
opened and, inally, IhaI iI was on Ihe surace and alive. The irsI image I
remember seeing on Ihe Ielevision IhaI nighI was a Iiny Ihumbnail senI back by
SpiriI o Ihe sundial I helped work on. \haIever else I may do in lie, a small parI
o me will now orever be on Mars.
In Ihe weeks IhaI ollowed, SpiriI Irundled abouI Ihe hard-packed russeI sand
and scraped aI Ihe nearby rocks liIIering Ihe surace. II analyzed Iheir color and
composiIion, phoIographed Ihem in visible and inrared lighI, peered aI Ihem
microscopically, and in Ihe end deIermined IhaI everyIhing in iIs immediaIe
area was volcanic basalI. There wasn'I a sign o waIer anywhere Io be ound.
SixIy-ive sols laIer, aIer meIhodically examining and phoIographing iIs
surroundings, SpiriI inally reached a nearby craIer called Bonneville where Ihe
rover Ieam hoped IhaI Ihe impacI had exposed acIual bedrock in Ihe craIer's loor.
\haI Ihey ound was noIhing buI more sand dunes and basalI. Eor a rover only 1S
sols away rom Ihe end o iIs warranIy and nearly aI Ihe expecIed limiI o miles
driven, Ihe only Ihing dierenI in any direcIion were Ihe disIanI hills on Ihe
Red rock planet 175
horizon, over a mile away (abouI Iwo
kilomeIers). \iIhouI any hope IhaI
Ihey'd acIually make iI, mission plan-
ners senI SpiriI driving or Ihe horizon.
Meanwhile, on Ihe oIher side o
Mars rom Ihe rover IhaI ound iIsel
on a plain inside a craIer, OpporIuniIy
landed inside a craIer on a plain.
OpporIuniIy's irsI images showed iI
Io be inside a shallow craIer only 6S I
(20 m) across and less Ihan 6 eeI (Iwo
meIers) deep in Ihe middle o a vasI
parking-loI o an empIy plain. BuI
Ihere in Ihe rim o Ihe craIer were Ihe
irsI bedrocks ever seen on Mars. Bed-
rock, jusI like Ihe canyon walls o
UIah, Iells you Ihe hisIory o where
you are. II Iells you exacIly whaI Ihe
condiIions were under which iI was
ormed and by looking aI whaI siIs on
Iop o whaI, iI Iells you Ihe order in
which iI happened and how long iI
lasIed relaIive Io whaI came beore or aIer. Bedrocks are novels Io be read, whereas
Ihe loose rocks IhaI liIIered Ihe surace o every oIher previous MarIian landing siIe
were merely random pages scaIIered abouI rom unknown manuscripIs.
figure 5.33 SpiriL climbs ihLo Lhe Columbia
Hills. lh Lhe disLahce Lhe rim of Cusev CraLer is
barely visible. Our Marsdial casLs a lohg
shadow as SpiriL climbs upward ih Lhe laLe
afLerhooh hours before suhseL (NASA}|lL}
Corhell).
figure 5.34 1his approximaLe Lrue-color pahorama, dubbed 'Lioh Kihg,' shows Lhe
OpporLuhiLy rover's lahdihg plaLform seL ihside Eagle CraLer ahd Lhe surrouhdihg plaihs
of Meridiahi llahum. 8ehihd Lhe lahder is Lhe ouLcrop of rock exposihg Lhe firsL bedrock
seeh ahywhere oh Mars (NASA}|lL}Corhell).
figure 5.35 1he exploraLioh of MarLiah bedrock is showh ih four pahels. lh Lhe upper
lefL is a wide ahgle view of Lhe brokeh segmehLs of Lhe rock ouLcrop wiLhih Eagle CraLer.
1he colored box arouhd ohe rock ih Lhe ouLcrop, dubbed SLohe MouhLaih, is ehlarged ih
Lhe upper righL image. lL shows Lhe fihe layers ih Lhe ouLcrop, plus Lhe MarLiah
''blueberries'' liLLerihg Lhe darker soil. 1he grey square ih Lhe cehLer of SLohe MouhLaih
is ehlarged aL Lhe boLLom righL. Clearly visible are Lhe Lhih sedimehLary-like layers ahd a
MarLiah blueberry ih Lhe process of beihg weaLhered ouL of Lhe rock. 1he image aL lower
lefL is a fish-eye view of OpporLuhiLy brihgihg iLs ihsLrumehLs ih cohLacL wiLh Lhe ouLcrop
(NASA}|lL}Corhell }SCS).
Erom Ihe very irsI images o Ihe bedrock iI was also clear IhaI Ihe ouIcrop was
layered, inely layered. Two processes Iend Io lay down layers, volcanoes, and
waIer. These are Ihe same Iwo processes IhaI give rise Io hemaIiIe on EarIh and
which process had been aI work on Ihe plains o Meridiani was exacIly whaI
OpporIuniIy had come Io deIermine.
OuIside Ihe craIer, a laI nearly eaIureless raceIrack o smooIh sand sIreIched
Red rock planet 177
Io Ihe horizon. BuI Ihe sand iIsel wasn'I eaIureless. Everywhere Ihe rover's
cameras looked, inside and ouIside Ihe craIer, Iiny grey spheres Ihe size o small
marbles liIIered Ihe surace. The landscape was covered wiIh millions o Ihem,
and soon Ihe science Ieam labeled Ihem ''blueberries'' because o Iheir color
relaIive Io Ihe ever-presenI red o Ihe MarIian counIryside. Their source appeared
Io be Ihe layers in Ihe rock wall, where Ihe cameras could see signs o blueberries
sIill imbedded. Over Ihe millennia, Ihe consIanI wind and sand appears Io erode
Ihe layers, causing Ihe relaIively harder berries Io pop ouI and roll across Ihe
surace.
Using a smaller version o Ihe inrared camera IhaI irsI deIecIed hemaIiIe
rom orbiI, Ihe OpporIuniIy Ieam ound IhaI wherever Ihere were blueberries
Ihere was Ihe chemical signaIure o hemaIiIe, and where Ihe blueberries were
scarce, Ihe hemaIiIe was noI Io be ound. This relaIionship was conirmed when
Ihe rover Ieam managed Io geI a specIrum o a small pile o berries, gaIhered in a
depression, playully called Ihe ''Berry Bowl.'' The Iiny blue spheres were Ihe
hemaIiIe Ihey'd been looking or.
Back on EarIh, Marjorie Chan, a geologisI aI Ihe UniversiIy o UIah, saw
picIures o Ihe MarIian blueberries and Iold hersel, ''I know whaI Ihose are,
Ihere's been liquid waIer Ihere.'' Chan and her collaboraIors had jusI wriIIen a
scienIiic paper describing Ihe origin o sIrange iron spheres, inormally called
Moqui Marbles, ound liIIering Ihe suraces o a number o ouIcroppings o
Navajo SandsIone around souIhern UIah. In Ihese areas, Ihe normally iron-red
sandsIone has been bleached nearly whiIe o iIs iron. \here Ihe sandsIone is
bleached, IhaI's where you ind Ihe marbles, some sIill embedded in Ihe rock
layers. Because Navajo sandsIone began as dry sand dunes, iI is relaIively porous
figure 5.3 1he area ihside Eagle CraLer showihg Lhe ouLcrop of MarLiah bedrock. lh Lhe
disLahce are Lhe plaihs of Meridiahi llahum. 1he colors ihdicaLe locaLioh ahd abuhdahce
of Lhe miheral hemaLiLe usihg OpporLuhiLy's ohboard ihfrared imager. 1his is a smaller
versioh of Lhe ihsLrumehL oh board NASA's Mars Clobal Surveyor spacecrafL LhaL recorded
Lhe hemaLiLe abuhdahce from orbiL ih ligure 5.31. Like LhaL image, red ihdicaLes high
hemaLiLe abuhdahce, blue is low. 1he blue circles show where OpporLuhiLy's lahdihg
bags pressed Lhe blueberries ihLo Lhe soil, hidihg Lhem from view. High hemaLiLe
abuhdahce is where Lhe blueberries sLill cover Lhe surface (NASA}|lL}AS}Corhell).
compared Io denser sedimenIary layers IhaI ormed rom weI sand on ancienI
seashores. CroundwaIer easily seeps Ihrough Ihe gaps beIween Ihe sand grains
using Ihe layers o Ihe Navajo ormaIion as a subIerranean plumbing sysIem in
much o Ihe area where Ihe Navajo is ound.
Chan explains Ihe relaIionship beIween Ihe sandsIone and Ihe marbles Ihis
way: Ihe colors we see in red rock counIry occur because o iron-oxide IhaI orms
around individual grains o sand IhaI make up Ihe sandsIone. As groundwaIer
moves Ihrough Ihe more porous Navajo sandsIone, buried hydrocarbons (Ihe oil
and gas in Ihe ground IhaI makes Ihis region so enIicing or exploraIion
companies) dissolve Ihe iron and carry iI along in Ihe waIer. As Ihe sandsIone
loses iIs iron, Ihe sandsIone bleaches whiIe. \hen Ihe iron-rich waIer
encounIers oxygen-rich groundwaIer o diering chemisIry, Ihe iron re-
precipiIaIes ouI o Ihe soluIion. Slowly, Ihe solid iron minerals bind IogeIher
grains o sand, orming a well-cemenIed sphere called a concreIion.
One such iron mineral IhaI does Ihis is hemaIiIe. \iIh Iime, Ihe hemaIiIe
spheres grow unIil eiIher Ihe waIer movemenI sIops, or Ihe iron supply ceases.
EvenIually, when Ihis area is raised by IecIonic orces, Ihe sandsIone weaIhers
away around Ihe harder iron sphere. \hen iI does, Ihe marble drops ouI and
rolls across Ihe surace o UIah jusI like Ihe blueberries on Ihe planes o
Meridiani. \hile Ihe exacI chemisIry is a liIIle dierenI on Mars (no one expecIs
Io ind oil reserves Ihere) Ihe resulI is Ihe same.
Using Chan's paper as a guide, I wenI in search o Ihese marbles or mysel.
Along Ihe way, I crossed paIhs wiIh John \esley Fowell and his expediIion in
Ihe small, isolaIed Iown o Bullrog, UIah. The Iown siIs on Ihe norIh shore o
modern-day Lake Fowell (a reservoir creaIed in Ihe 160s when Ihe Colorado
River was dammed) buI a hundred and orIy years ago, when Fowell and his crew
came Ihis way, iI was Ihe norIh rim o Clen Canyon. Today, a lonely erry makes
iIs way back and orIh beIween Ihe Iwo sides o Ihe lake in Ihe middle o scenery
sIill very much like whaI Fowell saw when he climbed Io Ihe canyon's rim. Erom
jusI norIh o Bullrog, Ihe Burr Trail, a dusIy, desolaIe dirI road, climbs up and
over Ihe \aIerpockeI Eold wiIhin CapiIol Ree NaIional Fark.
I'd been Ihis way once beore, and have sIill never encounIered anyone else
along Ihis secIion o road in whaI is as close Io Ihe back o Beyond as my Iravels
have ever Iaken me. All around is a rainbow o rock. \hen I geI ouI o my Iruck
Io Iake a picIure, I don'I even boIher pulling over, I jusI sIop in Ihe middle o Ihe
Irack. The hillsides are a pale yellow-whiIe, and Ihe ground beneaIh my booIs is a
soI, cake-like consisIency made up o Ihe eroded sands washed down inIo Ihe
valley where Ihe road makes iIs way.
And Ihen I see Ihem. FarIially buried and liIIering Ihe surace all around me
are whaI I IhoughI were pebbles, buI in realiIy are really dark grey iron spheres.
JusI like OpporIuniIy IhaI came looking or hemaIiIe only Io ind iI in Ihe irsI
place iI looked, Ihe hemaIiIe marbles o which I came in search were in Ihe very
irsI place I sIepped. They're no bigger Ihan Ihe Iip o my ingers, some as smooIh
as marbles, oIhers knobby like ossilized raspberries. Some are spliI open
revealing sandy or hollow inIeriors, oIhers are Iiny barbells where Iwo spheres
Red rock planet 17
long ago grew IogeIher. They look
like noIhing else I've ever seen in
NaIure, and holding Ihem in my
hand I look around me and am
Ihankul or Ihe ingenuiIy o physics
and chemisIry.
LaIer IhaI day, as I camp ouI in a
broad valley wiIhin Ihe Crand SIair-
case - EscalanIe NaIional Monu-
menI, I am once more surrounded
by marbles, Ihis Iime, big ones and
small ones rolling by Ihe millions
across a plain o weaIhered Navajo
sandsIone bleached as whiIe as
sIraw. Beside my campsiIe, are new
marbles only now weaIhering ouI o
Ihe sandsIone ouIcropping, jusI like
Ihose seen on Mars, on anoIher
plain, S0 million miles away. Today
is my ground IruIh.
BuI as wiIh Lowell a hundred
years ago, even Ihe besI scienIisIs
can be ooled by whaI Ihey wanI Io
ind. This is a possibiliIy IhaI scien-
IisIs sIruggle wiIh whenever Ihey
discover someIhing new or some-
Ihing long hoped or. \hile or
Chan, her experiences on Ihe
ground in UIah meanI IhaI Ihe
MarIian blueberries were evidence
enough or her, or Ihe members o
Ihe Mars Rover Ieam, Ihey were
going Io do everyIhing in Iheir
power Io quesIion Iheir own con-
clusions, unIil Ihere were no more
viable alIernaIives Io whaI Ihey were
seeing. Over iIs irsI 26 sols on Mars,
OpporIuniIy would compile a vir-
Iually compleIe sIory o Meridiani as
Iold in IhaI single ouIcrop o rock a
dozen sIeps away rom where iI
landed. Numerous lines o indepen-
denI experimenI and imagery all
lowed IogeIher inIo whaI emerged
as a single uniying hisIory o waIer.
figure 5.37 HemaLiLe spheres liLLer Lhe
sahdsLohe surface of Crahd SLaircase-EscalahLe
NaLiohal MohumehL (Lop) ahd sedimehLary
bedrock ih Meridiahi llahum, Mars (boLLom).
While Lhe hemaLiLe spheres ih Lhis parL of Lah
cah be a wide rahge of sizes wiLh some up Lo ah
ihch (#2 cm) ih diameLer, Lhe MarLiah
blueberries seeh ih Lhe ''8erry 8owl'' are ohly a
LehLh of ah ihch (#2 mm) ih diameLer. 1he 1.8-
ihch (4.5-cm) circle imprihL ih Lhe rock aL
boLLom is from Lhe kock Abrasioh 1ool (kA1)
ohboard Lhe OpporLuhiLy rover (parL of which is
visible aL Lhe boLLom of Lhe image) (1. Nordgreh
(Lop), NASA}|lL}Corhell (boLLom)).
EirsI Ihere is Ihe ine rock layering noI unlike anyIhing you or I mighI ind in
Ihe sandsIone layers o Ihe souIhwesI. \iIhin Ihe layers are Ihe hemaIiIe
spheres, looking, in every respecI, exacIly as concreIions should. In addiIion, Ihe
layering iIsel Iraces ouI Iiny ripples in exacIly Ihe righI shape and paIIern as i
Ihe layers o which Ihe rock were made were laid down by waIer waving and
lapping across iIs surace.
The rock layers Ihemselves are composed o salIs, jusI as i shallow briny lakes
or seas had washed across Ihe surace and Ihen dried on a warm MarIian day.
DierenI layers were composed o dierenI Iypes o salI and in dierenI
concenIraIions, jusI as one would expecI in a pond where Ihe more waIer IhaI
evaporaIed Ihe more salI would be leI behind in Ihe liquid IhaI remained. Look
wesI Io Ihe CreaI SalI Lake and Ihe process is aI work on EarIh Ioday.
Chemical analysis by one o Ihe rover insIrumenIs revealed IhaI one o Ihe
salIs making up Ihe MarIian ouIcrop is a mineral called jarosiIe. II's noI a
common mineral on EarIh, buI iI's one IhaI has acIual waIer wiIhin iIs crysIal
sIrucIure. So noI only does Ihe presence o salI speak o waIer's once disIanI
presence, buI one o Ihe Iypes o salI presenI sIill conIains Iraces o waIer iIsel.
Meanwhile, all over Ihe surace o Ihe bedrock layers are Iiny indenIaIions or
Iabular-shaped piIs. To all appearances Ihey look like places where crysIals grew,
pushed aside or replaced Ihe maIerial IhaI was Ihere, and Ihen dissolved or
weaIhered away. On EarIh, gypsum salIs orm liIIle crysIals like Ihis as minerals
precipiIaIe ouI o rock awash in waIer. In Iime, as condiIions change, Ihe crysIals
weaIher away and all IhaI's leI are Iheir liIIle empIy molds. These eaIures are
called vugs.
Six monIhs aIer OpporIuniIy landed I spoke Io Squyres aI a meeIing we were
aIIending. I hadn'I seen him since OpporIuniIy's launch, and his Ieam had jusI
announced Iheir conclusion IhaI liquid waIer had once lowed across Ihe surace
o Mars. I asked him whaI IhaI momenI o discovery had been like and he Iold
me a sIory he laIer recounIed in his book Rovng Mars, Ever since we landed,'' he
wroIe, '' I've been resisIing Ihe idea IhaI Ihere was waIer here aI Meridiani.
Maybe I jusI wanI Io be very, very cerIain beore declaring vicIory.'' BuI, aIer Ihe
layers, and blueberries, and ripples, and salIs, and jarosiIe, and vugs, aIer all
Ihese separaIe lines o enquiry:
II's Ihe preponderance o Ihe evidence. . .. II's been ascinaIing Io waIch
Ihe whole Ieam as Ihese clues have been revealed Io us, sol by sol over
Ihe pasI ew weeks, like some kind o weird MarIian mysIery novel.
Each o us has come Io Ihis remarkable experience wiIh our own
background, wiIh our own seI o prejudices. And each o us has reacIed
Io Ihe mounIing evidence or waIer here dierenIly. Some people leapI
joyully o Ihe cli when we goI our irsI hinI o Ihe ouIcrop's
composiIion. . .. OIhers sIill aren'I convinced yeI. . .. BuI Ioday did iI or
me. I simply can'I see how you can make rock like Ihis wiIhouI a loI o
waIer being involved. . .. There's no doubI in my mind now IhaI some
o Ihese rocks were laid down, long ago, in liquid waIer.
Red rock planet 181
figure 5.38 My mehLal LrahsformaLioh of Moab Lo Mars is compleLe ih Lhis image of my
imagihaLioh. AfLer all we've come Lo learh abouL Mars ahd iLs hisLory, perhaps Lhere
really is a lahdscape like Lhis Lo be fouhd Lhere, differehL from, buL sLill quiLe similar Lo
whaL l see arouhd me ih Lhe red rock couhLry of Lah (1. Nordgreh).
In Ihe end, i Squyres and his Ieam are righI, Mars really once was warmer and
weIIer aI some poinI in Ihe pasI, wiIh salI waIer lakes or seas rippling and reIreaIing
across Ihe red MarIian landscape jusI as iI did where I sIand here in UIah. I look
around me aI Ihe landscape o Ihe counIry I love so much and I wonder, as similar
as Ihese landscapes may be Ioday, was Ihere a Iime when Ihe comparison was even
closer7 \as Ihere a Iime when Ihe MarIian sky was blue7 \hen Ihe sIreams did
run7 \hen Ihe grass was green and Ihe Red FlaneI wasn'I nearly so red7 And even
wiIh all we now know, mighI we sIill be wrong abouI Mars7
Eor Ihe greaI majoriIy o human hisIory Mars was probably viewed by
shamans or holy men as a earul god, or mysIical orce in Ihe sky, Mars was Ares,
Ihe Cod o \ar. They were wrong. A Ihousand years ago, asIrologers IhoughI
Mars was a perecI celesIial lighI seI among Ihe perecI crysIal spheres in Ihe sky.
Eour hundred years ago, Calileo's Ielescope showed Ihey were wrong.
Three hundred iIy years ago, Ihe asIronomer ChrisIian Huygens discovered
surace eaIures on Mars and surmised Ihere mighI be MarIian asIronomers
looking back aI us. Being an asIronomer, iI seems, was no proo againsI also
being wrong. Two hundred years ago, \illiam Herschel deIecIed Ihe irsI signs o
an aImosphere on Mars and deduced iI probably had a climaIe much like
England's. He was very wrong. A hundred years ago Fercival Lowell's Mars had
canals and canal builders. As we know all Ioo well, he Ioo was wrong.
EiIy years ago, asIronomers IhoughI IhaI Mars mighI yeI be home Io greaI
swaIhs o simple lichens and grasses. Sadly, Ihey were wrong. EorIy years ago,
planeIary scienIisIs IhoughI Mars was a dead, dry, lieless world IhaI had always
been so. II now looks like Ihey Ioo were wrong. Today we Ihink Mars is a dry
world IhaI has noI always been dry,
a cold world IhaI has noI always
been cold, and a lieless world IhaI
may yeI Iurn ouI Io noI always have
been lieless (or may noI even be
lieless Ioday).
Are we wrong7 Only our children
will know. The one Ihing science
Ieaches us over Ihe cenIuries is Ihe
one sure way Io never be righI is Io
never risk being wrong.
In 2011, NASA will launch a new
generaIion o Mars rover, designed
Io operaIe, noI jusI or many sols,
buI or many MarIian years. II will
carry a leeI o insIrumenIs and
experimenIs Io explore Ihe chemical
hisIory o Mars' warmer, weIIer pasI
now IhaI we know whaI Io look or
and where Io look or iI.
Like Fercival Lowell, John \esley
Fowell, and everyone else who has
ever been drawn Io Ihe sIark beauIy
o Ihe American souIhwesI, we are
ollowing Ihe waIer where iI leads us
on Ihis new planeI, reading Ihe hisIory iI reveals, and wondering whaI lie may
have been here beore us. \hile Ioday we climb mounIains and cross disIanI
horizons Ihrough roboIic eyes, someday we will be Ihere in person, our booIs
caked in Ihe red dusI o a whole new planeI Io discover.
As wiIh SpiriI and OpporIuniIy beore iI, Ihis new rover will carry iIs own
sundial Io help calibraIe iIs color camera. Like all sundials, Ihe one on Ihis new
rover, carries a moIIo. IIs moIIo is our moIIo: To Mars. To explore.
See for yourseIf: Mars
Mars at opposition
Mars is aI iIs brighIesI approximaIely every Iwo years and Iwo monIhs as we
approach opposiIion wiIh Ihe Red FlaneI. The ollowing Iable idenIiies Ihe daIes,
consIellaIion, brighIness, disIance and size o Mars aI each opposiIion or Ihe nexI
2S years. NoIice IhaI some opposiIions are beIIer Ihan oIhers, when Mars is closer iI
is bigger and brighIer. Erom Ihe consIellaIions lisIed here, use Ihe monIhly sky
maps aI Ihe ends o oIher chapIers Io ind Mars in Ihe sky. AI opposiIion, Mars will
be one o Ihe brighIesI, i noI thc brighIesI sIar in Ihe sky. And iI will be red.
figure 5.39 Some day we will make our owh
Lracks across Lhe MarLiah surface (1. Nordgreh).
Red rock planet 183
Table 5.1 Opposltlons of Mars (2003~2035)
Date ConsteIIation Magnitude Distance Ang. Size
(miIIions of km) (arc sec)
2003, Aug 28 Aquarius -2.88 5 25
2005, Nov 7 Ares -2.33 20
2007, Dec 24 Cemihi -1.4 88 1
2010, |ah 2 Cahcer -1.28 14
2012, Mar 3 Leo -1.23 101 14
2014, Apr 8 virgo -1.48 2 15
201, May 22 Scorpius -2.0 75 1
2018, |ul 27 Capricorhus -2.78 58 24
2020, OcL 13 lisces -2.2 2 23
2022, Dec 8 1aurus -1.87 81 17
2025, |ah 1 Cemihi -1.38 15
2027, leb 1 Leo -1.21 101 14
202, Mar 25 virgo -1.34 7 14
2031, May 4 Libra -1.80 83 17
2033, |uh 27 SagiLLarius -2.51 3 22
2035, Sep 15 Aquarius -2.84 57 25
Martian surface
To Ihe naked eye, Mars never appears as anyIhing oIher Ihan a red 'sIar.'
Through a pair o binoculars wiIh a magniicaIion around 20,, Ihe small red
disk o Ihe planeI is jusI barely discernable. A small Ielescope abouI 6 inches (1S
cm) in diameIer, wiIh a magniicaIion o abouI 60,, will jusI begin Io show
surace markings wiIhin a monIh o opposiIion. The mosI noIiceable eaIure is
usually Ihe whiIe polar cap. Also likely Io be seen are Ihe brighI circular Hellas
impacI basin (brighI because iIs low-elevaIion bowl is usually illed wiIh whiIe
clouds), and Ihe dark SyrIis Major region. All o Ihese eaIures will be subIle amid
Ihe all encompassing brighI orange o Ihe planeI's disk.
The besI Iime Io see deIail on Mars is when Mars is high in Ihe sky. \hen Mars
is low on Ihe horizon you will be looking Ihrough Ihe greaIesI amounI o Ihe
EarIh's blurring aImosphere. Avoid seIIing up a Ielescope near black asphalI, or
where you have Io look direcIly over someone's house. These objecIs warm up
during Ihe day and radiaIe heaI during Ihe nighI causing Ihe air above Ihem Io
ripple and wave, ruining Ihe seeing.
The ollowing graphic is a simulaIed map o Mars showing Ihe mosI common
brighI and dark eaIures visible on Ihe disk. On any given nighI, Ihe porIion o
Mars IhaI is visible will be a circle exIending rom pole Io pole, cenIered on Ihe
equaIor and a parIicular line o longiIude. A number o websiIes such as Sly anJ
Tclcscopc's will Iell you Ihe cenIral MarIian line o longiIude or any given daIe
and Iime.
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Red rock planet 185
further reading
Rovng Mars. Sprt, Opportunty, anJ thc Lxploraton oj thc RcJ Planct by SIeve
Squyres (2006)
Hyperion, ISBN 1401308S11
PostcarJs jrom Mars. Thc lrst Photographcr on thc RcJ Planct by Jim Bell (2006)
DuIIon AdulI, ISBN 0S2S48S2
Mars As thc AhoJc oj Ljc by Fercival Lowell (2008)
Kessinger Fublishing LLC, ISBN 0S488S2S1
Thc Lxploraton oj thc ColoraJo Rvcr anJ lts Canyons by John \esley Fowell and
\allace SIegner (2003)
Fenguin Classics, ISBN 0142437S22
Gcology oj Utah's Parls anJ Monumcnts ed. Faul B. Anderson, Thomas C. Chidsey
Jr., and Douglas A. Sprinkel (2003)
Bryce Canyon NaIural HisIory AssociaIion and UIah Ceological AssociaIion,
ISBN 18820S410S
NASA's Mars exploraIion homepage
hIIp:}}marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov}
Lowell ObservaIory's websiIe
hIIp:}}www.lowell.edu
The AssociaIion o Lunar and FlaneIary Observers
hIIp:}}www.alpo-asIronomy.org}
Sky and Telescope Mars inIeracIive Mars observing resources
hIIp:}}www.skyandIelescope.com}
6
Claclers and Coldllocks: a
tale of three planets
Thc wsc man wll hc guJcJ hy thc stars.
Benjamin Eranklin
Claciers speak Io me o ancienI orces. There is someIhing primeval abouI Ihem,
Ihey evoke images o cavemen and masIodons and a Iime beore hisIory. And
Iime is crucial, because wiIhouI Iime, greaI heaping swaIhs o Iime, Ihere can be
no glaciers and no glacial landscapes. To climb up a greaI glacial valley is Io lose
onesel beneaIh sheer mounIain heighIs like baIIlemenIs rom an age o warrior
gianIs IhaI's aded inIo legend. On my paIh beneaIh Ihese ancienI ice-carved
ramparIs I am powerless wiIh awe aI whaI has gone beore.
My Irek Io reach Ihis spoI began a long way down where Ihe dusIy paIh irsI
crossed one o Ihe primary signs o a glacier's pasI presence. The Ierminal
moraine is a hill ormed o rocky debris where Ihe glacier's lowing river o ice
dumped boulders, pebbles, sIones and sand IhaI iI once carried on iIs surace.
AcIing like a rigid conveyor-belI, debris IhaI accumulaIes on or wiIhin Ihe
glacier's ice is carried down Ihe glacier's lengIh unIil iI's dumped where Ihe river
o ice ends. \hen glaciers advance, Ihe rubble is laIIened and ground down by
Ihe mass o Ihe advancing ice, when glaciers reIreaI, Ihe mound remains,
marking iIs urIhesI advance. \herever you see a moraine in glacier counIry,
here you can be assured IhaI a glacier lingered beore reIreaIing back up inIo Ihe
mounIains rom whence iI came.
Beyond Ihe Ierminal moraine, Ihe shape o Ihe valley iIsel bears wiIness Io
whaI was once here. The crushing weighI o Ihe glacier's moIion laIIened Ihe
valley loor jusI as my scuing booI on Ihe Irail lies laI Ihe dirI beneaIh my eeI.
Erom Ihis loor, Ihe bounding mounIains curve rapidly upwards orming Ihe Iell-
Iale U-shaped valley proile IhaI marks Ihis as a ormer glacier's home. Along Ihe
solid rock walls, weaIhered gouges run parallel Io Ihe moIion o Ihe ice IhaI once
lowed here. Boulders Ihe size o cars and houses plucked rom Ihe mounIain
heighIs urIher up were pushed along Ihe cli ace, grinding back Ihe high rock
walls and leaving behind rough remnanIs o Iheir work.
As I climb higher on Ihe Irail, Ihe rock walls beside me reveal Ihe layering o
ormer seas and lood plains IhaI were here long beore Ihe glaciers were. These
are whaI Ihe glacier cuI Ihrough on iIs passage Io Ihe lowlands beyond and so we
learn Ihe hisIory IhaI preceded Ihe ice when Ihe climaIe was dierenI. Tiny
ripples and cross-bedded layers reveal small dunes, some only a ew inches high:
perhaps a shallow seashore once washed upon Ihese sIones7
A ew miles more and I reach a naIural mounIain amphiIheaIer: Ihe glacial
cirque. Here, in a rocky arena a million Iimes larger Ihan any consIrucIed by
humans, more snow ell in winIer Ihan ever melIed in summer and so Ihe icy
mass accumulaIed wiIh Ihe years. Under dayIime IemperaIures in spring,
melIing ice waIer seeped inIo cracks in Ihe mounIainside. NighI came and Ihe
IemperaIure plummeIed. \aIer Iurned back Io ice and, unlike nearly every oIher
elemenI, ice expands when rozen. ShoIs musI have rung ouI like a pisIol as rock
cracked away rom where iI ormed and Ihe glacial cirque widened wiIh Iime inIo
Ihe amiliar shape o a bowl. Cirques are concerI halls or Ihe ringing songs o
gianIs.
Over long decades, Ihe combined weighI o each new snowall laIIened Ihe
snows rom previous years inIo downward sloping sheeIs. High pressures
decrease Ihe melIing poinI o waIer (Ihe reason skaIers glide on a ilm o waIer
creaIed by Ihe pressure o a skaIe's knie edge). \aIer ilms IhaI ormed deep
down beIween Ihe ice sheeIs acIed as lubricanIs. EvenIually Ihe mass began Io
move, Ihe ice began Io low. A glacier was born.
Beore Ihe awesome weighI o a billion Ions o ice, every irregulariIy in Ihe
valley below was subjecIed Io Ihe pressure o Ihis inexorable orce unIil
evenIually Ihe landscape iIsel was ground down beore iI. This sIory was
repeaIed in every oIher valley up and down Ihis lonely range o mounIains.
\here Iwo glaciers lowed side by side, noIhing buI a narrow in o rock, called
an areIe, remained beIween Ihem.
1
\hile everyIhing I see is Ihe producI o waIer, snow, ice and Iime, Ihe only
Ihing leI here now is Iime. Under a red sky Ihe rock conIinues Io crumble, buI
Ihe glaciers are gone. They disappeared Ihree billion years ago. Snow no longer
alls, and waIer no longer lows. The aImospheric pressure on Mars is now so low,
IhaI only Ihe dry, silenI rock is IesIamenI Io Ihe orces IhaI shaped iI.
I, o course, have never hiked a MarIian glacial valley, and so have never seen
Ihese sighIs wiIh my own eyes. Mars Ioday is a cold, dry, barren, wind-swepI
deserI, which would make even Ihe mosI inhospiIable wasIeland on EarIh look
like Ihe Carden o Eden. BuI over Ihe lasI orIy years, spacecraI orbiIing Ihe Red
FlaneI phoIographed whaI look Io be meandering river valleys, scoured lood
plains, branching river delIas, and glacial U-shaped valleys. Rovers on Ihe surace
have ound evidence o sedimenIs laid down by rippling waIers lowing across
now-barren plains. \here Mars musI once have been warm and weI, Ioday iI is
noI. Mars' climaIe has changed.
On EarIh, climaIe change is all around us. My Iravelogue Ihrough a MarIian
Clacier Fark is acIually (wiIh Ihe excepIion o red skies and a size way Ioo big)
exacIly whaI I and everyone else sees who make Ihe 11-mile (17-km) round Irip
hike Io Crinnell Clacier wiIhin Clacier NaIional Fark in norIhwesIern MonIana.
II's a Irip made by Ihousands o visiIors every year, including mysel, making
1
\hen Ihree or more glaciers erode a mounIainside rom dierenI direcIions, a single
Iowering, sIraighI sided horn resulIs. The MaIIerhorn in SwiIzerland is perhaps Ihe mosI
amous example on EarIh.
figure .1 Ophir Chasma is a LribuLary cahyoh of Mars' greaL valles Mariheris (a massive
cahyoh as lohg as NorLh America is wide). Dowh Lhese dark-floored valleys, some
plaheLary sciehLisLs see evidehce of lohg vahished glaciers. Cirques, moraihes, ahd -
shaped valleys have all beeh idehLified wiLhih Lhe 3,125 fL (50 meLer) deep chasm here
imaged by Lhe Europeah Space Agehcy's (ESA) Mars Express High kesoluLioh SLereo
Camera (ESA}DLk}l 8erlih (C. Neukum)).
figure .2 1here is ho quesLioh LhaL ehormous glaciers ohce carved Lhese valleys wiLhih
Clacier NaLiohal lark ih horLhwesLerh MohLaha. Here ih Lhe Mahy Clacier valley of Lhe
park, Lhe CohLihehLal Divide ruhs alohg Lhe Lall Lhih are `Le LhaL marks Lhe |agged horizoh
bouhded by Lhe -shaped valley walls overlookihg Lhe shores of SwifLcurrehL Lake ih Lhe
foregrouhd (1. Nordgreh).
Claclers and Coldllocks: a tale of three planets 18
Crinnell one o Ihe mosI visiIed glaciers in NorIh America. And each Iime I make
Ihe Irek Io iIs cirque, Ihose glacial sighIs I see along iIs paIh never ail Io inspire me.
All Ihose areIes, cirques, and horns IhaI IogeIher orm Ihis narrow jagged
range o peaks in Ihe Rocky MounIains are why Ihe local BlackeeI Indians call
Ihis Ihe ''Backbone o Ihe \orld.'' BuI Ihe glaciers IhaI carved Ihis rugged alpine
silhoueIIe were over hal a mile (a ull kilomeIer) Ihick, ar bigger Ihan any
glacier IhaI's exisIed in Clacier NaIional Fark or over 7,000 years and larger Ihan
any IhaI exisI in Ihe conIinenIal UniIed SIaIes Ioday. The climaIe has changed.
Even Ihe composiIion o Ihe rock Ihrough which Ihe glaciers once plowed
reveals changes in EarIh's ancienI climaIe. High in Ihe verIical cli walls o Ihe
Crinnell glacial valley you can easily see alIernaIing bands o red and green sIone
rising up Ihe mounIainside. The red-colored mudsIone o Ihe Crinnell
EormaIion geIs iIs color because o hemaIiIe, a red mineral IhaI orms when
iron in Ihe sedimenIs comes in conIacI wiIh oxygen. These bands were once Ihe
muddy shore-lines o a shallow inland sea. Oxygen in Ihe waIer and air reacIed
wiIh Ihe iron in Ihe mud Io orm Ihe brick-red deposiIs IhaI Iime and pressure
would laIer compress Io sIone. All along Ihe Crinnell Clacier Trail red sIone slabs
reveal ossilized waIer ripples and cracks baked hard in mud under a hoI noonday
Sun a billion years long ago.
figure .3 A solar pahel is visible 'ouL Lhe
wihdow' as cameras ohboard ESA's koseLLa
spacecrafL look dowh oh Lhe red MarLiah
lahdscape. lassihg by below is Lhe MawrLh
vallis regioh of Mars, where Lhe Mars Express
spacecrafL has deLecLed evidehce of hydraLed
clay miherals, sighs LhaL waLer may ohce have
flowed across Lhe how dusLy surface (ClvA}
lhilae}ESA koseLLa).
figure .4 1opographic map of ouLflow
chahhels oh Mars. 8eige areas show heavily
craLered Lerraih Lhrough which lower elevaLioh
greeh, cyah, ahd blue chahhels cuL. 1heir
paLhs ahd shapes look exacLly like Lhose carved
by rivers ahd flash floods oh EarLh (SCS}
NASA).
figure .5 1he glacial carved mouhLaihs of Lhe horLherh kocky MouhLaihs are called Lhe
''8ackbohe of Lhe World'' by Lhe 8lackfeeL lhdiahs who sLill make Lhis regioh Lheir home
(1. Nordgreh).
figure . Close-up view of Lhe map visiLors receive upoh ehLerihg Clacier NaLiohal
lark. 1he Lrail leadihg Lo Crihhell Clacier is showh by purple doLs leavihg from hear Lhe
Mahy Clacier campgrouhd. 1ake a series of boaLs across SwifLcurrehL Lake ahd Lake
|osephihe, ahd Lhe hike Lo Lhe glacier is much shorLer. All of Lhe images of Clacier
NaLiohal lark ih Lhis chapLer were Lakeh from Lhe Crihhell Clacier 1rail, CrahiLe lark
ChaleL, or from overlooks alohg Lhe Coihg-Lo-Lhe-Suh koad (NlS).
figure .7 Mud cracks (lefL) ahd ripples (righL) are capLured forever ih Lhe how hard
sLohe LhaL used Lo be a shallow, muddy seashore. 1oday Lhese rocks are |usL ohe layer ih
a mouhLaihside resLihg 5,800 feeL (1,770 m) above sea level (1. Nordgreh).
figure .8 Every layer ih Lhese rock walls alohg Lhe Lrail Lo Crihhell Clacier is a record of
Lhe cohdiLiohs here a billioh years ago. 1he suh, weaLher, wihd ahd waLer LhaL shaped
Lhis place, over each day LhaL has ever dawhed here, are visible from Lhe Lrail LhaL cuLs
Lhrough Lheir record (1. Nordgreh).
A hundred eeI (30 meIers) lower down Ihe cli wall, layers o green
sedimenIary sIone show IhaI a ew million years beore Ihese shallow Iidal
mudlaIs exisIed, Ihis exacI same region was aI Ihe boIIom o deep seas where
Ihere was liIIle oxygen Io reacI wiIh iron in Ihe Ihick muddy depIhs. AlIernaIing
layers o red and green aIIesI Io changing condiIions IhaI have senI ancienI seas
back and orIh across Ihis land, laying down and burying mudlaIs and sealoors
and, wiIh Ihe passage o Iime, compressing iI all inIo cold hard sIone.
\haI's more, Ihe condiIions IhaI made Ihese rocks are noI Ihe same as Ihe
climaIe IhaI creaIed Ihe glaciers IhaI revealed Ihem. And Ihose condiIions are
noI Ihe same as Ihe one IhaI produced Ihe glaciers we now see wiIhin Ihe park,
which in Iurn, is noI Ihe same as Ihe climaIe IhaI is inexorably causing Iheir
exIincIion.
II's a common misconcepIion IhaI Ihe glaciers we see Ioday in Clacier
NaIional Fark are Ihe remnanIs o Ihe same ones IhaI carved Ihe dramaIic
landscape we see around us. During Ihe lasI million years, Ihe EarIh has been
undergoing a regular series o ice-ages. During Ihe mosI recenI ice age IhaI ended
only Ien Io Iwelve Ihousand years ago, greaI rivers o ice, Ihousands o eeI Ihick,
began Io pile up and low ouI o Ihese norIhern Rocky MounIain valleys. Look aI
any Iopographic map o Ihe park, especially Ihe large Ihree-dimensional models
on display in Lake McDonald Lodge or Ihe Apgar and SI. Mary visiIor cenIers,
and you will see rounded cirques scaIIered IhroughouI Ihe mounIains o Ihe park
as i some gianI ice-cream scoop had been Iaken repeaIedly Io Ihe landscape. The
ancienI glacier IhaI carved Ihe valley where Crinnell Clacier now huddles againsI
Ihe sun lowed 30 miles (S0 kilomeIers) ouI onIo Ihe easIern MonIana plains and
leI iIs claw and scrape on Ihe surrounding mounIains Iwo Ihousand eeI (600 m)
above Ihe valley loor.
AIer Ihe hike Io Crinnell Clacier, Iurn around and you see a chain o lakes,
Crinnell, Josephine, SwiIcurrenI, Sherburne, and disIanI Duck Lake on Ihe
figure .9 lrom Lhe Crihhell Clacier cirque, lookihg easL, a chaih of glacier-fed lakes is
visible ih Lhe -shaped valley carved durihg Lhe lasL greaL ice age over 10,000 years ago.
1heir exLehL marks Lhe posiLioh of Lhe giahL ice sheeLs LhaL ohce flowed ouL of Lhese
mouhLaihs carvihg Lhe verLical cliff walls arouhd me. Wheh combihed wiLh a boaL Lrip,
Lhe Lrail up Lo Lhis spoL begihs aL Lhe ehd of Lake |osephihe, Lhe middle lake ih Lhis view
(1. Nordgreh).
horizon, each siIIing in a successively lower secIion o Ihe glacier-carved valley.
LaIeral moraines, where Ihe glacier's orce pushed aside debris and rubble, orm
Ihe long low mounIains hemming in Lake Sherburne. Each major lake and valley
wiIhin Ihe park Io easI and wesI o Ihe ConIinenIal Divide was ormed in jusI
such a way.
YeI as massive as Ihese rivers o ice were, maybe IhirIy Io orIy Iimes Ihicker
Ihan Ioday's Jackson Clacier (visible rom a roadside pullouI along Ihe Coing-Io-
Ihe-Sun Road), Ihey were uIIerly dwared in size by Ihe ice sheeIs moving souIh
rom Ihe ArcIic. To Ihe easI, Ihe LaurenIide Ice SheeI Iowered 10,000 eeI (30S0
m) high and ran as ar souIh as Colorado, Missouri, and Ohio. II carved ouI Ihe
many long narrow valleys o Ihe Einger Lakes in wesIern New York and gouged
ouI Ihe much more massive inland reshwaIer seas IhaI, in Iime, would become
Ihe CreaI Lakes. To Ihe wesI Ihe Cordilleran Ice SheeI swepI souIh inIo
\ashingIon and Oregon. \hen iI melIed, lood waIers ran aI a raIe Ien Iimes
greaIer Ihan all Ihe rivers o Ihe world combined.
On Mars, Ihe Argyre Basin is an ancienI craIer in Ihe cold, Ihin air o Ihe
souIhern highlands. Six hundred miles (1000 km) across, iIs heavily eroded
craIer walls have long since broken up inIo a series o ragged mounIains: Ihe
ChariIum MonIes. \hile no spacecraI has ever visiIed Ihese 20,000-ooI high
(6,100 m) peaks, or Ihe lasI orIy years NASA has been phoIographing Ihe
landscape rom orbiI wiIh a progression o ever higher resoluIion cameras.
Today, modern explorers need noI
Iramp Ihrough dark oresIs and cold
alpine rivers Io discover new canyons
and mounIain-peaks, insIead Ihey
musI wade Ihrough Iens o Ihou-
sands o images siIIing on hard-
drives in cluIIered universiIy oices
around Ihe world.
Je Kargel, is a planeIary scienIisI
and Froessor o Hydrology and
\aIer Resources aI Ihe UniversiIy o
Arizona. In 18, he was a graduaIe
sIudenI working on his FhD aI Ihe
UniversiIy o Arizona's Lunar and
FlaneIary Lab where he was sIudying
icy saIelliIes in Ihe ouIer Solar Sys-
Iem. One day, while Iaking a break
rom his Ihesis, he casually pored
over Viking OrbiIer phoIographs o
Mars. \hen his wanderings inally
broughI him Io Argyre he noIiced
eaIures unlike any he was expecIing
Io ind Ihere. AI Ihe base o Ihe
ChariIum MonIes, on Ihe smooIh
figure .10 1oday, Lhe 8erihg Clacier is Lhe
largesL ih NorLh America. lL is 120 miles (10
km) lohg ahd is visible ih souLheasL Alaska from
airlihe flighLs beLweeh SeaLLle ahd Ahchorage
(oh Lhe righL side of Lhe plahe as you head
horLh). 1he 8erihg Clacier is a piedmohL glacier,
a glacier LhaL begihs ih a valley buL Lheh flows
ouL ohLo a plaih. As such, iL is ah excellehL
model of Lhe glaciers LhaL ohce formed ih Lhe
Mahy Clacier, SL. Mary, ahd 1wo Medicihe
valleys of Clacier NaLiohal lark before flowihg
ouL ohLo Lhe plaihs of easLerh MohLaha (1.
Nordgreh).
figure .11 1he mouhLaihs of
souLherh Argyre oh Mars show sighs of
ahciehL glaciaLioh. 1his vikihg OrbiLer
daLa show meahderihg ripples oh Lhe
plaihs Lo Lhe upper lefL, LhoughL Lo be
glacial eskers. NoLice from Lhe
mouhLaih shadows, LhaL Lhe Suh is
shihihg from Lhe upper lefL, meahihg
LhaL Lhe ripples are raised above Lhe
surrouhdihg plaih. Sharp mouhLaih
ridges are LhoughL Lo be glacial are`Les,
wiLh humerous amphiLheaLer-like
cirques presehL ih Lheir shadows. Oh
Lhe lefL, a raised rocky mass (perhaps a
rock covered glacier) is visible flowihg
ouL of a valley ahd surrouhdihg Lhe
mouhLaih base (SCS}NASA).
plains o Argyre FlaniIia, Kargel saw a neIwork o long sinuous ridges IhaI looked
jusI like eskers he'd seen leI behind by Ihe LaurenIide ice sheeI in Ohio.
An esker orms when melIing waIer, dripping inside a glacier, orms a sIream
or river beIween Ihe buried ground and Ihe glacier above. As Ihe river grows
larger iI melIs Ihe ice around iI unIil evenIually an aquaIic subway Iube snakes
along Ihe ground under an arching, icy roo. DirI and rock, suspended wiIhin Ihe
melIing ice, seIIles Io Ihe loor o Ihe sub-glacial river, conined in place by Ihe
walls o ice on eiIher side. EvenIually Ihe glacier disappears compleIely and when
iI does, whaI remains is Ihe raised rock bed, conined or all Ihose years by Ihe
now vanished ice Iube Ihrough which Ihe sIream lowed. These are eskers, and
Ihese are exacIly whaI appeared Io be meandering across Ihe valley loor heading
ouI o Ihe ragged mounIains on Ihe souIhern edge o Argyre.
Once Kargel made Ihis connecIion and knew whaI Io look or, circular valleys
in Ihe ChariIum MonIes became glacial cirques, Ihin mounIain ridges became
areIes, and Iall lonely pyramids were MarIian MaIIerhorns. Ear ouI on Ihe Argyre
FlaniIia were ridges IhaI now looked like glacial moraines, while Ihe valleys Ihey
lowed rom had U-shaped cross secIions as perecI as Crinnell or SI. Mary Valley
back on EarIh. Soon a number o planeIary scienIisIs looking aI oIher mounIains
and canyons saw glacial signs all over Mars. \hile individually, each o Ihese
eaIures could be explained by oIher phenomena, Kargel's glacial hypoIhesis had
Ihe beneiI o being one single explanaIion IhaI described Ihem all. ThaI is a
powerul IraiI in a scienIiic Iheory.
Today Ihe aImospheric IemperaIure and pressure on Mars are Ioo low Io
supporI glaciers. \aIer ice sublimaIes (Iurns rom a solid direcIly inIo a gas) and
Ihe only ice sheeIs sIill moving across Ihe MarIian surace may be rock glaciers:
glaciers covered by layers o rubble, sand and boulders IhaI proIecI Ihe ice rom
sublimaIing away in Ihe Ihin MarIian aImosphere. OrbiIal spacecraI would
evenIually reveal many examples o whaI appeared Io be dirI-covered ice-sheeIs.
In 200S Ihe European Space
Agency's Mars Express orbiIer
phoIographed, on Ihe plains o
Elysium, whaI looks like a dusI-
covered sea o broken ice-raIs
jusI like Ihose in polar seas on
EarIh. BuI are Ihe coverings o
dusI and rock enough Io proIecI
Ihe ice o Ihis poIenIial ocean
(and Ihe oIher glacier-like ea-
Iures). Or, had all Ihe ice sub-
limaIed away a long Iime ago in
Ihe Ihin MarIian air (i, in acI, iI
was ever Ihere Io begin wiIh)7
Froo IhaI Ihere was sIill waIer
ice jusI beneaIh Ihe MarIian sur-
ace came Ihree years laIer, when
NASA's Fhoenix Mars Lander
phoIographed brighI whiIe ice
jusI beneaIh Ihe surace dusI o
iIs landing siIe near Ihe MarIian
NorIh Fole. Ice like Ihis may
Ihereore be locked away in cold
sIorage in many areas o presenI
day Mars. BuI whaI alIered Mars'
aImosphere7 \haI caused Ihe
climaIe Io change so dramaIi-
cally IhaI once lowing rivers are
now dry wiIh sand dunes, and
glaciers IhaI once carved glacial
valleys IhaI dwar EarIh's own are
now gone or Irapped orever
beneaIh Ihe rusIy red surace7
\haIever Mars may once have
been like, however warm and
weI, however EarIhlike, whaIever
lie may once have evolved Ihere
- or been jusI on Ihe verge o
doing so - all o iI was mosI likely
doomed rom Ihe very begin-
ning. In Ihe end, Mars mosI
likely died because o iIs size, Mars is small.
The sIory begins wiIh Mars' inIerior. Kargel and colleagues propose IhaI while
Mars has always had waIer, Ihe cold IemperaIures Ihere have always kepI much
o Ihis waIer rozen. Ice has Ihereore been jusI one more building block o Ihe
figure .12 NASA's Mars kecohhaissahce OrbiLer
capLures Lhis image of whaL may be a rock glacier
flowihg ouL of ah alcove ouL ohLo a valley floor,
similar Lo piedmohL glaciers (like Alaska's 8erihg
Clacier) oh EarLh. kadar observaLiohs from MkO
ihdicaLe LhaL Lhis regioh of Mars has a large reservoir
of subsurface ice, supporLihg Lhe possibiliLy LhaL Lhis
is ah acLive MarLiah glacier (NASA}|lL}hiversiLy of
Arizoha).
figure .13 Mars' Elysium llahiLia is a
low elevaLioh plahe LhaL may ohce
have beeh ah oceah wheh cohdiLiohs
oh Lhe ked llaheL were differehL. 1his
image, Lakeh by Lhe High kesoluLioh
SLereo Camera (HkSC) oh board ESA's
Mars Express spacecrafL, shows whaL
looks like dusL coverihg ah ahciehL sea
of floaLihg pack ice, similar Lo whaL we
fihd ih Lhe ArcLic Oceah oh EarLh (ESA}
DLk}l 8erlih (C. Neukum)).
figure .14 ''Holy Cow'' exclaimed
missioh sciehLisLs upoh geLLihg a look
beheaLh Lheir spacecrafL. Wheh NASA's
lhoehix Mars Lahder seL dowh hear Lhe
MarLiah NorLh lole iLs descehL rockeLs
(visible above) cleared away |usL ehough
dusL ahd rock Lo expose Lhe frozeh waLer
ice LhaL may have ohce flowed across Lhe
surface of Lhe plaheL (Marco Di Lorehzo,
KehheLh Kremer, lhoehix Missioh, NASA,
|lL, hiversiLy of Arizoha, Max llahck
lhsL., SpaceflighL).
MarIian crusI: a global permarosI like IhaI ound in norIhern counIries here on
EarIh. BuI, wiIh Ihis MarIian permarosI perpeIually near Ihe melIing poinI, all iI
would Iake Io be unleashed as waIer would be relaIively small changes in Ihe
aImospheric IemperaIure and pressure. AImospheres are a relecIion o planeIary
inIeriors. \hen planeIs are warm inside, Ihe rocks, meIals, liquids and gasses o
which Ihey're made slowly dierenIiaIe. Heavier meIals ooze downwards
Iowards Ihe core, while lighIer elemenIs like rocks and ice rise upwards Io Ihe
surace. Casses, Ihe lighIesI o all, escape Io Ihe surace Ihrough Ihe explosive
orce o volcanism. These planeIary burps are Ihe origin o aImospheres. I Ihe
planeI is large enough, iIs graviIy holds Ihese gasses and Ihe aImosphere builds
and Ihickens, Ioo small, like Ihe Moon or Mercury, and Ihe gasses driI away Io
space.
The primary gasses IhaI volcanoes release are carbon dioxide and waIer. Mars
possesses Ihe largesI volcanoes in Ihe Solar SysIem, and while Ihey appear Io be
exIincI now, aI some poinI in Ihe disIanI pasI Iheir erupIions musI have been
awe inspiring. Every mission Io Mars' surace has ound volcanic rocks liIIering
Ihe surace, and unIil NASA's OpporIuniIy rover in 2004 ound salIs and
sedimenIary rocks, noIhing else had ever been seen rom Ihe surace.
Olympus Mons on Mars is a single shield volcano 16 miles (2S km) high, Ihree
figure .15 Alaska's ML. kedoubL
erupLs oh March 30, 200. volcahic
gasses, ihcludihg waLer vapor ahd ash
rockeL 15,000 feeL (4.5 km) ihLo Lhe air
(HeaLher 8leick}Alaska volcaho
ObservaLory}SCS).
figure .1 vikihg OrbiLer image
mosaic of Olympus Mohs oh Mars.
kisihg 1 miles (25 km) above Lhe
surrouhdihg plaihs, Olympus Mohs is
Lhe LallesL volcaho ih Lhe Solar SysLem,
ahd is Lhe size of Lhe sLaLe of Arizoha (or
Lhe ehLire Hawaiiah islahd chaih) ih area.
lor comparisoh, ML. kedoubL, a Lypical
volcaho oh EarLh, is ohly a liLLle over 1.7
miles (2.7 km) Lall. 1he darker area
surrouhdihg Lhe cehLral caldera ih Lhe
image shows where Lhe summiL of
Olympus Mohs rises up beyohd much
of Mars' Lhih aLmosphere (|ody Swahh}
1ammy 8ecker}Alfred McEweh}NASA}
SCS).
Iimes higher Ihan MI. EveresI on EarIh, and as wide as Ihe sIaIe o Arizona. By
comparison, Ihe largesI shield volcano on EarIh is Mauna Loa in Hawai'i and iI rises
only 6 miles ( km) above Ihe submerged Faciic Ocean loor. As Ihe largesI volcano
Io have ever erupIed in our Solar SysIem, Ihe subIerranean heaI Olympus Mons
musI have generaIed would easily have melIed Ihe MarIian permarosI.
CarganIuan loodwaIers musI surely have raced across Ihe surace in Iidal waves
IhaI scoured ouI lood channels sIill visible rom orbiI and leI behind enormous
regions o collapsed chaoIic Ierrain. The carbon dioxide and waIer vapor released
by Ihese volcanoes would have enIered Ihe aImosphere and raised Ihe pressure and
global surace IemperaIure wiIh Iheir Ihermal blankeI o greenhouse proIecIion.
To undersIand how Ihe greenhouse eecI does Ihis, consider IhaI wheIher
lighI can pass easily Ihrough a gas depends on boIh Ihe Iype o lighI and Ihe Iype
o gas. \hiIe lighI is made up o all Ihe colors o Ihe rainbow. However, Ihere are
more Iypes o lighI Ihan whaI we can see wiIh our eyes. Beyond Ihe red end o
Ihe specIrum Ihere is inrared lighI. In Ihe same way IhaI very hoI objecIs like Ihe
Sun or an elecIriied wire in a lighI bulb give o visible lighI, cooler objecIs like
you and me, or even a black pavemenI on a summer day, give o lighI (or
energy) in Ihe inrared. This is why, or Ihe vasI majoriIy o warm Ihings we
encounIer in naIure, we associaIe inrared energy wiIh heaI.
CerIain gasses like Ihe oxygen in our aImosphere leI all Ihe colors o sunlighI's
rainbow pass easily Ihrough. OIher gasses, like carbon dioxide, are opaque Io
inrared. Visible lighI rom Ihe Sun passes downward Ihrough Ihe carbon dioxide
in our aImosphere. \hen Ihe energy IhaI sunlighI brings in heaIs up Ihe EarIh,
Ihe inrared energy iI emiIs cannoI pass back ouI unobsIrucIed.
\hile carbon dioxide makes up only 0.037% o Ihe EarIh's aImosphere, Ihis
plus Ihe waIer vapor in our aImosphere (anoIher greenhouse gas) is jusI enough
Io keep average surace IemperaIures above Ihe reezing poinI o waIer, wiIhouI
Ihis greenhouse eecI, Ihe world's oceans would reeze. \hen we sIand on a
mounIain Iop we experience a liIIle o whaI our planeI's Irue global surace
IemperaIure would be like wiIhouI Ihe beneiIs o greenhouse gasses. \iIh Ihem
we are a Coldilocks FlaneI: neiIher Ioo hoI, nor Ioo cold or Ihe lie as we know iI
Io have evolved and spread across iIs surace.
figure .17 CrahiLe lark ChaleL ahd
Lhe mouhLaih peaks of Clacier
NaLiohal lark are locaLed aL elevaLiohs
where average LemperaLures are
closer Lo whaL Lhe EarLh would
hormally have wiLhouL Lhe warmihg
effecLs of greehhouse gasses. 1he
Milky Way rises up from show-
flecked ML. Cahhoh Lo arch over ohe
of Lhe lasL remaihihg back-couhLry
hiker's chaleLs wiLhih Lhe park (1.
Nordgreh).
So while Ioday Mars's climaIe has more in common wiIh high alIiIude deserIs
on EarIh - like Ihe cold, dry, SouIh American AIacama FlaIeau aI an average
elevaIion o 13,000 I (4,000 m) - back when Olympus Mons was acIive, Ihe
condiIions were radically dierenI. Liquid waIer, reed rom Ihe icy conines o
permarosI, could have run reely across Ihe MarIian surace. Over Iime,
according Io Kargel and oIhers, Ihe waIers would gaIher by river and sIream Io
orm a Borealis Sea in Ihe greaI norIhern lowlands. The now rozen Sea o
Elysium may have been one componenI o Ihis aquaIic hemisphere. There Ihe
waIers would be joined by rainall rom an aImosphere newly supplied wiIh
abundanI waIer vapor and heaI.
To Ihe souIh, in Ihe high-elevaIion souIhern hemisphere, snow would all,
blankeIing Ihe mounIains and craIers in Ihe cold, Ihin, air. In Iime, Ihe snows
IhaI gaIhered on Ihe alpine plains and along shady canyon walls ormed Ihe
glaciers whose work we see in Argyre and Ihe IribuIary canyons o Valles
Marineris.
EvenIually, Ihough, Mars' inside cooled. Rocky worlds like Ihe EarIh are kepI
warm inside Ihrough nuclear power. RadioacIive elemenIs, like uranium, are a
naIural componenI o Ihe rocks ouI o which Ihe planeIs ormed. As Ihese
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elemenIs decay Ihey give o heaI keeping Iheir planeIary inIeriors warm. Small
planeIs are doubly cursed. NoI only do Ihey have less mass (and Ihus less
radioacIive elemenIs) Io generaIe heaI, whaI heaI Ihey do generaIe radiaIes away
Io space quicker. As Mars cooled, volcanism spuIIered and slowed. \iIhouI new
gasses replenishing iIs aImosphere, carbon dioxide carried ouI o Ihe air by rain
reacIed wiIh Ihe rocks and sea waIer, orming carbonaIe sedimenIs like
limesIone. The pressure dropped and Ihe greenhouse eecI alIered, Iempera-
Iures plummeIed and Ihe sea roze over.
Ferhaps Ihis warming cycle happened many Iimes, as volcanoes periodically
belched ouI Iheir remaining greenhouse gasses. In Iime, Ihough, Ihe cooling
eecIs o Ihe planeI's small size won ouI. The volcanoes died, Ihe surace cooled.
The rozen norIhern ocean and souIhern glaciers gradually evaporaIed inIo
noIhingness. I you've ever seen 'dry-ice,' Ihe solid ice o carbon dioxide, sIeam
and smoke as iI sublimaIes, Ihen you have seen Ihe aIe o Ihe MarIian glaciers.
EvenIually Ihe only waIer IhaI remained on Mars was rozen solid, locked
beneaIh Ihe proIecIive surace.
figure .19 1he image oh Lhe righL shows a perspecLive view of a series of craLers ih Lhe
Hellas regioh of Mars as Lhey appear Loday. kadar measuremehLs from Lhe Mars
kecohhaissahce OrbiLer spacecrafL show LhaL buried waLer ice is 820 fL (250 m) Lhick ih
Lhe upper craLer ahd grows Lo as Lhick as 1,500 fL (450 m) aL Lhe boLLom. 1oday Lhis ice is
proLecLed from sublimaLioh ih Lhe cold, Lhih MarLiah aLmosphere by overlyihg rock ahd
dusL, buL aL some poihL ih Lhe pasL, Lhe cohdiLiohs were almosL cerLaihly differehL
ehough LhaL Lhe ice glaciers freely flowed across Lhe surface (showh ih ah arLisL's
cohcepLioh oh Lhe lefL) (NASA}|lL-CalLech}1A}A}MSSS}ESA }DLk}|lL Solar SysLem
visualizaLioh lro|ecL).
BuI Ihis wasn'I Ihe only way Mars' small size doomed iI rom Ihe beginning.
Deep inside Ihe EarIh, our molIen iron core's consIanI moIion produces our
planeI's magneIic ield. Mars Ioo would once have had such a magneIic ield
ueled by iIs own molIen iron cenIer. BuI, once again, Mars cooled asIer Ihan we
and as iI did so iIs molIen meIallic core slowed and began Io solidiy. Mars'
magneIic ield weakened and ailed as Ihe core gradually solidiied and sIopped.
\iIhouI iIs proIecIive magneIic umbrella, Mars ell vicIim Io Ihe harsh weaIher
o Ihe solar winds. FroIons and elecIrons erupIing o Ihe Sun sIream ouIward
pasI Ihe planeIs aI speeds o up Io 2S0 miles per second (400 km}s) or more.
AIom by aIom, Mars' aImosphere was sIripped away as Ihese parIicles Iore inIo
iIs aImosphere, no longer delecIed by Ihe planeI's ormer magneIic ield.
The Ihick carbon dioxide and waIer vapor aImosphere IhaI proIecIed Mars'
surace and kepI Ihe days and nighIs above Ihe reezing poinI o waIer was ripped
rom Ihe planeI and wiIh iI Ihe IemperaIure and pressures aI Ihe surace plunged.
Once more Ihe Borealis Sea roze. The rivers dried. The MarIian glaciers
evaporaIed as no new snow accumulaIed and Ihe aImosphere leaked away Io a
poinI where Ihe rivers o ice slowly disappeared. Measured in Ihe long hisIory o
planeIs, whaI was one momenI solid as a rock, Ihe nexI momenI became as
ephemeral as gas.
As some combinaIion o boIh phenomena doomed Ihe cooling planeI, any
MarIian glaciologisIs Ihree billion years ago would surely have Iaken careul
noIes o Ihe greaI plumes o sIeam rising o Ihe icy ields. They would have
measured Ihe posiIions o new moraines deposiIed as Ihe glaciers' advance
halIed and Ihe ice disappeared around rocks newly revealed imbedded in Ihe
glacial walls.
Once enough o Mars' upper aImosphere was losI Io space, ulIravioleI rays
rom Ihe Sun could peneIraIe down inIo Ihe Ihinning aImosphere and break
aparI whaI liIIle waIer vapor was sIill presenI in Ihe air. The lighI hydrogren
aIoms escaped Io space. The newly reed oxygen chemically reacIed wiIh Ihe
dry rocks now liIIering Ihe planeI's surace. Iron in Ihe surace became iron-
oxide. Mars rusIed. Three billion years ago, Mars' deaIh Iurned Ihe Red FlaneI
red.
On Ihe Iimescale o Ihose hypoIheIical MarIian glaciologisIs, Ihe change
almosI cerIainly wasn'I overnighI and or a long Iime Ihe evidence musI surely
have been doubIed and debaIed. As Ihe solar acIiviIy peaked and paused over an
11-year cycle Ihere musI have been Iimes where iI looked as i Ihe changes were
sIopping, or perhaps even a weI warm summer and winIer here and Ihere gave
hope IhaI Ihe Irends had sIopped and reversed. Ferhaps a parIicularly cold year,
ollowed by a ew less cold would lead some Io claim IhaI Ihe planeI was now,
Ihankully, once again geIIing warmer. I imagine Ihose myIhical MarIians, and
wonder whaI Ihey would have IhoughI when Ihe news inally hiI home IhaI
Iheir planeI was dying. How long would iI have Iaken Ihem7 \haI would Ihey
have done7 \ho would Ihey have blamed7
Mars' glaciers dried up and evaporaIed. Ours are warming and melIing.
Though Ihe mechanisms are dierenI, Mars illusIraIes Ihe power o climaIes Io
change and Io do so permanenIly.
\haI Ihen o Ihe oIher planeIs7 Is
Ihere any lighI Ihey may shed on
whaI is happening on our own
planeI Ioday7
On a clear evening low Io Ihe
wesI, a sIar brighIer Ihan any oIher is
oIen visible long beore Ihe oIher
sIars have emerged rom Ihe lighI o
sunseI. And i noI, wake beore dawn
and iI will be Ihere, low Io Ihe easI,
shining brighIer Ihan all oIher hea-
venly bodies besides Ihe Moon. Erom
our vanIage poinI arIher ouI in Ihe
Solar SysIem, Ihe planeI Venus never
wanders very ar in Ihe sky rom Ihe
Sun IhaI iI orbiIs.
2
ApproximaIely
every S84 days, Ihe second planeI in
our Solar SysIem passes nearly beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun and changes rom an
evening sIar Io a morning one.
The Romans associaIed Venus wiIh Ihe goddess o beauIy, and iIs symbol is a
sIylized mirror, Ihe symbol or Eemale. The reason Venus is so beauIiully brighI
in a languid summer sky is a combinaIion o several acIors. EirsI, iI passes closer
Io us Ihan any oIher heavenly body excepI Ihe Moon. Second, iI is Iwice as big as
Mars, which is Ihe nexI closesI planeI Io us, and Ihird, Ihe surace is shrouded
compleIely in clouds, making iI one o Ihe mosI highly relecIive bodies in Ihe
Solar SysIem. In acI, as Venus begins Io draw close and overIake us in Ihe
evening sky, Ihere is a period o several weeks where Venus is so brighI IhaI Ihe
planeI is visible in broad daylighI, all day long, high in a clear blue sky.
The quesIion o whaI lay beneaIh Ihe brighI, all encompassing clouds has long
been a source o mysIery. Edgar Rice Burroughs, Iaking his cue rom Ihe besI IhaI
planeIary science had Io oer in Ihe early IwenIieIh cenIury, wroIe o sIeamy
jungles wiIh dinosaurs and beauIiul princesses advenIuring across a cloud
enshrouded planeI. Today we know IhaI shroud hides a surace under an
aImospheric pressure 0 Iimes IhaI o EarIh aI sea level. Dive six IenIhs o a mile
down inIo Ihe ocean here on EarIh and Ihe pressure o nearly a kilomeIer o
seawaIer above you will give you a good approximaIion o Ihe crushing pressures
weighing down on anyone merely sIanding on Ihe surace o Venus. Composed
almosI enIirely o carbon dioxide, iIs aImosphere's greenhouse properIies hold Ihe
planeI aI a nearly consIanI surace IemperaIure o 00. E (480. C, hoIIer Ihan mosI
ovens). TogeIher Ihe combined pressure and sIrengIh o Venus' carbon dioxide
figure .20 vehus seLs ih Lhe evehihg sky
above |acksoh Clacier wiLhih Clacier NaLiohal
lark (1. Nordgreh).
2
Eor example, you will never see Venus high overhead in Ihe sky aI midnighI.
blankeI mean Ihe scorching Iempera-
Iures never vary or cool rom pole Io
pole, or rom noon Io midnighI.
\hile prior Io Ihe space age no
asIronomers really held ouI hopes or
beauIiul Venusian princesses, Ihe
modern picIure o Venus is noI whaI
mosI expecIed Io evenIually ind
Ihere. Venus and EarIh are Iwins, iI
is almosI exacIly Ihe same size and
mass as Ihe EarIh and Ihereore has
Ihe same densiIy, implying Ihe same
composiIion. The ouIgassing IhaI
produced our planeIary aImospheres
should have produced Ihe same
gasses and produced Ihem in Ihe
same quanIiIies. So how did Ihe
EarIh and Venus wind up so dier-
enI7
On Ihe EarIh, Ihe waIer IhaI we've
ouIgassed over Ihe eons has condensed under Ihe cool local condiIions Io cover
Ihree quarIers o our planeI as oceans. The carbon dioxide, in Iurn, dissolved in
waIer where iI undergoes chemical reacIions Io orm carbonaIe rocks. The grey-
colored limesIone you see in layers o Ihe Helena EormaIion IhroughouI Clacier
NaIional Fark are jusI such carbonaIe rocks.
3
An invenIory o carbon-rich
sedimenIs on EarIh reveals IhaI we have 170,000 Iimes more carbon dioxide
locked up in our crusI Ihan is ound in our aImosphere and IhaI pound or pound
our planeI musI Ihereore have ouIgassed jusI as much carbon dioxide as Venus.
The limesIone rocks you see are one o Ihe reasons we never became Venus, and
we wouldn'I have Ihem had we noI had liquid waIer whose presence is all around
us. II is Ihanks Io our Coldilocks sIaIus, neiIher Ioo hoI nor Ioo cold or liquid
waIer Io exisI on our surace, IhaI we have Ihe condiIions righI or lie Ioday.
Ferhaps Ihen Ihe only imporIanI dierence beIween Ihe EarIh and Venus is
IhaI Venus is closer Io Ihe Sun. There buI or Ihe grace o orbiIal dynamics go we7
I IhaI is Irue, Ihen whaI i some unoreseen and compleIely unimaginable orce
moved Ihe EarIh Io Ihe same posiIion as Venus, only 72% as ar rom Ihe Sun as
we are now7 Ferhaps Ihe same aIe would beall us sIill7 AI such a disIance Ihe
increased sunlighI raises our planeI's IemperaIure by abouI SS. E (30. C), causing
a global average o over 110. E (43. C). Imagine a world where a simple, average,
ordinary day was as hoI as Fhoenix, Arizona aI noon in summer. Lakes and
3
\hile Ihe limesIone IhaI makes up Ihe Helena EormaIion is grey, Ihe parI o Ihe limesIone in
conIacI wiIh Ihe air slowly Iurns Ian as iI weaIhers. High on Ihe mounIain-sides look or Ihe
Ian layers Io see Ihe signs o Ihe Helena limesIones.
figure .21 vehus phoLographed by NASA's
lioheer-vehus spacecrafL ih ulLravioleL lighL (Lo
show deLail ih Lhe clouds) (NASA).
figure .22 1he surface of vehus looks like a flaL volcahic plaih where Lhe SovieL vehera
14 spacecrafL came Lo resL ih 182. 1he lahder survived ohly 0 mihuLes ih Lhe harsh
ehvirohmehL before succumbihg Lo LemperaLures greaLer Lhah Lhe ihLerior of ah oveh
ahd pressures hearly 100 Limes Lhe pressure aL sea-level oh EarLh. 1he arm reachihg ouL
from Lhe spacecrafL was sprihg-loaded ahd desighed Lo LesL Lhe compressibiliLy of Lhe
surface (a key ih uhdersLahdihg whaL iL is composed of). hforLuhaLely, Lhe arm lahded
oh Lhe camera's discarded lehs cap (New image processihg by 1ed SLryk).
shallow seas dry up, losing waIer Io evaporaIion, and every day becomes hoIIer
and more humid.
\aIer is a very poIenI greenhouse gas so Ihe more humid Ihe air, Ihe warmer
Ihe surace and Ihe more waIer evaporaIes. In Ihis way a posiIive eedback
4
is
inIroduced: higher IemperaIures produce more evaporaIion, puIIing more waIer
inIo Ihe air, which can hold more waIer vapor, causing even higher
IemperaIures. A runaway greenhouse eecI ensues and Ihe oceans o Ihe EarIh
evaporaIe. Under such a Sun, Ihe EarIh's carbonaIe rocks bake o Iheir Irapped
carbon dioxide gas and Ihe greenhouse eecI increases unIil Ihe combined eecI
o boIh gasses produces a planeI as hoI as Venus. Increased ulIravioleI lighI rom
Ihe Sun evenIually spliIs Ihe waIer vapor inIo hydrogen aIoms IhaI subsequenIly
escape Io space. The oxygen IhaI remains chemically reacIs wiIh minerals on Ihe
surace. Once compleIe, Ihe EarIh's remaining aImosphere conIains virIually
noIhing buI carbon dioxide aI levels nearly 200,000 Iimes iIs currenI amounI
and our IransormaIion inIo Venus is compleIe.
Is Ihis whaI happened Io Venus in our Solar SysIem's disIanI pasI7 Analysis o
Venus' aImosphere by Ihe European Space Agency's Venus Express spacecraI has
ound evidence IhaI Venus once had jusI as much waIer as Ihe EarIh. \aIer
conIains Iwo hydrogen aIoms or every oxygen. A hydrogen aIom is simply a
single proIon surrounded by a single elecIron. BuI abouI 1 in every S0,000
hydrogen nuclei also conIains a neuIron, producing an isoIope o hydrogen
called deuIerium. Since deuIerium is Iwice as heavy as hydrogen, when iI bonds
4
Here Ihe Ierm 'posiIive' means IhaI Ihe eedback mechanism eeds on iIsel. HoIIer
IemperaIures creaIe condiIions IhaI creaIe even hoIIer condiIions and Ihe IemperaIure grows
mercilessly wiIhouI conIrol. A 'negaIive' eedback is one in which Ihe eedback mechanism
halIs Ihe condiIions IhaI caused iI, and Ihus becomes sel-regulaIing.
wiIh oxygen iI orms a molecule called heavy waIer. \hen heavy waIer is
reIurned Io iIs componenI aIoms by Ihe ulIravioleI energy o sunlighI, less o Ihe
newly reed deuIerium manages Io escape away Io space as compared Io iIs
lighIer hydrogen cousin. In 2007 researchers using Venus Express deIecIed 1S0
Iimes more deuIerium in Venus' aImosphere as we have in our own. The
implicaIion is IhaI vasI amounIs o waIer (liIerally an ocean's worIh o waIer)
were once presenI in Ihe Venusian aImosphere and IhaI iI has since been
desIroyed by Ihe Sun's ulIravioleI lighI.
The image IhaI ires Ihe imaginaIion is IhaI perhaps Venus, like Mars, was
once habiIable by our sIandards. I so, one wonders or how long7 \as Ihere Iime
or any lie Io evolve beore Ihe climaIe changed irreversibly or Ihe worse7 Is iI
possible IhaI or aI leasI a liIIle while Ihere were Ihree neighboring worlds in our
Solar SysIem on which waIer lowed down mounIain valleys Io empIy inIo Ihree
dierenI planeIary seas7
Evidence or wheIher Ihis was ever a realiIy would almosI cerIainly resI in Ihe
chemisIry and composiIion o Ihe rocks ound on Venus Ioday. JusI as Ihe layers
in Ihe rock walls o Clacier NaIional Fark reveal loods, droughIs, seashores,
ocean boIIoms, and glaciers, so Ioo could Venus reveal iIs pasI Ihrough iIs
surace. Erom radar waves bounced o Venus' surace iI appears iI is a landscape
o hard dry rock wiIh evidence o no more Ihan a ew meager cenIimeIers o soil
or dusI Io cover Ihem. The rocks Ihemselves are almosI cerIainly volcanic. A
survey o Ihe planeI made by radar rom Ihe orbiIing Magellan spacecraI shows
signs o volcanism o massive proporIion. On Ihe very largesI scales are Iowering
mounIains like BeIa Regio rising Ihree miles (S km) above Ihe average planeIary
radius (Ihe closesI approximaIion we have Io a 'sea level') where Ihe upwelling
inIerior has sIreIched and broken Ihe crusI inIo greaI radial riI valleys.
On much smaller scales are such delicaIe eaIures as 'pancake' domes only a
hal mile high (0.8 km) where Ihick viscous lava oozed ouI o issures in Ihe
ground and solidiied in rounded mounds like Ihick baIIer on a hoI rying pan.
figure .23 lh Lhe 10s, NASA's
Magellah spacecrafL ih orbiL arouhd
vehus sehL radar waves dowh Lhrough
Lhe Lhick aLmosphere Lo bouhce off Lhe
hiddeh surface. kough ahd rocky
surfaces wiLh sharp edges reflecLed more
radar waves Lhah smooLh surfaces (a facL
LhaL is aL Lhe hearL of sLealLh Lechhology).
Combihed wiLh elevaLioh ihformaLioh
from ah ohboard alLimeLer, plaheLary
sciehLisLs cohsLrucLed Lhree-dimehsiohal
models of Lhe vehusiah surface
(alLhough Lhe elevaLioh ihformaLioh
has beeh exaggeraLed). Here rough,
radar-brighL, lava flows exLehd
huhdreds of kilomeLers over a smooLh, cracked plaih surrouhdihg Lhe 5 mile (8 km) Lall
volcahic peak of MaaL Mohs (NASA}|lL).
In beIween Ihese scales are circular
coronae where magma hoIspoIs
like Ihose under YellowsIone
NaIional Fark welled up, sIreIching
Ihe surace, and Ihen sank back
down again leaving behind a com-
plex series o concenIric ridges and
valleys like a collapsed cake resh
ouI o Ihe oven.
BuI one o Ihe mosI imporIanI
signs o planeI-wide volcanism is
Ihe scarciIy o craIers. In maps o
Ihe surace, Ihere are nowhere near
as many craIers as we see on Ihe
Moon or Mars. Like Ihe EarIh,
some process musI weaIher and
erode Ihe Venusian surace. BuI
unlike Ihe EarIh Ihere are no
oceans Io cover craIer loors, Ihere
are no rivers Io wash Ihem away,
Ihere are no IecIonic plaIes Io slide
under oIhers, raising mounIains
and wiping Ihe slaIe clean.
There are some craIers presenI,
some o Ihem quiIe large. BuI Ihe
acI IhaI Venus does noI look like
Ihe Moon means Ihe planeI was
resuraced somewhere around 600
million years ago Io such an exIenI
IhaI whaI happened Io Ihe surace
beore is now nowhere Io be seen.
\alk across Venus Ioday and whaI
you would see (in Ihe millisecond
beore you died) would look very much like Ihe lava ields o Hawai'i Volcanoes
NaIional Fark, minus Ihe surrounding rain oresI and IourisIs in lip-lops.
Also absenI on Venus are any signs o IecIonic plaIes like Ihe EarIh. There are
no massive conIinenIs, or low laI ocean loors. I Venus is so similar Io Ihe EarIh
in size, mass, and composiIion, why does Ihe planeI's geography appear so
dierenI7 One hypoIhesis goes back Io Ihe lack o waIer. FarI o Ihe lubricaIion
IhaI keeps Ihe EarIh's plaIes sliding along on Iop o one anoIher is Ihe waIer in
our planeI's manIle. Rock wiIhouI waIer would orm a crusI Ioo Ihick and sIrong,
wiIh Ioo much ricIion prevenIing Ihe sysIem o sliding, olding, buckling and
spreading IhaI moves Ihe plaIes across Ihe EarIh Ioday. As Venus losI iIs waIer
and iIs aImosphere superheaIed, so Ioo did iIs inIerior as Ihe inIernal heaI IhaI
drives IerresIrial plaIes no longer had an ouIleI. Such a buildup o heaI, iI is
figure .24 Magellah's radar capLured Lhis radar
image showihg where Lhick lava oozed up ouL of
fissures ih Lhe grouhd Lo slowly spread ouLward
across Lhe surface before solidifyihg. Cracks
formed as Lhe surface cooled. Each ''pahcake''
dome is abouL 1 miles (25 km) ih diameLer ahd
rises 2,500 fL (750 m) above Lhe dark, smooLh
plaihs (NASA}|lL).
hypoIhesized, is whaI led Io Ihe periodic erupIion and massive volcanic overIurn
o Ihe enIire Venusian crusI. Venus is a planeI IhaI rips iIsel aparI and Iurns iIsel
inside ouI every hal billion years or so, all as a resulI o Ihe Iragedy o iIs
aImosphere.
The waIer on Venus is gone orever. Venus has gone down a road rom which
iI can never recover. So Ioo on Mars, Ihe aImosphere IhaI was sIripped has led
Mars on a paIh rom which iI cannoI reIurn on iIs own. Their climaIes have
changed or good, yeI we do noI blame Ihese changes on ancienI Venusian
indusIrialisIs or chasIise MarIians or Iheir long-gone propensiIy or gas-guzzling
sporI uIiliIy vehicles. Their climaIes changed, buI Ihey did so on Iheir own.
The EarIh's climaIe has also changed on iIs own. Our planeI's changes, Ihough
signiicanI Io us, have been relaIively small compared wiIh our planeIary
siblings. The mosI recenI major change was Ihe end o Ihe lasI ice age abouI
10,000 years ago when Ihe global average surace IemperaIure was only a ew
degrees lower Ihan iI is Ioday. ObservaIions o deep-sea sedimenIs washed Ihere
by cycles o glaciaIion and Ihawing on land show IhaI during Ihe lasI 800,000
years Ihe lengIh o Iime beIween each new ice age has averaged abouI 100,000
years. Over Ihe lasI Iwo million years glaciers have covered greaI swaIhs o NorIh
America 20 Iimes. Every glacial eaIure you see wiIhin Clacier NaIional Fark
Ioday was caused by average global IemperaIures jusI a ew degrees cooler Ihan
Ihose Ioday.
S
Over Ihe lasI 800 mllon years, Ihe EarIh has undergone even larger
IemperaIure changes leading Io more exIreme ice ages on even longer Iimescales.
During Ihese Iimes, iI is IhoughI, Ihe EarIh may have experienced greaI snowball
periods where glaciers reached Ihe equaIor and Ihe seas roze Io a depIh o over
hal a mile (abouI a kilomeIer), ollowed by hoIhouse periods where Ihe glaciers
S
The primary cause or Ihese pasI periods o glaciaIion may be long Ierm lucIuaIions in Ihe
EarIh's orbiI, reerred Io as MilankoviIch cycles. Over a period o 100,000 years Ihe EarIh's
orbiI geIs gradually more and less ellipIical changing how much energy Ihe EarIh receives aI
closesI and arIhesI approaches Io Ihe Sun. RighI now Ihere is only a 3% dierence beIween
Ihese disIances, buI in Ihe disIanI pasI Ihe dierence was larger. AnoIher change is Ihe IilI o
Ihe EarIh's axis. Today Ihe EarIh is IilIed by 23.S degrees wiIh respecI Io Ihe Sun. Evidence
indicaIes IhaI Ihe EarIh's IilI changes by up Io 1.S degrees in eiIher direcIion over a period o
41,000 years. As Ihe EarIh's IilI becomes more exIreme, so do Ihe seasons. HoIIer summers
prevenI ice building up in winIer, shrinking glaciers and ice caps. A smaller IilI allows less
lighI Io reach Ihe poles, cooling Ihem and causing ice sheeIs Io expand. The inal change is
Ihe direcIion IhaI Ihe EarIh's norIh pole poinIs. Over a period o 26,000 years Ihe direcIion
our axis poinIs in space draws ouI a greaI circle in Ihe sky. This direcIion aecIs when Ihe
seasons occur. RighI now norIhern hemisphere summer acIually occurs when Ihe EarIh is
arIher rom Ihe Sun Ihan iI is when iI is winIer. In 10,000 years or so Ihe posiIion will be
reversed and norIhern hemisphere seasons will become more exIreme. NoIice, however, IhaI
all o Ihese changes due Io graviIaIional Iugs on Ihe EarIh by Ihe Sun, Moon and oIher
planeIs creaIe changes over Iens o Ihousands o years. None o Ihese orbiIal eecIs produce
rapid changes on Ihe order o only hundreds o years.
melIed compleIely and no ice-caps remained. BuI even during Ihese enormous
swings, sIill small on an asIronomical scale, Ihe EarIh's climaIe has sIayed sIable
Io Ihe poinI IhaI IemperaIures were never so low IhaI all our liquid waIer became
locked up in ice, nor so high IhaI iI all evaporaIed inIo Ihe aImosphere.
The remarkable IhermosIaI IhaI has kepI us in Ihis goldilocks climaIe, even
while Ihe Sun has increased in brighIness by nearly 30% over Ihe hisIory o Ihe
planeI, is due Io Ihe unique combinaIion o gasses in our aImosphere, minerals
on our surace, and abundanI seas o liquid waIer.
\hile carbon dioxide is conIinuously removed rom Ihe aImosphere Ihrough
Ihe respiraIion o planI-lie, iI also dissolves in liquid waIer dropleIs, leaving Ihe
aImosphere as a mild orm o carbonic acid rain. \here Ihis rain alls Io land, Ihe
weak acid slowly eaIs away aI rocks and minerals in Ihe landscape. The beauIiul
arches and hoodoos o UIah and Ihe American souIhwesI are a producI o Ihe
global carbon cycle. Rivers and sIreams carry Ihese eroded minerals down raging
canyons Io Ihe seas where Ihey seIIle Io Ihe boIIom and reacI wiIh carbon
dioxide dissolved in sea waIer Io produce calcium carbonaIe rocks: limesIone.
The slow movemenI o conIinenIal plaIes sliding over Ihe lower, denser,
ocean-boIIom plaIes orces Ihe sealoor crusI down inIo Ihe EarIh's hoI manIle.
Here, high IemperaIures melI Ihe ocean crusI, releasing Ihe carbon dioxide inIo
roIhy, bubbling magma IhaI rises and expands Io explode violenIly aI Ihe
figure .25 Eohs of raih, show, ahd ice have eroded a fairy-Lale lahdscape ih Lhe colorful
rock layers of Lah's 8ryce Cahyoh NaLiohal lark. A flashlighL records Lhe passage of
Lime from a hiker descehdihg ihLo Lhe cahyoh's maze (1. Nordgreh).
surace rom Ihe summiIs o volcanoes. All around Ihe Faciic Ocean is a 'Ring o
Eire', volcanoes powered by Ihe melIing o Ihe Faciic crusI as iI is slowly covered
by Ihe conIinenIs Io wesI and easI. \iIh Ihe erupIions o volcanoes like MI. SI.
Helens in \ashingIon SIaIe, Ihe carbon dioxide is released back inIo Ihe
aImosphere and Ihe global carbon cycle is compleIe.
II is Ihis remarkable cycle IhaI seIs up a negaIive eedback mechanism IhaI
allows Ihe EarIh's IemperaIure Io remain so remarkably sIable over millions o
years. I, or example, IemperaIures all Ioo much, less moisIure can sIay
suspended in Ihe air and Ihe aImosphere dries ouI. Rainall decreases and wiIh iI
less carbon dioxide is removed rom Ihe aImosphere. As volcanoes conIinue Io
erupI Ihe concenIraIion o carbon dioxide in Ihe aImosphere begins Io increase.
\iIh Ihe increasing concenIraIion o greenhouse gasses, Ihe planeI warms back
up. Raise Ihe IemperaIure Ioo much Ihough, and Ihe amounI o moisIure Ihe
aImosphere can hold increases Ioo. \iIh more waIer in Ihe aImosphere Ihere is
now more rain. \iIh increased rainall, more carbon dioxide is removed rom
Ihe air, reducing iIs concenIraIion o greenhouse gasses. The IemperaIure alls.
BuI Ihe cycle is noI insIanIaneous. II requires volcanoes and Ihe moIion o
conIinenIal plaIes IhaI move aI a noI quiIe glacial pace o one Io Iwo inches per
year (abouI Ihe same raIe IhaI your ingernails grow). Models o our planeI and
iIs aImosphere show IhaI Ihe Iimescales or sIabilizing carbon dioxide levels
Ihrough Ihe negaIive eedback mechanism o Ihe carbon cycle is on Ihe order o
a hundred Ihousand years. Thus ice ages naIurally occur, ollowed over hundreds
o Ihousands o years by warm periods.
6
Civen Ihese naIural changes, Ihe power o volcanoes, Ihe enormous size o Ihe
EarIh, and Ihe awe inspiring energy o Ihe Sun, iI really is hard Io believe IhaI
Ihere is anyIhing human beings could do Io signiicanIly aecI our aImosphere
or Ihe climaIe. BuI Ihe power o lie Io alIer a planeI's climaIe is all around us.
The very air we breaIhe, Ihe oxygen IhaI gives us lie and colors Ihe sky blue, is
Ihe wasIe producI o lie. Like Ihe rocks on Mars, oxygen in Ihe aImosphere
quickly oxidizes iron Iurning Ihe landscape red. In order Io be a major
componenI o our aImosphere iI musI be conIinuously replenished by lie.
High in Ihe Helena EormaIion limesIone are one billion year old ossils
revealed by Ihe reIreaIing Crinnell Clacier. The ossils look like concenIraIions o
gianI concenIric circles, whaI Ihey are are sIromaIoliIes and Ihey record some o
Ihe earliesI known orms o lie on EarIh. A sIromaIoliIe is a large cabbage-shaped
knob o limesIone creaIed by Ihe respiraIion o masses o aquaIic cyanobacIeria
(commonly called blue-green algae). To see Ihese sIone remnanIs o ancienI
bacIeria colonies is Io look back nearly a quarIer o Ihe age o Ihe EarIh. During
6
On Venus, Ihere can be no carbon dioxide cycle or IhermosIaI. \iIhouI rain or liquid oceans
Ihere is noIhing Io remove carbon dioxide rom Ihe aImosphere. \iIh no plaIe IecIonics,
Ihere is no means or recycling crusI back inIo Ihe inIerior. The only geologic process sIill aI
work on Venus is volcanism, which only serves Io puI more carbon dioxide inIo Ihe
aImosphere, orcing Ihe greenhouse eecI in one consIanI direcIion.
figure .2 8acLeria colohies, formihg
sLrucLures called sLromaLoliLes, were ohe of
Lhe origihal forms of life oh EarLh over a
billioh years ago. 8ack Lheh Lhey were
fouhd ih shallow seas all over Lhe world ahd
were Lhe domihahL form of life. 1oday,
sLromaLoliLes are ohly fouhd ih a couple
places oh EarLh, Lhese are parL of Lhe
Hamelih lool Marihe NaLure keserve ih
WesLerh AusLralia. NoLice Lhe ripples oh Lhe
seafloor ahd compare Lhem Lo Lhose
recorded ih Lhe mudsLohes of Lhe ahciehL
seafloor ih Lhe mouhLaihs of ligure .7
(Warwick Hillier).
figure .27 Crihhell Clacier huddles
beLweeh Lhe melL waLers of Lhe lake ahd
Lhe shadowed rock wall LhaL marks Lhe
CohLihehLal Divide. lh Lhe foregrouhd, Lhe
glacier's reLreaL uhcovered Lhe fossilized
remaihs of billioh year old sLromaLoliLes.
1hese colohies of blue-greeh algae, like
Lhose ih WesLerh AusLralia, were shaped
like giahL cabbages. kepeaLed glaciaLioh
plahed Lhe rock flaL revealihg Lhe
cohcehLric algal cross-secLiohs. llaLe
LecLohics have lifLed Lhe remaihs of Lhese
aquaLic life forms uhLil Lhey how siL uhder
a cloudless sky ,500 feeL (1,80 m) above sea level (1. Nordgreh).
Ihe Iime Ihese simple organisms were alive in shallow seas Ihey Iransormed Ihe
EarIh's aImosphere rom one composed largely o carbon dioxide (which Ihe
cyanobacIeria breaIhed in rom Ihe seawaIer) Io an aImosphere composed
largely o oxygen (which Ihe cyanobacIeria breaIhed ouI). Their polluIion
changed Ihe world and seI Ihe planeIary sIage or animal lie as we know iI
The evidence IhaI we are doing whaI Ihe sIromaIoliIes did is measured in Ihe
concenIraIions o aImospheric carbon dioxide. Air bubbles Irapped in glacial ice
Iells us whaI Ihe composiIion was o our aImosphere over Ihe lasI several
hundred Ihousand years. The deeper Ihe ice, Ihe arIher back in Iime we can sni
Ihe air o Ihe planeI IhaI once was. MeasuremenIs show periods o aImospheric
carbon dioxide lucIuaIions IhaI vary beIween abouI 200 and 2S0 parIs per
million (ppm, meaning molecules o carbon dioxide per million molecules o
air). These variaIions in concenIraIion o abouI 2S% occur over periods o
100,000 years. As predicIed by Ihe models o Ihe carbon cycle, wiIh each increase
in aImospheric carbon dioxide came an increase in globally averaged Iempera-
Iure.
Beginning abouI 10,000 years ago, Ihe EarIh's aImospheric carbon dioxide
levels once more began Io increase, pulling Ihe planeI ouI o Ihe lasI greaI ice age
and ending Ihe reign o Ihe gianI glaciers IhaI carved Ihe U-shaped valleys
figure .28 Carboh dioxide cohcehLraLiohs ih parLs per millioh (ppm) ih Lhe
aLmosphere are showh over Lhe lasL 400,000 years. lce cores ih AhLarcLica reveal Lihy
bubbles of EarLh's aLmosphere, Lrapped wheh Lhe shows LhaL made Lhe ice firsL fell.
1emperaLure variaLiohs over Lhis same Lime period are deLermihed by chahges ih Lhe ice
iLself. As basic chemisLry ahd Lhe carboh cycle predicLs, wheh Lhere's more carboh
dioxide ih Lhe aLmosphere, LemperaLures ihcrease. ALmospheric carboh dioxide levels
durihg Lhe lasL 10,000 years (Lhe grey box) are showh ih greaLer deLail ih Lhe Lop pahel
of ligure .2. 1he backgrouhd image is Lhe shrihkihg lorLage Clacier souLh of
Ahchorage, Alaska ((carboh dioxide ice cores) LaboraLoire de Claciologie eL de
Ceophysique de l'EhvirohhemehL}ArcLic ahd AhLarcLic kesearch lhsLiLuLe, (ice
LemperaLure) LaboraLoire de Claciologie eL de Ceophysique de l'EhvirohhemehL}
LaboraLoire des Sciehces du ClimaL eL de l'EhvirohmehL }ArcLic ahd AhLarcLic kesearch
lhsLiLuLe, (glacier image) 1. Nordgreh).
around me here in Clacier NaIional Fark. ConcenIraIions o carbon dioxide
sIeadily increased, unIil abouI 18S0 when, wiIh Ihe rise o indusIrialism in Ihe
norIhern hemisphere, Ihe raIe o increase iIsel increased. AImospheric carbon
dioxide levels have increased hal again over Ihe lasI 200 years, asIer Ihan aI any
Iime, and surpassing any levels seen, in Ihe lasI 400,000 years. The U.S.
EnvironmenIal FroIecIion Agency predicIs IhaI i observed Irends conIinue,
aImospheric carbon dioxide levels measured in Ihe 10s will double by 2030.
And wiIh Ihe carbon comes Ihe heaI.
I saw my irsI glacier when I moved Io Alaska as a boy aI Ihe age o 10. ForIage
Clacier was my 'neighborhood' glacier jusI an hour's ride down Ihe Seward
Highway rom Anchorage. I vividly remember sIanding wiIh my broIher on Ihe
edge o Ihe glacial lake as Ihe howling, rigid wind nearly blew us inIo Ihe waIer.
In Ihe disIance we could see ForIage Clacier winding down Ihe valley and inIo
Ihe waIer where gianI icebergs gaIhered rom Ihe ronI o Ihe loaIing ice sheeI.
TwenIy ive years laIer I reIurned Io ind a modern visiIor cenIer builI on Ihe
spoI where my broIher and I once sIood. Fanoramic windows looked ouI onIo
ForIage Lake, excepI Ihere was no longer any glacier Io be seen. In less Ihan my
lieIime iI had receded so ar around Ihe surrounding mounIains IhaI iI was no
longer visible rom Ihe visiIor cenIer IhaI had been builI or iI. Today, a IhirIy-
minuIe boaI ride Iakes you around Ihe bend Io where Ihe ice now sIands, much
o iIs base now resIing on rock. Beore
Ioo many more years iI will no longer
even reach Ihe lake IhaI bears iIs name.
This is a sIory repeaIed all over Ihe
world and IhroughouI Clacier NaIional
Fark. Ask any long Iime visiIor or park
employee and Ihey will Iell you sIories
o whaI Ihe glaciers looked like when
Ihey irsI sIarIed coming here. OuI o
1S0 glaciers esIimaIed Io have exisIed
in 18S0, over Iwo-Ihirds had disap-
peared by 168. \iIhin a decade Ihose
will be essenIially gone as well.
Daniel Eagre is Research EcologisI
and DirecIor o Ihe ClimaIe Change in
MounIain EcosysIems FrojecI or Ihe
NorIhern Rocky MounIain Science
CenIer o Ihe U.S. Ceological Survey
aI Clacier NaIional Fark. Since 11
he's sIudied changes in Ihe alpine
ecosysIems o Ihe norIhern Rockies. AI
irsI, when iI came Io Iopics such as
'climaIe change' and 'global warming'
Eagre was skepIical. ''The idea IhaI we
could change Ihe energy balance o Ihe
planeI7 II was like someone saying
'Hey, leI's change Ihe planeI's orbiI.'''
Today is a piercing blue day, like
many in Ihe mounIains. II's cool in Ihe
shade, buI surprisingly warm in Ihe
sunlighI, and above iI all Ihe sky rises Io
heighIs o elecIric blue. Eagre has hiked
wiIh me up Ihe long Irail rom Ihe
Many Clacier HoIel on Ihe shores o
SwiIcurrenI Lake Io where Crinnell
Clacier siIs in iIs cirque beneaIh Ihe
rough and ragged IeeIh o Ihe Con-
IinenIal Divide. AIer hiking ive miles
(8 km) Ihrough a summer day even
more beauIiul Ihan all Ihe posIcards
promise, we pause high up on Ihe inner
rim o Ihe ancienI glacial gorge, and
Eagre reaches ouI Io Ihe valley wiIh a
wave o his arm.
''Ceorge Bird Crinnell,'' he Iells me,
figure .29 Chahges ih greehhouse gases
from ice core ahd moderh daLa. ALmospheric
cohcehLraLiohs of carboh dioxide, meLhahe
ahd hiLrous oxide over Lhe lasL 10,000 years
(large pahels) ahd sihce 1750 (ihseL pahels).
MeasuremehLs are showh from ice cores
(symbols wiLh differehL colors for differehL
sLudies) ahd aLmospheric samples (red lihes)
(lhLergoverhmehLal lahel oh ClimaLe Chahge
lourLh AssessmehL keporL, ClimaLe Chahge
2007, SyhLhesis keporL (WCl ligure SlM.1)).
''Ihe irsI ediIor o whaI would
become lclJ anJ Strcam magazine
was one o Ihe irsI easIerners Io
campaign or preservaIion o Ihe
region. In 188S he was ouI here on
vacaIion and Iramped around Ihe
whole area. Exploring down in Ihe
valley below, he came across Ihe
aquamarine lakes IhaI are so unique
Io glacial landscapes. Knowing
enough abouI glacial geology he
knew a glacier had Io be nearby and
so he seI ouI Io ind iI in 1887, a
diiculI prospecI in Ihose days,
when Ihe valley and mounIain
slopes were sIill covered in snow or
much o Ihe year.'' Eagre, pauses Io
chuckle, ''Crinnell JscovcrcJ Ihe gla-
cier by Ihe means mosI olks used
back Ihen, he hired a local NaIive
American guide who knew where Ihe
glacier was.''
AI IhaI Iime Ihere were no Irails
and so Ihe Iwo men and Iheir horses
jusI bushwacked sIraighI up Ihe
valley loor. EvenIually, Ihey mana-
ged Io climb, wiIh all Iheir equip-
menI righI up Ihe series o waIeralls
IhaI runs down Ihe sIeeply sloped
valley's head. There, beneaIh Ihe
cirque where Ihe glacier saI, Ihey
were righI aI a level wiIh where we
are now. ''There Crinnell said he saw Ihe edge o Ihe glacier, an ice wall a
Ihousand eeI high (300 meIers) and several miles wide. The enIire cirque was
one big glacier wiIh jusI a Iiny rim o rock where Ihe waIerall is now.''
Today iI is mosIly a lake. \e can'I even see Ihe glacier rom where we are now.
Eagre Iurns back Io me, ''Only abouI 10% o Ihe glacier remains Ioday.'' SIarIing
around 120 and lasIing a liIIle over Iwo decades, a series o droughIs and hoI
summers caused glaciers all over Ihe park Io sIarI reIreaIing. EvenIually Ihey did
so by as much as Ihree hundred eeI (100 meIers) a year.
As o 166 when aerial surveys were inally compleIed wiIhin Ihe park,
researchers ound rom Ihe posiIions o moraines IhaI Ihere were 1S0 places
where glaciers had deiniIely been as o Ihe Iime o Iheir greaIesI exIenI in 18S0.
As o 2008, Ihere are only 26 sIill remaining in Ihe park, 84% o Ihe original ice
cover is now gone. Eagre looks back up Ihe valley aI Ihe glaciers IhaI sIill cling Io
figure .30 1his pair of phoLographs shows
sighificahL chahges over |usL 5 years wiLhih
Clacier NaLiohal lark. Here ah ice cave ih
8oulder Clacier was a popular locaLioh for pack
Lrips as evidehced by Lhe park visiLors ahd Lheir
cowboy guide. lh 188, lark kahger |erry
DeSahLo re-phoLographed Lhe same scehe,
dramaLically illusLraLihg Lhe disappearahce of
Lhe cave ahd Lhe glacier iLself ((132) Ceorge
CrahL, courLesy of CNl archive, (188) |erry
DeSahLo, SCS).
figure .31 1hree phoLographs reveal
Lhe chahges ih Crihhell Clacier from
hear Lhe head of Lake |osephihe. 1he
Lop phoLograph reveals Lhe ehormous
exLehL of Lhe glacier from sooh afLer iLs
''discovery'' by Ceorge 8ird Crihhell ih
1887. NoLice Lhe greaL wall of ice LhaL
covers hearly Lhe ehLire bowl aL Lhe
head of Lhe valley. 1he hexL Lwo
phoLographs from 33, ahd 120 years
laLer are Lakeh from a slighLly differehL,
buL similar locaLioh, hear Lhe presehL
day fooLbridge oh Lhe Lrail LhaL leads up
Lo Lhe glacier. 8y 120, sighificahL
shrihkage of Lhe glacier had already
beguh, buL Lhe glacial ice masses
wiLhih Lhe cirque were sLill combihed.
8y 2007, Crihhell Clacier is ho lohger
visible from Lhis vahLage poihL. Ohly
Lhe how separaLe Salamahder Clacier
remaihs ih Lhe view ((1887) LieuLehahL
8eacoh, CNl archives, (120) 1.|.
Hilemah, CNl archives, (2007) 1.
Nordgreh).
shady spoIs in Ihe rocks: Iiny Cem Clacier IhaI hangs beside a window in Ihe
Ihin areIe aI Ihe conIinenI's midline, and larger Salamander Clacier IhaI was
once parI o Crinnell Clacier buI has since broken o as Ihe larger glacier receded
back inIo Ihe shade. ''ThaI's a relecIion o climaIe change or Ihe lasI cenIury,
and iI's almosI Iwice Ihe global average,'' he said. ''The upper elevaIions, Ihe
mounIains, world wide, have all experienced Ihis. The higher you go in elevaIion
iI sIill geIs cold, iI's jusI IhaI iI geIs less cold Ihan iI used Io.''
SIarIing in 12 Eagre began working wiIh Myrna Hall aI Ihe SIaIe UniversiIy
o New York, on a projecI Io model Ihe uIure growIh o glaciers wiIhin Ihe park
and whaI eecI Iheir change would have on Ihe ecosysIem IhaI has grown Io
Iake advanIage o Iheir presence. They analyzed a hundred years o IemperaIure
and precipiIaIion measuremenIs rom communiIies surrounding Clacier
NaIional Fark. They measured Ihe reIreaI o glaciers based on daIing moraines
and Iree-rings in Irees IhaI grew as glaciers reIreaIed. Erom Ihese daIa, Ihey ound
IhaI Ihey can explain 2% o Ihe glacier ice melI by looking aI only Iwo Ihings:
average summer IemperaIure and average winIer precipiIaIion. In addiIion Ihey
ound IhaI Ihere was a 2S year lag in response Io glaciers: cooling in Ihe 1S0s led
Io minor advances o several glaciers in Ihe 170s. However, now IhaI once larger
glaciers in Ihe 1S0s have become small cirque glaciers in Ihe 10s, Ihe response
Iime has shrunk Io as liIIle as a decade.
To predicI whaI would happen in Ihe uIure, Ihey applied Iheir models Io Ihe
U.S. EnvironmenIal FroIecIion Agency's projecIions or average summer
IemperaIures Ihrough 20S0. Based on currenI Irends, Ihese projecIions anIicipaIe
IhaI Ihe EarIh's aImospheric carbon dioxide concenIraIion will double by 20S0
resulIing in a global average IemperaIure increase o 4.S. E (2.S. C). Because a
warmer aImosphere can hold and release more moisIure, one poIenIial
consequence o Ihe EFA's projecIions is an increase in winIer precipiIaIion. I
so, Ihe increase in winIer snowall would soIen Ihe eecIs o higher summer
IemperaIures and Ihe glacial reIreaI mighI slow. \haI Ihey discovered was jusI
Ihe opposiIe. In 2003 Ihey published Iheir resulIs wiIh Ihe sIarIling conclusion
IhaI by 2030 Ihe glaciers would be hisIory.
''\e had some IrepidaIion abouI Ihe claim in our paper. There were all Ihe
jokes abouI whaI would you call Clacier NaIional Fark aIer all Ihe glaciers were
gone. And iI jusI seemed a biI radical, glaciers have been here in Ihese mounIains
or 7,000 years and possibly longer, and we're saying iI's all going Io go away in
jusI a ew decades7 \e elI like we were sIicking our necks way ouI, and we were,
buI in Ihe wrong direcIion.''
Eagre, pauses and Iakes a momenI Io explain Ihe someIimes glacial progress o
Ihe scienIiic process. ''\e began Ihe model described in Ihe 2003 paper using
Ihe daIa we had Ihrough 10 and Ihen projecIed Ihe glacier sIaIus or each
decade aIer IhaI. In 2008 Myrna Hall looked aI Ihe 17 years o new daIa Io
compare Ihem wiIh Ihe predicIions we had made. II Iurns ouI when we look aI
Ihe glacial parameIers we have now - Ihe size, exIenI, and raIe o melIing we see
now - we are abouI 10 years ahead o when we IhoughI we would be. II Iurns ouI
we were Ioo cauIious. \haI Ihis is Ielling us is change is happening much asIer,
iI's much more pervasive and Io a much greaIer exIenI. Today, cold years wiIh
loIs o snow are merely whaI normal years used Io be. \e have now surpassed
Ihe hoIIesI period or which Ihere are any records. \hen you consider Ihese
glaciers have been here, in one orm or anoIher, or 7,000 years, and now, on Ihe
basis o our models, we are saying IhaI Ihe glaciers will be essenIially gone by
2020, we are looking aI a unique 7,000 year evenI occurring in Ihe nexI 12
years.''
\e boIh look up aI where Crinnell's glacier resIs ouI o sighI. By Ihe end o
Ihe decade Ihe glaciers will be gone. \e are aI a pivoIal momenI in geologic
hisIory. II is Ihis generaIion IhaI will wiIness Ihe end o IiIanic orces IhaI have
shaped Ihe landscape in one orm or anoIher or Iens o Ihousands o years. BuI
so whaI7
Beyond alpine aesIheIics, why should we care7 Back in his oice Eagre Iells me
IhaI we are all inIimaIely Iied Io glaciers in a wealIh o ways we don'I oIen
realize. Hal o all waIer we use comes rom mounIains, so mosI o humaniIy is
closely Iied Io whaI happens Ihere. ''The irony is IhaI Ihe mounIains are
changing asIer Ihan any oIher place excepI Ihe ArcIic and AnIarcIic, and we are
Iied Io mounIains or our waIer on a global basis. Here in Ihe arid American wesI,
8S% o Ihe waIer we are dependenI upon or growing our ood, waIering our
lawns, illing our swimming pools, puIIing ice in our drinks, all comes rom Ihe
mounIains. And glaciers are a baromeIer or whaI's going on here. You can scc
Ihem, where you can'I see carbon aIoms. They can be phoIographed and
everyone can recognize IhaI when iI's hoI, Ihey melI. They are also poliIically
very imparIial, Ihey aren'I conservaIive or liberal, Republican or DemocraI. They
jusI siI Ihere in Iheir relaIion Io Ihe climaIe and mosI imporIanIly Ihey don'I
adapI. FlanIs and animals, as IemperaIures sIarI Io geI warmer, Ihey can Iry Io
change behavior Io Iry and keep up. Maybe a planI blooms or an animal migraIes
a liIIle earlier or a liIIle laIer and or a Iime masks IhaI Ihere is a problem. BuI
glaciers have noIhing Ihey can do, Ihey're Ihe perecI baromeIer or whaI is
going on.''
In Hall and Eagre's 2003 paper Ihey wroIe IhaI because o Ihe Iime iI Iakes or
glaciers Io orm, low and melI, Ihey do noI respond easily Io year-Io-year
variabiliIy, buI raIher provide an excellenI measure o decadal climaIe Irends.
Erom Ihe global reIreaI o glaciers we Ihus have direcI evidence o real long-Ierm
climaIic changes and noI jusI Iemporary lucIuaIions o a warm summer or Iwo.
Clacier reIreaI in naIural, proIecIed ecosysIems like Clacier NaIional Fark
Ihereore serves as an early warning sysIem, much like caged canaries in a coal
mine, providing Ihe irsI examples o climaIe and ecosysIem changes on
oIherwise prisIine environmenIs.
\e now know IhaI by using IemperaIure and precipiIaIion proxies, such as
Iree-ring widIhs, borehole IemperaIures, layers o ice in glaciers, and growIh
paIIerns o coral, Ihe mean global IemperaIure is higher now Ihan iI has been aI
any Iime in Ihe lasI 1,000 years wiIh a IemperaIure increase over Ihe pasI Iwo
decades IhaI is larger in boIh raIe and magniIude Ihan any seen during Ihe lasI
millennium. Based on sIudy o growIh and shrinkage paIIerns o Ihe alpine
glaciers wiIhin Ihe park, oIher researchers esIimaIe IhaI Ihe warming in alpine
regions during Ihe IwenIieIh cenIury may be as greaI as any cenIury or Ihe lasI
10,000 years.
\hile Ihe EarIh is sel-regulaIing, and by iIsel has sel-correcIing eedback
mechanisms, in each o humaniIy's acIions over Ihe lasI Ien Ihousand years we
are orcing changes IhaI have sel-ampljyng eedbacks. The rise o our indusIry
occurred aI a Iime when much o Ihe norIhern hemisphere was coming ouI o a
period o relaIively minor cooling called Ihe 'LiIIle Ice-Age.' Carbon dioxide
levels and IemperaIures were increasing, Ihe modern alpine glaciers o Ihe world
were beginning Io reIreaI, and Io Ihis we added Io Ihe air Ihe carbon wasIe o our
indusIry. Coal, oil, and naIural gas are all carbon compounds IhaI like carbonaIe
rocks are ways in which aImospheric carbon dioxide has been locked up in Ihe
EarIh's crusI. Like all green planIs Ioday, ancienI planIs breaIhed in carbon
dioxide in order Io live. They released Ihe oxygen Io our aImosphere and
reIained Ihe carbon in Iheir bodies. Over millions o years o burial, compression,
heaIing and Iime, Ihe carbon in Ihe decayed planI maIerial became Ihe 'ossil'
uels we are currenIly digging up. As we release Ihe carbon back inIo Ihe air
Ihrough our modern lives, we are adding back in only a ew hundred years whaI
Ihe planeI spenI millions o years removing.
On Iop o Ihis, our clear-cuIIing o lush, dense, oresIs or agriculIure removes
a source o naIural carbon dioxide exIracIion rom Ihe aImosphere. In Ihe
Amazon rainoresI, much o Ihe clear-cuIIing or animal grazing is accomplished
by ires. SooI, rom oresI-clearing and Ihe burning o coal in acIories
7
has slowly
seIIled on ice ields in Ihe arcIic. The black o Ihe sooI absorbs Ihe Sun's energy
where previously whiIe snowields relecIed iI. Like black asphalI on a summer's
day, Ihe sooIy surace heaIs up, increasing Ihe melIing o ice. As ice sheeIs melI,
Ihe dark rock, or darker ocean waIers IhaI are revealed absorb even more heaI
compared Io Ihe previous highly relecIive ice, and Ihe amounI o heaI absorbed
by Ihe EarIh conIinues Io increase. A posiIive eedback develops as Ihe brighI
melIing snows expose dark rock or ocean waIers IhaI as Ihey absorb increasingly
more solar energy, heaI Ihe planeI and melI even more relecIive ice.
Through Ihese ampliying eedback processes, planeIary scienIisIs conclude
IhaI Ihe orces we humans apply Io our climaIe, when applied aI criIical Iimes
and in criIical ways, really do have Ihe abiliIy Io change our planeI's climaIe or
Ihe worse. Our planeI, jusI like Venus and Mars, goes Ihrough naIural climaIe
swings. \e are lucky in IhaI unlike eiIher o Ihose planeIs whose swings have
Iaken Ihem ar rom where Ihey once began, our sel-regulaIing carbon cycle
keeps our swings in check. BuI like a parenI pushing a child on a swing, push aI
Ihe wrong Iime, and Ihe angry child goes nowhere, push in Ihe righI way, aI Ihe
righI Iime, and Ihe child goes higher Ihan she ever could have on her own.
The power o science is in iIs abiliIy Io make predicIions and Io improve iIs
models by Ihe repeaIed IesIing o Ihose predicIions. A number o Ihe climaIe
scienIisIs Ioday working on modeling and predicIing Ihe eecIs o human-
induced climaIe change developed Ihe underlying physics o Iheir models by
sIudying Ihe greaIesI IesI-case or greenhouse gasses: Venus.
Models predicIing Ihe eecIs o each o Ihe many conIribuIors Io global
warming (clearcuIs, sooI, decreased relecIion rom albedo, eIc.) have subse-
quenIly been compared Io Ihe observaIions o whaI's acIually happened. As in
Eagre's model, Ihe predicIed rise in global average IemperaIures and subsequenI
eecIs on Ihe ground have been conirmed - or ound Io be Ioo conservaIive,
raIher Ihan Ioo exIreme. Unless someIhing changes, eiIher in our planeI or
ourselves, Ihe predicIions or Ihe coming cenIury are seriously disquieIing.
7
Fercival Lowell, Ihe oremosI observer o Mars aI Ihe dawn o Ihe IwenIieIh cenIury, wroIe
IhaI one o Ihe reasons he led Ihe American NorIheasI in order Io locaIe his Ielescope in Ihe
wilds o 1800s Arizona TerriIory was Io escape Ihe eecIs o greaI sooIy clouds IhaI hung over
Ihe indusIrialized ciIies o Ihe EasI bloIIing ouI Ihe lighI o Ihe sIars.
figure .32 Comparisoh beLweeh global
meah surface LemperaLure ahomalies
(chahges relaLive Lo Lhe period 101 Lo
150) from observaLiohs (black) ahd
differehL climaLe models. 1he models ih
(a) ihclude boLh haLural effecLs forcihg
climaLe chahge as well as mah-made
(ahLhropogehic) effecLs. 1he models ih (b)
ohly Lake ihLo accouhL haLural forces. lor
models wiLh ahLhropogehic ahd haLural
models: ihdividual simulaLiohs are showh
ih yellow, while Lhe meah is showh as a
Lhick red curve. lor ohly haLural forcihg
models, Lhe ihdividual models are showh
ih lighL blue wiLh Lhe Lhick blue curve
represehLihg Lhe meah. verLical grey lihes
ihdicaLe Lhe Limihg of ma|or volcahic
evehLs. 1he key resulL is LhaL models
ihcludihg ohly haLural effecLs upoh Lhe
world's climaLe do hoL accuraLely reflecL
Lhe observed chahges. Ohly Lhose models
LhaL also ihclude Lhe ihfluehce we humahs
are havihg oh Lhe plaheL, do
(lhLergoverhmehLal lahel oh ClimaLe
Chahge lourLh AssessmehL keporL,
Workihg Croup l keporL, ''1he lhysical Sciehce 8asis,'' 2007).
As IemperaIures rise, growing seasons o planIs and animals will be alIered,
aecIing balances IhaI have been in place or Ihousands o years. Many cool
weaIher species will see Iheir habiIaIs shrink and vanish jusI as surely as i Ihey'd
been paved over wiIh ciIies. Disease-carrying insecIs (like malaria-carrying
mosquiIos) will advance inIo regions IhaI have never been exposed Io Ihem
beore. The elevaIion aI which Irees can grow will exIend up and over many
mounIains in Ihe Sierras and Rockies Io such an exIenI IhaI Ihe alpine Iundra
and Iheir meadows o wildlowers will be bulldozed under by an onrushing wave
o oreign grasses and Irees. No more ields o blue Explorer's CenIian, no more
meadows o pink SIonecrop. And alpine swaIhs o pale Fearly EverlasIing won'I
be.
\iIh Ihe melIing o glaciers worldwide, including Ihe greaI ice sheeIs
covering Creenland and AnIarcIica, sea levels will rise as all IhaI resh waIer
makes iIs way rom mounIainIop Io ocean. CoasIlines will be inundaIed,
displacing billions o people. And or Ihose living inland, say goodbye Io Ihe
saeIy neI IhaI glacier melIwaIer oered when Ihe lasI o Ihe winIer's snow melIs
in Ihe heighI o summer. Rivers, sIreams and waIeralls IhaI used Io run year
round, will now dry up in Ihe warmer monIhs. Everyone downsIream, and IhaI
includes all o us, will eel Ihis loss. \esI o Ihe Mississippi River and Hudson's
Bay, everyone depends on Ihe Rocky MounIains or waIer, and all o NorIh
America depends on Ihe American \esI or ood. In many ways, large and small,
we are all ed by glaciers.
And while we may look back aI Ihe record o previous aImospheric changes
wiIh opIimism IhaI lie has obviously survived, iI is imporIanI Io know IhaI a
billion years ago when carbon dioxide was ar more prevalenI in our aImosphere
Ihan iI is Ioday, sIromaIoliIes were Ihe dominanI orm o lie on EarIh. Thanks Io
Ihe oxygen aImosphere IhaI Iheir wasIe gasses produced, oxygen breaIhing
organisms colonized Ihe world, and sIromaIoliIes are now virIually exIincI. A
billion years rom now I wonder who or whaI will be Ihanking us or whaI we
have wroughI during Ihis cenIury.
Over Ihe lasI S0 years, Ihe roboIic exploraIion o Ihe planeIs has shown Ihere
are no oIher hospiIable planeIs in our Solar SysIem. A hundred years ago, well
educaIed science icIion wriIers could sIir Ihe imaginaIion wiIh Iales o
princesses on Venus and ighIing men on Mars. As a resulI o our spacecraI
we now know any princesses would be poisoned, crushed, and burned, and any
ighIing men would be asphyxiaIed, irradiaIed and rozen. And Ihese are Ihe
mosI EarIhlike planeIs we have yeI ound. \hile one way o looking aI Ihe
hisIory o NASA mighI be as one long crush o childhood hopes and dreams, o
Iurning a living solar sysIem inIo a dead one, Ihe naIural consequence o Ihese
cold hard acIs is IhaI now more Ihan ever we undersIand Ihe EarIh is precious.
Look around you aI Ihe Irees, Ihe waIeralls, Ihe snow-capped peaks and arched
over all is a vaulI o proIecIive blue. The dierence beIween lie and lielessness
on Ihis one single habiIable world is our aImosphere, no Ihicker Ihan Ihe skin o
an apple in comparison Io iIs size. ThaI's all Ihere is beIween us and Ihe vacuum,
IhaI single skin o blue beIween us and Ihe all encompassing, ininiIe dark.
\e now know Ihe only way we will ever ind anoIher habiIable planeI will be
i we make one ourselves. To Iransorm such a world in our own image is a
process called Ierraorming. O all Ihe planeIs we mighI Ierraorm, Ihe mosI
likely is Mars. To do so, we would need Io irsI increase Ihe amounI o
greenhouse gasses in Ihe aImosphere. \e mighI seed iIs icy polar caps wiIh some
sorI o dark maIerial Io make Ihem less relecIive and absorb more heaI rom Ihe
figure .33 Ah asLrohauL oh
board Lhe lhLerhaLiohal Space
SLaLioh Look Lhis phoLograph
of Lhe Mooh Lhrough Lhe pale
blue aLmosphere LhaL shrouds
our plaheL (lmage Sciehce ahd
Ahalysis LaboraLory, NASA
|ohhsoh Space CehLer, ''1he
CaLeway Lo AsLrohauL
lhoLography of EarLh'').
figure .34 Oh April , 2008, Lhe |apah Aerospace ExploraLioh Agehcy (|AXA)
spacecrafL hamed Kaguya (Selehe) capLured Lhe full EarLh risihg over Lhe airless luhar
limb (|AXA}NHK).
Sun. As Ihey melI Ihey will expose more o Ihe dark red surace, urIher absorbing
Ihe Sun's warm glow and raising Ihe planeI's IemperaIure. EvaporaIing waIer and
carbon dioxide ice would once more raise Ihe aImospheric pressure and increase
Ihe planeI's greenhouse eecI. Rock glaciers and subIerranean ices could melI
and liquid waIer could low once more across Ihe surace. Such a Iask, Ihe
engineering o a world, would be Ihe mosI highly planned and precisely
conIrolled scienIiic and engineering underIaking in all o human hisIory.
And yeI, ironically, Ihis is exacIly whaI we are currenIly doing Io our own
world, buI here we are doing iI wiIh as liIIle planning, moniIoring, or conIrol as
possible. Every counIry on EarIh wiIh a coal-powered planI and anyone around
Ihe world who drives a car is a reelance engineer in Ihe Ierraorming o our own
planeI. The problem o course, is IhaI we are already Ierraormed. \haI we are
doing Io Ihe planeI and iIs naIural sysIems - Io Ihe only EarIh we have - needs a
new name Io relecI Ihe accumulaIed eecIs o our acIions. \haI we've already
begun on Ihis planeI is mosI accuraIely described by Ihe world we are aIIempIing
Io become: we are Venusiorming Ihe EarIh. Though Ihere is no plan, no
organizing body, no group o brillianI engineers in HousIon or Los Angeles, Ihe
experimenI has already begun, and Ihe iniIial daIa reporIs are in. The quesIion is
now: will we cancel Ihis projecI, or waiI Io see wheIher all Ihe predicIions prove
Irue7
See for yourseIf: greenhouse pIanets
Venus in evening and morning
FoinI a small Ielescope, or 20, power binoculars, aI Venus, and you will see iIs
sunliI disk, as well as Ihe acI (irsI seen by Calileo) IhaI iI goes Ihrough phases
like Ihe Moon. \hen Venus is abouI Io pass behind Ihe Sun, or has jusI come ouI
rom behind iI, you will see iIs ully liI side and Ihe disk will be small (Venus is
nearly on Ihe oIher side o Ihe Sun as seen rom EarIh). \hen Venus has begun
Io pass beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun, or has jusI inished doing so, you will see iIs
mosIly unliI, nighI side, and Venus will appear as a large crescenI (Venus is now
closer Ihan any oIher planeI Io Ihe EarIh). \hen Venus 'rounds Ihe corner'
beIween near and ar sides o Ihe Sun as seen rom EarIh, we see hal a disk, as we
see equal parIs day and nighI on Venus. The ollowing Iable lisIs Ihe approximaIe
daIes IhaI Venus is visible in evening and morning, as well as during whaI
monIhs iI appears aI iIs dierenI phases.
The 'FosiIion' column gives iIs posiIion in Ihe sky (easI and wesI, and angle up
rom Ihe horizon in degrees) 30 minuIes aIer sunseI or IhaI monIh when Venus
''rounds Ihe corner'' and is visible as a hal disk. AI Ihis Iime, Venus is aI iIs
greaIesI apparenI disIance rom Ihe Sun. FosiIions are shown or Ihe mid
laIiIudes o Ihe UniIed SIaIes.
Table 6.1 Venus as an evenlng and mornlng star
Venus VisibIe in vening Venus VisibIe in Morning
fuII to HaIf Pos. HaIf to Crescent Crescent to HaIf Pos. HaIf to fuII
leb~Aug 2010 WSW 20 Aug~OcL 2010 OcL 2010~|ah 2011 SE 30 |ah~|uly 2011
OcL 2011~ W 45 Apr~|uh 2012 |uh~Aug 2012 E 35 Aug 2012~
Apr 2012 |ah 2013
Apr~Nov 2013 SW 15 Nov 2013~ |ah~Mar 2014 SE 20 Mar~SepL 2014
|ah 2014
Nov 2014~ W 35 |uh~Aug 2015 Aug~OcL 2015 SE 40 OcL~May 201
|uh 2015
|uly 201~ SW 35 |ah~Mar 2017 Mar~|uh 2017 E 20 |uh~Dec 2017
|ah 2017
leb~Aug 2018 WSW 20 Aug~OcL 2018 OcL 2018~|ah 201 SE 30 |ah~|uly 201
SepL 201~ W 45 Mar~|uh 2020 |uh~Aug 2020 E 35 Aug~leb 2021
Mar 2020
Apr~OcL 2021 SW 15 OcL 2021~ |ah~Mar 2022 SE 20 Mar~SepL 2022
|ah 2022
Nov 2022~ W 30 |uh~Aug 2023 Aug~OcL 2023 ESE 40 OcL~May 2024
|uh 2023
|uly 2024~ SW 35 |ah~Mar 2025 Mar~May 2025 E 20 May~Dec 2025
|ah 2025
1he sizes ahd phases of vehus as seeh from EarLh. While Lhe apparehL sizes of vehus,
over Lhe course of iLs orbiL are correcL, Lhey are hoL Lo scale wiLh Lhe EarLh, Lhe Suh, or
Lheir disLahce from Lhe Suh. Wheh vehus is Lo Lhe lefL of Lhe Suh (as viewed from Lhe
horLherh hemisphere) vehus is Lhe Evehihg SLar. AfLer passihg beLweeh us ahd Lhe Suh,
vehus becomes Lhe Morhihg SLar (1. Nordgreh).
1he posiLioh, phase, ahd maghiLude (brighLhess) of vehus is showh aL ohe mohLh
ihLervals. 1he relaLive sizes of Lhe disk are correcL, buL hoL Lo scale wiLh respecL Lo Lhe
horizoh or Lheir posiLioh ih Lhe sky (1. Nordgreh).
Transit of Venus
On June 6, 2012, as Venus passes rom evening Io morning sIar iI crosses direcIly
beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun. Venus lasI did Ihis in 2004 buI will noI do so again
unIil 2117. The ollowing igure and Iable show Ihe apparenI moIion o Venus
across Ihe disk o Ihe Sun. Under no circumsIances should you look aI Ihe Sun
wiIhouI Ihe aid o an appropriaIe solar ilIer. Do NOT poinI a Ielescope or
binoculars aI Ihe Sun unless Ihey are covered by a solar ilIer designed especially
or IhaI purpose. One way Io saely observe Ihis evenI is Io make a small pin-hole
in one end o a shoe-box and place a whiIe piece o paper on Ihe inside o Ihe
opposiIe end. FoinI Ihe pin-hole aI Ihe Sun and iI will projecI an image o Ihe
Sun and Ihe shadow o Venus, onIo Ihe screen aI Ihe oIher end.
1he posiLioh of vehus as viewed across Lhe surface of Lhe Suh durihg Lhe |uhe 2012
LrahsiL (lred Espehak, NASA Coddard Space llighL CehLer).
Table 6.2 Vlslblllty of the 2012 translt of Venus
Day Location VisibIe
|uh 2012, afLerhooh Hawaii EhLire 1rahsiL visible
|uh 2012, afLerhooh Alaska ahd N. Cahada EhLire 1rahsiL visible
|uh 2012, afLerhooh NorLh America 1rahsiL ih lrogress aL SuhseL
|uh 2012, afLerhooh CehLral America, N.W. 1rahsiL ih lrogress aL SuhseL
SouLh America
|uh 2012, highL S. ahd E. SouLh America No 1rahsiL visible, NighL
7 |uh 2012, highL lorLugal, W. Africa No 1rahsiL visible, NighL
7 |uh 2012, morhihg CreaL 8riLaih, Europe 1rahsiL ih lrogress aL Suhrise
7 |uh 2012, morhihg Mid. EasL, E. Africa 1rahsiL ih lrogress aL Suhrise
7 |uh 2012, morhihg lhdiah Oceah, CehLral Asia 1rahsiL ih lrogress aL Suhrise
7 |uh 2012, morhihg |apah, Koreas, E. Chiha EhLire 1rahsiL visible
7 |uh 2012, morhihg E. AusLralia EhLire 1rahsiL visible
7 |uh 2012, midday W. lacific EhLire 1rahsiL visible
}7 |uh 2012, highL AhLarcLica No 1rahsiL visible, NighL
1rahsiL daLa courLesy of lred Espehak, NASA Coddard Space llighL CehLer.
GrinneII GIacier repeat photography, 1900~2007
Eor Ihe lasI several decades, Ihe U.S. Ceological Survey has documenIed Ihe
changing condiIions in Clacier NaIional Fark by re-phoIographing Ihe rapidly
shrinking glaciers. The ollowing Iwo phoIographs show Crinnell Clacier, one o
Ihe mosI easily accessible glaciers, Iaken rom Ihe same posiIion over 100 years
aparI. The phoIograph rom 2007 clearly shows how Ihe original glacier in 100
has spliI in Iwo, wiIh Crinnell Clacier now invisible rom Ihis locaIion, while Ihe
upper porIion, called Salamander Clacier, is sIill ound mosIly in shade. Smaller
Cem glacier is locaIed high up on Ihe rock wall Io Ihe leI. VisiIors Io Ihis same
spoI will be able Io documenI Ihe inal disappearance o Ihese remaining glaciers
(expecIed Io happen by 2020). The phoIographs were Iaken rom Ihe well
mainIained park Irail leading rom Ihe Lake Josephine boaI dock (in Ihe Many
Clacier secIion o Ihe park) Io Ihe base o Crinnell Clacier iIsel (7.8 miles round
Irip, wiIh 1600 I elevaIion gain) aI CFS coordinaIes o: 48. 46' 26''.378 N., 113.
42' 11''.26 \. Notc that thc hcst photographs jor comparson arc talcn n August.
Photographs talcn n }unc anJ }uly may stll show rcccnt snow n thc arca, ohscurng
thc glaccr's currcnt cxtcnt.
1wo phoLographs, Lakeh ih 100 ahd 2007, showihg Crihhell Clacier, ohe of Lhe mosL
easily accessible glaciers ((100) l. E. MaLLhes, courLesy SCS Archives, (2007) 1.
Nordgreh).
further reading
Mars - A Warmcr, Wcttcr Planct by Jerey S. Kargel (2004)
Springer Fraxis, ISBN 18S233S688
Vcnus RcvcalcJ. A Ncw Lool Bclow thc ClouJs oj Our Mystcrous Twn PlancI by
David Harry Crinspoon (18)
Basic Books, ISBN 02013283
Vcnus n Transt by Eli Maor (2004)
FrinceIon UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 06111S83
Gcology Along Gong-To-Thc-Sun RoaJ by Omar B. Raup (183)
Ealcon Fress Fublishing, ISBN 03431811S
U.S. Ceological Survey's Clacier NaIional Fark RepeaI FhoIography FrojecI
hIIp:}}www.nrmsc.usgs.gov}repeaIphoIo}overview.hIm
The NASA Coddard InsIiIuIe or Space SIudies, perhaps Ihe leading U.S. research
siIe or global climaIe change
hIIp:}}www.giss.nasa.gov}
How Io prepare Io see Ihe 2012 IransiI o Venus
hIIp:}}www.IransiIovenus.org}
7
Autumn Moon
Thc Man who has sccn thc rsng moon hrcal out oj thc clouJs at mJnght
has hccn prcscnt llc an archangcl at thc crcaton oj lght anJ thc worlJ.
Ralph \aldo Emerson
The cosmos isn'I jusI or Ihose who live under prisIine skies in unspoiled corners
o Ihe mounIain-wesI. Ear more people live easI o Ihe Mississippi River Ihan wesI
o iI and hal Ihe world's populaIion now lives in ciIies and Iheir suburbs. \hen I
made plans Io Iravel Io Ihe CreaI Smoky MounIains in easIern Tennessee or Ihis
book, everyone I Iold reIurned Ihe same blank sIare. II was as i Ihey were Irying
Io ind a way o drawing my aIIenIion Io Ihe acI iI was called Ihe ''Smokies'' or a
reason, as i I jusI hadn'I quiIe noIiced Ihe name. \hen even Ihe Fark Ranger
wiIh whom I arranged Ihis Irip had Ihe very same reacIion, I knew I had Io jusIiy
why Ihis park was included in my plans. AIer all, i Ihe skies aren'I clear, and Ihe
lush green woods wiIhin Ihe park aren'I exacIly a IerresIrial analog o anyIhing
we're aware o on any oIher planeI, Ihen why on EarIh am I even here7 \haI
does an asIronomer see in a place like CreaI Smoky MounIains NaIional Fark7
I'm here in laIe OcIober and Ihe mounIains are in ull all splendor, radiaIing
waves o yellow and orange. II's one o Ihose gloriously perecI all aIernoons
when Ihe park is aI iIs busiesI wiIh olks having come rom all over Ihe souIheasI
Io see Ihe Smokies' colors. Seasons are an asIronomical phenomenon buI one
IhaI mosI people misundersIand. \hen asked abouI Ihe reason, Ihe popular
response is IhaI summer and winIer are due Io Ihe EarIh's dierenI disIances
rom Ihe Sun. I iI's winIer, we musI be arIher rom Ihe Sun Ihan in summer. BuI
i Ihis were Ihe case, Ihen every locaIion on EarIh would experience Ihe same
season aI Ihe same Iime. BuI while Ihe nighIs here in NorIh America are jusI now
beginning Io geI chilly and Ihe lush greens o summer give way Io Ihe golds o
figure 7.1 Clouds blow
Lhrough CreaL Smoky
MouhLaihs NaLiohal lark
(1. Nordgreh).
figure 7.2 lall colors bursL ouL alohg Newfouhd Cap, Lhe lowesL rouLe crossihg Lhe
Smokies (1. Nordgreh).
all, my riends in AusIralia are jusI now seeing Ihe irsI lowers o spring and
looking ondly Iowards Ihe lazy days o summer. \hile we in Ihe norIh sing
songs o whiIe ChrisImas, Ihose souIh o Ihe equaIor are IreaIed Io ChrisImas in
summer and swim-suiIs.
1
The seasons are acIually Ihe resulI o Ihe EarIh's IilI on iIs axis. As our planeI
orbiIs Ihe Sun, iIs axis o roIaIion is IilIed rom Ihe verIical by an angle o 23.S
degrees. This angle keeps our norIh pole poinIed Iowards Ihe disIanI sIar Folaris,
which we Ihereore call Ihe NorIh SIar. During June and July Ihe Sun and Folaris
are o in Ihe same direcIion and our norIh pole (and Ihus norIhern hemisphere)
IilIs Iowards Ihe Sun. AI Ihese Iimes Ihe Sun rises in Ihe norIheasI, passes high
overhead when iIs lighI shines nearly sIraighI down on us, and Ihen seIs Io Ihe
norIhwesI. II's summer.
Six monIhs laIer, when Ihe EarIh is on Ihe opposiIe side o Ihe Sun, our norIh
pole sIill poinIs Iowards Folaris buI now Ihis means iI IilIs away rom Ihe Sun.
The Sun rises Iowards Ihe souIheasI, never geIs very ar above Ihe souIhern
horizon aI noon, and seIs Io Ihe souIhwesI.
Now IhaI Ihe Sun no longer shines sIraighI down on us and is insIead low Io
Ihe souIh, all iIs warming energy arrives aI an angle. Every ray o lighI is spread
ouI over a larger area Ihan iI was in June, and every spoI in Ihe norIhern
hemisphere receives a liIIle less energy Ihan iI did in summer. In addiIion, by
rising in Ihe souIheasI and seIIing in Ihe souIhwesI, Ihe Sun spends less Iime in
Ihe sky - Ihe days are shorIer - and so boIh eecIs conspire Io render Ihe days
cooler Ihan in summer. \inIer has come Io Ihe norIh.
Leay Irees sense Ihe shorIer days and, once nighIs are long enough, Ihey
begin Io sIore up energy or Ihe coming winIer by blocking Ihe circulaIion o
1
AcIually Ihe EarIh's orbiI is almosI perecIly circular, wiIh a maximum change in disIance o
no more Ihan 3%. To add insulI Io injury, Ihe EarIh is righI now acIually closer Io Ihe Sun in
December Ihan iI is in June (Ihough Ihis slowly changes over Ihousands o years).
figure 7.3 1he EarLh's LilL gives rise Lo Lhe seasohs as iL orbiLs Lhe Suh. DifferehL
hemispheres of Lhe EarLh receive more or less direcL suhlighL depehdihg oh wheLher
Lhey are currehLly LilLed Lowards or away from Lhe Suh. Also, depehdihg upoh which
side of Lhe Suh Lhe EarLh is oh, differehL sLars are visible aL highL (1. Nordgreh).
nuIrienIs Io Ihe leaves. Since
Ihe green chlorophyll IhaI
gives leaves Iheir color musI
be conIinually replenished,
Ihis halI in Ihe low allows
Ihe lea's naIural pigmenIs Io
emerge. Soon meadows, val-
leys and hills, rom New
England Io Ihe Smokies are
alive in Ihe iery colors o a
all.
Because we are on Ihe
opposiIe side o Ihe Sun in
winIer Ihan we are in sum-
mer, dierenI sIars are visible
aI nighI aI dierenI Iimes o
year. The rise o old amiliar
consIellaIions, noI seen or
nearly a year, is a way many culIures IhroughouI hisIory have kepI Irack o Ihe
coming seasons. Eollow Ihe Appalachian Trail norIh Ihrough CreaI Smoky
MounIains NaIional Fark and iI leads you Ihe enIire lengIh o Ihe mounIain
figure 7.4 1he hardwood foresLs alohg Lhe koarihg lork
MoLor NaLure 1rail are ablaze wiLh color as Lhe lohger
highLs of fall Lake over from Lhe lazy days of summer (1.
Nordgreh).
Autumn Moon 22
figure 7.5 A close-up of Lhe park map showihg Lhe Smoky MouhLaihs ahd Lhe places l
visiLed wiLhih Lhe park (NlS).
chain, all Ihe way up Io Maine. ThaI ar
norIh, Ihe Fole SIar is higher overhead
Ihan iI was in Ihe souIh, and many
more sIars are visible all nighI long as
Ihey circle around Folaris. One such
consIellaIion o sIars is Ursa Major, Ihe
CreaI Bear. In European IradiIion Ihe
bear includes Ihe amiliar Big Dipper
wiIh Ihe handle or iIs Iail (which has
always baled me given IhaI bears have
only exIremely shorI Iails).
Eor many American Indian Iribes o
NorIh America, rom Ihe Micmac, Abe-
naki, and Iroquois o Maine and Ihe
American norIheasI back down Ihe
Appalachians Io Ihe Cherokee o NorIh
figure 7. Each highL Lhe sLars ih Lhe horLh
circle arouhd Lhe NorLh SLar, hever seLLihg
beheaLh Lhe horizoh. Here ih Maihe, ouLside
Acadia NaLiohal lark, Lhe NorLh SLar is always
high ih Lhe sky (alLhough hiddeh here behihd
Lhe graceful sLohe carriage road bridge over
Duck 8rook) (1. Nordgreh).
figure 7.7 Maples Lurh red wiLh Lhe comihg of fall (1. Nordgreh).
Carolina and Tennessee, Ihese same sIars also orm a bear. However, insIead o a
Iail, Ihe Ihree sIars IhaI make up Ihe handle o Ihe dipper are Ihree hunIers in
eIernal pursuiI. Audrey SalvaIore, an amaIeur asIronomer in Suern, New York
(along Ihe norIhern porIion o Ihe Appalachian MounIains) has inIerviewed a
number o Micmac Iribal members who recounIed or her Iheir narraIive o Ihe
Ihree hunIers.
The irsI is called Robin, Ihe marksman, Ihe second is Chickadee, Ihe
cook, and Ihe Ihird who lags a liIIle behind is Blue Jay. Look norIh in
early spring, you will see Ihe Bear climbing ouI o her den, Ihe
consIellaIion o Corona Borealis. She was very hungry aIer her long
winIer nap, so she sIarIed Io climb high in Ihe sky in search o ood.
Chickadee spoIIed her buI he was Ioo small Io hunI her alone so he
called Robin Io help. BuI irsI he had Io make sure he had his cooking
poI righI nexI Io him. Blue Jay lags behind gaIhering wood or Ihe ire
Io cook Ihe bear. All Ihree chased Ihe Bear all summer long as iI goI
aIIer and aIIer in Ihe sky. By Ihe Iime AuIumn came Ihe Bear saw Ihe
Indians ollowing her, she Iurned and reared up Io ighI Ihe Ihree.
Taking careul aim, Robin shoI an arrow and MoIher Bear ell over on
her back. By Ihis Iime, Robin had waiIed long enough Io eaI some bear
aI. In his eagerness, he jumped on Ihe Bear and became covered wiIh
blood. Robin jumped up quickly and Iried Io shake Ihe blood o.
AlIhough he shook mosI o Ihe blood o Ihere was one spoI on his
Autumn Moon 231
chesI IhaI would noI come o. Chickadee shouIed, "You will have a
red chesI as long as your name is Robin." And so iI is Io Ihis day. The
blood IhaI Robin scaIIered ell all over Ihe maple Irees and IhaI is why
Ihe maple leaves Iurn red in Ihe AuIumn. Chickadee sIarIed Io cook
Ihe Bear and as he sIirred iI, some o Ihe yellow aI spilled over, and
IhaI is why some leaves Iurn yellow in Ihe all. Blue Jay was very Iired
so he sIayed a liIIle biI away, and was happy Io geI Ihe scraps o Ihe
Bear. ThaI is why you will see Ihe Blue Jay Ioday ollowing Ihe hunIers
and eaIing whaI Ihey leave. All winIer Ihe MoIher Bear's skeleIon lies
on her back while her spiriI enIers a sleeping bear in Ihe cave, Io
emerge again in Ihe Spring Io sIarI Ihe hunI. And Ihe sIory
conIinues. . .
Micmac oral IradiIion, Iranscribed by Audrey SalvaIore
Through sIar Iales o Ihis kind Ihe behavior o Ihe world around us is made
sensible and we undersIand Ihe purpose behind whaI we see. To Ihose wiIh sharp
eyesighI, Ihe brighI middle sIar in Ihe Big Dipper's handle (Mizar) has a ainIly
visible companion (named Alcor), IhaI IogeIher become Chickadee and his
cooking poI. The consIellaIion o Corona Borealis gives rise Io new celesIial bears
each year, while Ihe hunIers' acIions bring reason Io Ihe Iurning o Ihe Irees and
Ihe changing o Ihe seasons.
Today we Iell a dierenI sIory or why Ihe leaves and seasons change. One
beneiI o Ihe scienIiic meIhod is IhaI iI allows us Io make predicIions based on
Ihe consequences o our sIories. The EarIh is noI alone in having an axial IilI and
so iI should noI be alone in having seasons. In acI, we now know nearly every
oIher planeI in Ihe Solar SysIem goes Ihrough iIs seasons jusI as we do on EarIh.
Mars' axis o roIaIion is currenIly IilIed Io Ihe plane o iIs orbiI by almosI
exacIly Ihe same amounI as Ihe EarIh. In addiIion, iIs orbiI is much more
ellipIical Ihan Ihe EarIh's and so iI really does geI signiicanIly closer and arIher
rom Ihe Sun. These eecIs combine Io make iIs seasons more exIreme Ihan ours.
SouIhern hemisphere summer comes when Mars is closesI Io Ihe Sun and
generaIes Iremendous winds IhaI lare inIo dusIdevils and occasionally spawns
globe-spanning sandsIorms IhaI bloI ouI Ihe sky. They give a whole new
meaning Io Ihe hazy days o summer.
There is evidence IhaI Mars' IilI periodically changes by Iens o degrees over
periods ranging rom a ew hundred Ihousand years Io several million years in a
complex cycle IhaI produces dramaIic changes in Ihe planeI's climaIe. \hen
Mars' IilI is small, Ihe poles geI very liIIle lighI while Ihe Sun is always high above
Ihe planeI's equaIor. The poles geI so cold IhaI waIer vapor and carbon dioxide
(boIh greenhouse gasses) reeze ouI o Ihe aImosphere and all as snow. As Ihey
do, Ihe aImospheric pressure drops so low IhaI, wiIh Ihe drop in IemperaIure,
liquid waIer can no longer exisI on Ihe MarIian surace. This is Ihe Mars we see
Ioday. BuI leI Ihe planeI's IilI increase and each pole geIs more sunlighI during
summer and Ihe greenhouse gasses re-enIer Ihe aImosphere, raising Ihe
IemperaIure and aImospheric pressure enough IhaI perhaps rain could all and
figure 7.8 WaLie Akihs, ah Abehaki Elder ih 8ahgor, Maihe, sahg for me Lhe sohg of Lhe
sLars ohce Lold by his people. Here Lhe CreaL 8ear ohce agaih rises ihLo Lhe sky where Lhe
Lhree huhLers caLch him Lurhihg Lhe foresLs brighL wiLh color. A good LesL of eyesighL is if
you cah spoL Chickadee's faihL cookihg poL ih Lhe 'hahdle' of Lhe Dipper (1. Nordgreh).
Autumn Moon 233
seas orm. Under Ihese condiIions lie as we know iI could lourish, buI once Ihe
IilI decreases, Ihe process reverses and Mars is once more locked in a deep reeze.
Civen such condiIions, Mars is a diiculI place or lie Io arise and survive.
Compared Io Mars' wild swings, lucIuaIions in Ihe EarIh's axial IilI are Iiny:
no more Ihan a degree or Iwo over a 41,000 year cycle. \hile Ihese small changes
are one reason or long-Ierm glacial periods, Ihe change in our planeI's IilI has
never been so dramaIic IhaI all our oceans roze solid or all our seas boiled away.
This climaIic sIabiliIy is one o Ihe principal reasons our planeI has remained
habiIable or lie as we know iI. So on a beauIiul crisp auIumn aIernoon like
Ioday, I know I can look overhead and Ihank Ihe Moon or Ihe lie I see around
me.
The EarIh is unique among Ihe planeIs. \e alone, have a moon so large IhaI
by comparison we are a double planeI. JupiIer is over 300 Iimes more massive
Ihan Ihe EarIh, yeI iIs largesI moon, Canymede, is only Iwice as massive as our
own. Our enormous Moon exerIs daily orces upon Ihe EarIh IhaI, over Ihe long
Ierm, render our planeI righI or lie.
The dierence in Ihe Moon's graviIaIional pull beIween near and ar sides o
Ihe EarIh creaIes Ihe Iidal waIer bulges IhaI we experience Iwice a day as Ihe
EarIh roIaIes under Ihem. \hile anyone visiIing Ihe seashore has seen Ihis Iype
o Iidal orce in acIion, a much more subIle orm o Iidal orce has sIabilized Ihe
EarIh's axial IilI. Even wiIhouI Ihe
Iidal bulges, Ihe EarIh iIsel is noI a
perecI sphere, like mosI people in
middle age, Ihe EarIh bulges ouI a biI
aI Ihe equaIor. The Moon Ihereore
exerIs a sIronger graviIaIional pull
on Ihis wider mid-secIion Ihan iI
does on Ihe more disIanI parIs o Ihe
planeI's 'sphere.' Over Iime, any
Iendency Ihe EarIh's axis may have
had Io wobble and gyraIe has been
damped ouI and sIabilized by Ihe
Moon's persisIenI Iug. II's hard Io go
wild wiIh a child orever Iugging aI
your hip.
II mighI seem odd IhaI Ihe Moon
could be responsible or such benei-
cence. Our language inIimaIely
associaIes Ihe Moon wiIh insaniIy
and ear. How many o us have heard
IhaI Ihe lunaIics come ouI whenever
Ihere's a ull Moon7 Lunacy is rom
Luna, Ihe Roman moon goddess and
Ihus Ihe LaIin name or our moon.
And while no close look aI acIual
figure 7.9 A firsL quarLer Mooh rises above Lhe
auLumh woods oh a suhhy OcLober day ih Lhe
Smokies (1. Nordgreh).
police records ever shows IhaI lunaIics preer any one phase o Ihe Moon over
any oIher, our lore sIill Iells o werewolves and vampires bringing Ierror by Ihe
lighI o a ull Moon. Even so, several Ihousand years o poeIry and liIeraIure
aIIesI Io Ihe beauIy and power IhaI Ihe Moon has over us.
Ignorance is Ihe nighI o Ihe mind, a nighI wiIhouI moon or sIar.
Conucius
May you have warm words on a cold evening, a ull moon on a dark
nighI and smooIh road all Ihe way Io your door.
Irish blessing.
Summer ends, and AuIumn comes, and he who would have iI
oIherwise would have high Iide always and a ull moon every nighI.
Hal Borland (American auIhor)
Ferhaps iI's no wonder Ihen IhaI ull Moon hikes are some o Ihe mosI
popular evening programs Ihe naIional parks provide. \hile we humans may
sIill harbor an herediIary ear o Ihe dark, when animals much larger and more
vicious Ihan we roamed Ihe nighI where we slepI, by Ihe lighI o a gloriously ull
Moon we are able Io hold our species' long memory aI bay and Iake pleasure in
Ihe nighI, provided Ihere's a knowledgeable Fark Ranger or a guide.
The Moon is Ihe one celesIial sighI upon which we probably spend Ihe mosI
Iime gazing: Ihe Sun is so brighI IhaI mosI o us wisely spend very liIIle Iime
sIaring aI iIs eaIures, and Ihe sIars have become a Ihing o Ihe pasI in Ihe urban
seIIings in which many o us live. Our Moon's close proximiIy makes iI Ihe one
exIraIerresIrial body whose eaIures we can
see wiIhouI a Ielescope and so aIer a lovely
auIumn evening regarding iIs sIrange mark-
ings, each o us can claim Io be a planeIary
asIronomer.
\haI do we see when we look aI Ihe
Moon7 Ferhaps we noIice iIs changing
shape. Over a period o Iwo weeks we see
Ihe Moon rise roughly an hour laIer each
nighI and as iI geIs arIher and arIher away
rom Ihe Sun in Ihe sky we see more and
more o iIs sunliI ace. In Ihe dark markings
IhaI Ihe changing phases reveal, dierenI
people see dierenI Ihings. Some see a ace:
a Man in Ihe Moon. Some see a rabbiI, while
or oIhers iI's Ihe proile o a lady wiIh a
jewel aI her IhroaI, when Ihe phase is jusI
righI.
\haIever orm Ihe markings Iake, Ihey
never change shape nor go away, and every
monIh as Ihe Moon's phase increases
figure 7.10 lull Mooh hikes are a
popular acLiviLy ih mahy haLiohal parks
(koh Warher).
Autumn Moon 235
figure 7.11 1he ClemehLihe
spacecrafL capLured Lhis image of
Lhe full Mooh. lh a plaheLary
psychology LesL, differehL
appariLiohs are visible Lo differehL
people. lh Lhe upper righL is Lhe
Mah ih Lhe Mooh, while aL lower
lefL is Lhe shadow of a rabbiL. 1o
Lhe lower righL is Lhe profile of a
dark-haired lady wiLh Lhe
diamohd pehdahL of 1ycho's
craLer aL her LhroaL (ClemehLihe
lull Mooh Mosaic (NkL)).
Ihey're slowly revealed once more. The Cherokee, who live here in Ihe Smokies,
Iell a Iale o Ihe Sun and Moon IhaI makes sense o Ihese sighIs.
The Sun was a young woman and lived in Ihe EasI, while her broIher,
Ihe Moon, lived in Ihe \esI. The girl had a lover who used Io come
every monIh in Ihe dark o Ihe moon Io courI her. He would come aI
nighI, and leave beore daylighI.
AlIhough she Ialked wiIh him she could noI see his ace in Ihe dark,
and he would noI Iell her his name, unIil she was wondering all Ihe
Iime who iI could be.
AI lasI she hiI upon a plan Io ind ouI, so Ihe nexI Iime he came, as
Ihey were siIIing IogeIher in Ihe dark o Ihe asi, she slyly dipped her
hand inIo Ihe cinders and ashes o Ihe ireplace and rubbed iI over his
ace, saying, ''Your ace is cold, you musI have suered rom Ihe
wind,'' and preIending Io be very sorry or him, buI he did noI know
IhaI she had ashes on her hand. AIer a while he leI her and wenI
away again.
The nexI nighI when Ihe Moon came up in Ihe sky his ace was
covered wiIh spoIs, and Ihen his sisIer knew he was Ihe one who had
been coming Io see her. He was so much ashamed Io have her know iI
IhaI he kepI as ar away as he could aI Ihe oIher end o Ihe sky all Ihe
nighI. Ever since he Iries Io keep a long way behind Ihe Sun, and
when he does someIimes have Io come near her in Ihe wesI he makes
himsel as Ihin as a ribbon so IhaI he can hardly be seen.
James Mooney, Myths oj thc Chcrolcc, 188
AI Ihe same Iime IhaI Ihe Cher-
okee Iold Ihese sIories, back when
Europeans were irsI exploring Ihe
easI coasI o NorIh America, Ihe
prevailing sIory among European
inIellecIuals was IhaI Ihe Moon was
a celesIially pure and perecI sphere
wiIhouI blemish. The markings you
and I see every nighI were merely a
relecIion o Ihe impure corrupIible
EarIh or sIrange dierences in den-
siIy o Ihe smooIh, eaIureless, eIhe-
real lunar maIerial. In eiIher case, Ihe
heavens were separaIe rom Ihe
EarIh: They were perecI and we
weren'I. There was a reason Ihey
were called ''The Heavens.''
Then in November o 160, Cali-
leo poinIed his Ielescope aI a Ihin
ribbon o Moon aIer sunseI and senI
our undersIanding o Ihe Universe
down a radically new paIh.
Erom observaIions o Ihese spoIs repeaIed many Iimes I have been led
Io Ihe opinion and convicIion IhaI Ihe surace o Ihe moon is noI
smooIh, uniorm, and precisely spherical as a greaI number o
philosophers believe iI (and Ihe oIher heavenly bodies) Io be, buI is
uneven, rough, and ull o caviIies and prominences, being noI unlike
Ihe ace o Ihe earIh, relieved by chains o mounIains and deep
valleys.
Calileo Calilei, SJcrus Nuncus, 1610
In 200 we celebraIed Ihe InIernaIional Year o AsIronomy Io commemoraIe
Ihe 400Ih anniversary o Calileo irsI poinIing his Ielescope aI Ihe sky, buI Ihere
is preIIy good evidence IhaI Calileo wasn'I Ihe irsI Io do Ihis, IhaI in acI he
wasn'I even Ihe irsI Io look aI Ihe Moon. In July o IhaI year, ully our monIhs
beore Calileo, Thomas HarrioI an English maIhemaIician looked aI Ihe Moon
Ihrough his own simple Ielescope. Erom his drawings we know IhaI Ihough he
saw whaI Calileo would laIer see, Ihere is no record IhaI he drew any conclusions
rom whaI was visible in his eyepiece, IhaI he undersIood Iheir imporIance, or
IhaI he made any eorI Io Iell anyone else.
Calileo did all o Ihese and iI was imporIanI IhaI he did because Ihis discovery
marked Ihe beginning o modern asIronomy. Eor Ihe irsI Iime, Iechnology
revealed someIhing new Io our senses IhaI hadn'I been known beore, iI
expanded our concepI o Ihe Universe and required a greaI siIing beIween Ihose
previously held belies IhaI could explain whaI was seen, and Ihose IhaI
figure 7.12 1hih waxihg (i.e., geLLihg bigger)
luhar crescehL is visible ih Lhe wesL afLer suhseL.
Wahihg crescehLs (geLLihg Lhihher) are visible ih
Lhe easL before suhrise (1. Nordgreh).
Autumn Moon 237
figure 7.13 Calileo Calilei's drawihg of
Lhe Lhird-quarLer Mooh published ih his
5iderius Nuncius (Lhe 5tcrry Messenger) ih
110.
figure 7.14 1he phoLograph aL righL was made Lhrough a moderh compuLer-cohLrolled
10-ihch (25 cm) diameLer Lelescope, while Lhe drawihg aL lefL was made Lhrough a
simple replica of Calileo's Lelescope wiLh a maghificaLioh of 20,. 1he Lwo images were
made aL very hearly Lhe exacL same phase alLhough Lhree years aparL. NoLice Lhe brighL
ray craLer 1ycho Lo Lhe lower righL ih each picLure (1. Nordgreh).
couldn'I. JusI as imporIanI, anyone could see Ihese new eaIures or Ihemselves,
Ihe physical Universe wasn'I jusI revealed Io a selecI ew, iI was Ihere or anyone
Io see.
Co ahead, see whaI Calileo saw. A simple pair o 16, magniicaIion
binoculars will show you everyIhing he saw in jusI as much deIail. The laI
whiIe lunar disk wiIh dark grey markings becomes a spherical world wiIh jagged
mounIains, deep shadowed valleys, smooIh dark plains, and innumerable
circular craIers.
Through his eyepiece Calileo grasped IhaI Ihe Moon was a place, noI a perecI
heavenly sphere, noI an abode o
angels, buI a simple place like Ihe
EarIh. And i Ihe Moon could be a
place like Ihe EarIh, Ihen IhaI
implied Ihe EarIh shared someIhing
in common wiIh Ihe Moon. RaIher
Ihan Ihe EarIh being a single, cor-
rupIible world, separaIe rom Ihe
puriIy o Ihe heavens above, Ihe
EarIh now shared orm and phe-
nomena wiIh Ihe Universe o which
we were an inseparable parI. ThaI
single sighI Ihrough a simple scope,
now available or anyone Io see, was
Ihe greaIesI world-alIering discovery
in Ihe hisIory o asIronomy.
Today, Ihrough any small Iele-
scope or pair o binoculars, Ihe
amiliar markings reveal Ihemselves inIo Iwo main Iypes o Ierrain: smooIh
dark plains called maria (LaIin or 'seas') and brighI, mounIainous highlands,
ragged wiIh craIers in nearly ininiIe number and size.
\hile Calileo may have seen many lunar sighIs IhaI reminded him o home,
craIers are preIIy alien Io Ihe EarIh. There are Iwo principal processes IhaI make
gianI circular holes in Ihe ground. One comes rom wiIhin, Ihe oIher comes rom
wiIhouI. Volcanoes leave circular craIers where explosive erupIions blow open
holes in Ihe Iops o mounIains. CraIer Lake in souIhern Oregon is a 6 mile (10
km) wide roughly circular mounIain craIer leI behind by Ihe erupIion o MI.
Mazama, 7,700 years ago. Today clear blue waIer ills Ihis caldera Io depIhs o
1,43 eeI (S2 m), making iI Ihe deepesI lake in NorIh America and Ihe sevenIh
deepesI in Ihe world.
However, i you've ever seen a bulleI-hole in a lonely, back counIry sIreeI sign,
you've seen Ihe oIher acIiviIy IhaI leaves circular eaIures behind: impacIs.
figure 7.1 CraLer Lake is
phoLographed ih wihLer by
asLrohauLs ohboard Lhe
lhLerhaLiohal Space SLaLioh.
Wizard lslahd is visible wiLhih Lhe
collapsed caldera lake (lmage
Sciehce ahd Ahalysis LaboraLory,
NASA |ohhsoh Space CehLer, '1he
CaLeway Lo AsLrohauL
lhoLography of EarLh,' hLLp:}}
earLh.|sc.hasa.gov}).
figure 7.15 High luhar hills caLch Lhe lighL of a
risihg Suh alohg Lhe quieL 'coasLlihe' of Lhe Sea
of SerehiLy. AsLrohauL kohald Evahs capLured
Lhis phoLo as he made his way alohe arouhd Lhe
Mooh (k. Evahs}NASA}Lll).
Autumn Moon 23
Bombard Ihe landscape wiIh
someIhing heavy or explosive
and bowl-shaped holes in Ihe
ground are Ihe resulI. Many
ciIies in Europe were liIIered
wiIh man-made impacI craIers
aI Ihe end o \orld \ar II.
So which is iI on Ihe Moon,
impacIs or erupIions7 The ori-
gin o lunar craIers and maria
was one o Ihe principal scien-
Iiic goals o sending men Io
Ihe Moon in Ihe 160s. The
irsI Iwo Apollo missions Io
land on Ihe Moon were
designed Io do so, on Ihe
sensibly laI smooIh plains.
The rocks Ihey reIurned
showed Ihe dark maria are
composed o volcanic basalI.
They are enormous looded
basins where Ihe lava long
ago hardened. This Iype o
rock is rare in Ihe Smokies
and much o Ihe easI coasI,
buI Iravel Io Ihe wesIern U.S.
and big, blocky, black rocks
ound along many road-cuIs
will aIIesI Io Ihe presence o
ancienI lava lows.
SIarIing wiIh Apollo 14, Ihe
Ihird expediIion Io land on
Ihe Moon, asIronauIs began
Io explore regions closer and
closer Io Ihe lunar highlands
looking or evidence o acIual volcanoes. On Ihe basis o Ielescopic observaIions
rom EarIh iI was IhoughI IhaI some o Ihe eaIures in Ihe lunar mounIains wesI
o Mare NecIaris (Sea o NecIar) were volcanic in origin. On April 21, 172, John
Young and Charlie Duke in Apollo 16 became Ihe only Iwo human beings Io ever
explore Ihe lunar highlands, doing so in a landing spoI beIween Iwo mounIains
named aIer prominenI landmarks o Ihe souIhern Appalachians: SIone
MounIain in Ceorgia, and Ihe Smoky MounIains where I now sIand.
2
figure 7.17 1opographic map showihg Lhe Apollo 1
lahdihg siLe beLweeh Lhe Smoky MouhLaihs Lo Lhe
horLh, ahd SLohe MouhLaih Lo Lhe souLh. 1he rouLe Lhe
asLrohauLs drove ih Lheir luhar rover is drawh ih yellow.
1he Smoky MouhLaihs Lower 500 feeL (152 m) above
Lhe surrouhdihg plaih (elevaLiohs ih red are ih feeL)
(NASA}Lll).
2
Along wiIh Ken MaIIingly, who sIayed in lunar orbiI while Duke and Young walked on Ihe
Moon, all Ihree Apollo 16 asIronauIs had eiIher lived or gone Io school here in Ihe souIheasI
UniIed SIaIes.
figure 7.18 lahoramic image showihg Lhe Apollo 1 Lraverse Lo NorLh kay CraLer, a 0.
mile (1 km) diameLer craLer visible aL lefL. 8ehihd Lhe craLer aL lefL of cehLer is Lhe summiL
of Lhe Smoky MouhLaihs. 1he luhar rover is visible Lo Lhe righL (NASA}Lll).
\hile Duke and Young had come looking or a volcanic origin, whaI Ihey
ound was overwhelming evidence o eons o impacIs. Everywhere Ihey looked
Ihe rocks Ihey broughI back were nearly as old as Ihe Solar SysIem iIsel and in all
IhaI Iime Ihe only change Io aecI Ihem was Ihe shock o repeaIed blasIing by
billions o years o planeIary meIeoriIe sIrikes. The laI-loored lunar valleys IhaI
were seI amid Ihe mounIainous peaks (much like Cades Cove here in Ihe
Smokies) were composed enIirely o
rocks Ihrown Ihere by unimaginably
larger impacIs elsewhere on Ihe
Moon. \hile Ihe dark maria do Iell
a sIory o ancienI volcanism, Ihe
resulIs o Apollo 16's exploraIion o
Ihe Smoky MounIains reveal IhaI Ihe
resI o Ihe Moon is a long sIory wiIh
only a single Iheme: planeIary bom-
bardmenI.
In large parI, Ihe hisIory o our
Solar SysIem s a hisIory o planeIary
violence. Our Solar SysIem, Ihe col-
lecIion o one sIar, eighI planeIs, and
over 170 moons all began S billion
years ago as a spinning disk o gas
and dusI (jusI like Ihose we have
begun Io see around many oIher
newly ormed sIars). Through grav-
iIy's persisIenI aIIracIion, small
Ihings are orced IogeIher Io become
big Ihings. And while many impacIs
beIween proIo-planeIs probably
resulIed in Iheir muIual desIrucIion,
in Iime, graviIy will draw Ihese pieces
back IogeIher, building ever larger
bodies in Ihe end.
The planeIs we see Ioday, Iheir
figure 7.19 keal Mooh rock (ih frohL of a fake
Mooh) oh display aL Lhe CriffiLh ObservaLory ih
Los Ahgeles, Califorhia (1. Nordgreh).
Autumn Moon 241
figure 7.20 NASA's Hubble Space
1elescope capLured Lhe faihL reflecLioh of
suhlighL off a disk of dusL arouhd Lhe
disLahL sLar HD1415A. New plaheLs may
be formihg ih Lhe gaps Lhis image reveals.
1he sLar is 320 lighL-years away ih Lhe
cohsLellaLioh of Libra ahd has beeh
blocked ouL ih Lhis image (sihce oLherwise
iLs glare would overpower Lhe lighL of Lhe
disk, much like a spoLlighL overwhelms a
firefly (NASA, M. Clampih (S1Scl), H. lord
(|H), C. lllihgworLh (CO}Lick), |. KrisL
(S1Scl), D. Ardila (|H), D. Colimowski
(|H), Lhe ACS Sciehce 1eam ahd ESA).
composiIions and characIerisIics, are dependenI upon Ihose early building
blocks in Ihe solar nebula. Close Io Ihe Sun, where iIs heaI vaporizes waIer and
oIher elemenIs are gasses, Ihe only building blocks available Io orm solid planeIs
are rocks and meIals. NoI surprisingly, Ihose are Ihe principal componenIs o Ihe
small solid bodies o Ihe inner Solar SysIem.
BuI Ihose planeIs IhaI ormed arIher rom Ihe Sun, where Ihe IemperaIures
are dramaIically lower, ormed ouI o biIs and pieces IhaI could also include ices.
\iIh more maIerial wiIh which Io work Ihese planeIs grew much larger and Iheir
graviIy was able Io reIain much o Ihe hydrogen and helium gas IhaI made up
Ihe original solar nebula. They ormed Ihe large gaseous planeIs o Ihe ouIer
Solar SysIem, and Iheir moons are composed largely o ice and rock.
Many o Ihose biIs o leIover debris IhaI crossed paIhs wiIh Ihe esIablished
planeIs evenIually goI swepI up in Ihe inal sIages o planeI ormaIion. BuI many
oIher pieces on sIable orbiIs sIill remain, mosI noIably in a vasI belI o rocky
debris beIween Mars and JupiIer. \e call Ihese objecIs asIeroids. Ear rom Ihe
Sun, comeIs are Ihe leI over icy maIerial IhaI orbiI in Ihe deep darkness beyond
NepIune in whaI is now called Ihe Kuiper BelI.
3
Eor 4.S billion years Ihese asIeroids and comeIs have conIinued Iheir largely
isolaIed exisIence Ioo small or mosI geologic acIiviIy Io Iake place, no
volcanism, no IecIonics, no wind or waIer Io cause erosion.
4
They are IhoughI
3
The OorI Cloud is a second reservoir or comeIs locaIed a Ihousand Iimes arIher ouI Ihan Ihe
Kuiper BelI. II is a spherical cloud o ice balls IhaI originally ormed in nearer Ihe Kuiper BelI buI
were lung ouI o Ihe Solar SysIem's disk by Ihe graviIy o JupiIer and Ihe oIher large planeIs.
4
In 200S close-up images o Ihe icy nucleus o comeI Tempel 1, made by NASA's Deep ImpacI
spacecraI, revealed layered deposiIs, apparenI landslides and abundanI craIers. Ceological
orces had been aI work on a comeI which is hardly whaI anyone expecIed and proo IhaI
every Iime we explore some place new, our world opens up wiIh new possibiliIies.
figure 7.21 Ah arLisL's cohcepLioh of Lhe hearby Epsiloh Eridahii plaheLary sysLem where
Lwo plaheLs orbiL |usL ouLside each of Lwo asLeroid belLs (much like |upiLer orbiLs |usL
ouLside our asLeroid belL). 1he ihher belL is aL very hearly Lhe same locaLioh as Lhe
asLeroid belL ih our owh solar sysLem, while a reservoir of comeLs is LhoughL Lo exisL aL
abouL Lhe same locaLioh as our sysLem's Kuiper 8elL. Epsiloh Eridahi is locaLed ohly 10
lighL-years away ahd is easily visible low Lo Lhe souLh ih wihLer from souLherh locaLiohs
(NASA}|lL-CalLech).
Io be much as Ihey were when Ihe planeIs irsI sIarIed Io orm. This is why
asIronomers ind Ihese objecIs so ascinaIing, Ihey alone are samples o whaI we
are made o and rom whence our planeI came.
To undersIand why Ihis is so rare, look around you aI Ihe mounIains and Irees,
river and rocks, none o Ihese show us Ihe original building blocks o Ihis planeI.
Take or insIance one o Ihe mosI visiIed spoIs in Ihe park: Abrams Ealls in Cades
Cove. This aIernoon I siI beside Ihe pool inIo which Ihe alls spill, I leI my senses
ill wiIh Ihe roar o Ihe waIer and Ihe rush o Ihe wind Ihrough brighI yellow
leaves. There, eaIing my lunch I Iake sIock o whaI I can see and whaI iI can Iell
me abouI Ihe early days o Ihis planeI.
The sandwich in my hand is only a day old. The bread o which iI is made is
no older Ihan a week, Ihe peanuIs are no older Ihan a year. The moss aI my eeI is
perhaps a ew decades old, Ihe allen Iree upon which I resI may have irsI grown
no longer Ihan a cenIury or Iwo ago. The rocks are a biI older, buI when
compared Io Ihe age o Ihe Solar SysIem, noI by much. Their rounded shape is
Ihe resulI o Ihousands o years o raging rivers IhaI Iumbled and polished
boulders ripped ouI o deep mounIain crevasses. The rock iIsel is a grey-colored
sandsIone made up o crysIals and grains IhaI weaIhered o o oIher rocks beore
being layered, compressed, solidiied, and olded inIo iIs presenI upIurned shape.
\hile Ihe bending and olding Iook place as Iwo ancienI conIinenIal plaIes
collided a quarIer o a billion years ago, Ihe sand grains IhaI irsI ormed Ihem are
Autumn Moon 243
over a billion years old, buI even IhaI only reaches back a quarIer o Ihe way Io
Ihe origin o Ihe planeI.
The EarIh is old, even i whaI makes up Ihe EarIh isn'I, so sIudying whaI we
ind here Iells us only so much. Our phoIo-album or our planeI is missing all Ihe
baby picIures. BuI walk along Ihe surace o an asIeroid or icy comeI, and we
inally geI Io see snapshoIs o Ihose earliesI days.
Eor beIIer and worse, iI isn'I always necessary Io go all Ihe way ouI Io Ihe
asIeroid or Kuiper belIs Io examine Ihese objecIs. So many leI over chips rom
Ihose early days sIill sIream Ihrough Ihe Solar SysIem IhaI Ihe planeIs liIerally
inhabiI a celesIial shooIing gallery. Every monIh near-EarIh asIeroids cross our
planeI's paIh and every year an icy comeI plunges in Iowards Ihe Sun rom iIs
rigid ouIskirIs, making quiIe a show as iI quickly vaporizes rom Ihe heaI.
BoIh NASA and JAXA (Ihe Japan Aerospace ExploraIion Agency) have
launched spacecraI Io orbiI near-EarIh asIeroids. \haI Ihey've ound is IhaI
asIeroids can be complicaIed places wiIh some asIeroids a single dense objecI
(like a solid rock) while oIhers are Ihe equivalenI o a loose pile o rubble held
IogeIher by iIs muIual graviIaIional aIIracIion. \hile no spacecraI mission has
yeI reIurned a sample o an asIeroid, we sIill have many samples rom Iiny biIs
and pieces IhaI enIer our aImosphere every year.
Here is perhaps a good Iime or some Ierminology: when a Iiny chip o an
asIeroid is loaIing Ihrough space iI is called a meIeoroid. \hen a meIeoroid
enIers our aImosphere and ricIion wiIh Ihe air causes a brighI glow as iI sIreaks
across Ihe sky, iI's called a meIeor (which olks commonly call a shooIing sIar or
alling sIar). MosI meIeors are no more Ihan a grain o sand or small pebble in
size. I a meIeoroid is larger Ihough, Ihen Ihe meIeor mighI noI burn up
compleIely in Ihe aImosphere and insIead manage Io sIrike Ihe ground. Any
charred black rock IhaI survives Ihe impacI is called a meIeoriIe.
Erom looking aI Ihe composiIion o
meIeoriIes we know IhaI Ihey and Ihe
asIeroids rom which Ihey come are
composed largely o rock and some
meIals like iron and nickel. Look up on
figure 7.22 Oh valehLihe's Day 2000,
NASA's Near EarLh AsLeroid kehdezvous
spacecrafL wehL ihLo orbiL arouhd ah
asLeroid hamed Eros. AL 21 miles (34
km) lohg ahd 8 miles (13 km) wide ahd
Lall, Eros is larger Lhah mosL oLher
asLeroids LhaL pass hear Lhe EarLh, buL ih
oLher respecLs is LhoughL Lo be a preLLy
Lypical asLeroid (NASA }|lL}|HAlL).
any clear nighI when you can see Ihe
sIars and odds are you will see a
meIeor ending iIs exisIence in a blaze
o glory, conIinuing our planeI's
ormaIion by adding iIs mass Io IhaI
o Ihe EarIh on which you sIand.
AbouI a dozen Iimes a year your
chances o seeing a shooIing sIar
increase dramaIically. On Ihese same
ew nighIs every year, meIeor
showers produce as many as a hun-
dred or more sIreaks across Ihe sky
every hour. The darker Ihe locaIion,
Ihe more you will see. Some meIeor
showers, especially Ihose beore elec-
Iric lighIs began Io lighI up Ihe sky,
have gone down in hisIory as meIeor sIorms. The shower IhaI happens every year
on or around Ihe nighI o November 17Ih is called Ihe Leonids and on a cold
clear November nighI in 1833 Ihe Leonids liI up Ihe sky in whaI became known
as ''The NighI Ihe SIars Eell.'' Eor Ihose who were awoken in Ihe pre-dawn hours
by Ihe sound o sIarIled neighbors and Ihe lash o lighI inIo darkened rooms,
over IhirIy Ihousand meIeors per hour blazed across Ihe sky and iI was IhoughI
IhaI Ihe world was ending and JudgmenI Day had come.
Samuel Rogers, a Iraveling preacher passing Ihrough AnIioch, Virginia on Ihe
nighI o Ihe sIorm recounIed whaI he saw nearly S0 years laIer in his
auIobiography, Tols anJ Strugglcs oj thc OlJcn Tmcs:
I heard one o Ihe children cry ouI, in a voice expressive o alarm:
''Come Io Ihe door, aIher, Ihe world is surely coming Io an end.''
figure 7.23 A meLeor sLreaks passed Lhe
full Mooh ahd is reflecLed ih a lake ohe
misLy November morhihg ih Creehwood,
SouLh Caroliha (8lake SuddeLh).
figure 7.24 1his is perhaps Lhe mosL famous
depicLioh of ahy meLeor shower. Made ih 188
for Lhe AdvehLisL book 8ible kecdings fcr the
Icme Circle, iL porLrays Lhe specLacle of Lhe 1833
Leohid meLeor sLorm ahd was based upoh Lhe
origihal accouhL of |oseph Harvey Waggoher, a
mihisLer oh his way from llorida Lo New Orleahs
(Adolf vollmy}Library of Cohgress).
Autumn Moon 245
AnoIher exclaimed: ''See! The whole heavens are on ire! All Ihe sIars
are alling!'' These cries broughI us all inIo Ihe open yard, Io gaze
upon Ihe grandesI and mosI beauIiul scene my eyes have ever beheld.
II did appear as i every sIar had leI iIs moorings, and was driIing
rapidly in a wesIerly direcIion, leaving behind a Irack o lighI which
remained visible or several seconds.
Some o Ihose wandering sIars seemed as large as Ihe ull moon, or
nearly so, and in some cases Ihey appeared Io dash aI a rapid raIe
across Ihe general course o Ihe main body o meIeors, leaving in Iheir
Irack a bluish lighI, which gaIhered inIo a Ihin cloud noI unlike a pu
o smoke rom a Iobacco-pipe. Some o Ihe meIeors were so brighI IhaI
Ihey were visible or some Iime aIer day had airly dawned. Imagine
large snowlakes driIing over your head, so near you IhaI you can
disIinguish Ihem, one rom Ihe oIher, and yeI so Ihick in Ihe air as Io
almosI obscure Ihe sky, Ihen imagine each snowlake Io be a meIeor,
leaving behind iI a Iail like a liIIle comeI, Ihese meIeors o all sizes,
rom IhaI o a drop o waIer Io IhaI o a greaI sIar, having Ihe size o
Ihe ull moon in appearance: and you may Ihen have some ainI idea
o Ihis wonderul scene.
Elder Samuel Rogers, 1880
Clear skies IhaI nighI over much o Ihe conIinenI produced similar sighIs and
ears IhaI were repeaIed in cabin and Ieepee. Von Del Chamberlain, an
asIronomer specializing in NaIive American eIhno-asIronomy, wriIes IhaI or
American Indians ouI on Ihe CreaI Flains Ihere were:
''ShooIing sIars like snowlakes in a sIorm.'' ThaI was Ihe phrase used by
Oglala TeIon Indians o Ihe American Flains Io name Ihe year IhaI oIher
Flains Indians called, ''SIorm o SIars \inIer,'' ''\inIer o Ihe Ealling
SIars,'' and similar names. One record sIaIed IhaI Ihe Kiowa . . . were
wakened by a sudden lighI. Running ouI rom Ihe Iipis, Ihey ound Ihe
nighI as brighI as day, wiIh a myriad o meIeors darIing abouI in Ihe
sky. The parenIs aroused Ihe children, saying, ''CeI up, geI up, Ihere is
someIhing awul going on.'' They had never beore known such an
occurrence, and regarded iI as someIhing ominous or dangerous, and
saI waIching iI wiIh dread and apprehension unIil daylighI.
Von Del Chamberlain, 18
In 188, HarrieI Fowers, a ormer slave rom AIhens, Ceorgia recorded Ihe
celesIial evenI in brighIly colored abric in a quilI she made or Ihe Reverend
Charles Hall, chairman o Ihe board o IrusIees o AIlanIa UniversiIy. Fowers had
never learned Io read nor wriIe so her quilIs were her way o passing on Ihe
sIories IhaI were imporIanI Io her lie. Though Iime has caused Ihe colors Io ade,
we can sIill see Ihe power o her arIisIry and religious aiIh in Ihe mulIiple panels
IhaI chronicle such Biblical sIories as Adam and Eve, Jonah and Ihe \hale, and
Ihe Cruciixion o ChrisI.
figure 7.25 8orh a slave ih 1837, HarrieL lowers depicLed religious ahd asLrohomical
Lhemes ih her quilLs. lh Lhe cehLral applique d square wiLh grey backgrouhd, orahge
meLeors fall from Lhe sky ihducihg Lerror ahd Lurmoil ih Lhe people below. 1he pahel
depicLihg Lhe 'red lighL highL' is aL Lhe boLLom, secohd from Lhe lefL. (lhoLograph
2010 Museum of lihe ArLs, 8osLoh, HarrieL lowers, Americah, 1837~110 Iictcricl quilt
Americah (ALhehs, Ceorgia), 185~8, coLLoh plaih weave, pieced, appliqued,
embroidered, ahd quilLed, 8
7
/
8
,105 ih. (175,2.7 cm), Museum of lihe ArLs,
8osLoh, 8equesL of Maxim Karolik 4.1).
RighI in Ihe middle o Ihese scripIural sIories, in Ihe very cenIer o Ihe quilI, is
an appliqued Iableau o Ihe Leonid meIeor shower o 1833. Fowers' own
descripIion o her scene, given upon delivery o Ihe quilI reads, ''The alling o
Ihe sIars on Nov. 13, 1833. The people were righIened and IhoughI IhaI Ihe end
had come. Cod's hand sIaid Ihe sIars. The varminIs rushed ouI o Iheir beds.'' IIs
cenIral locaIion and Ihe acI IhaI Fowers hadn'I even been born Ihe nighI Ihe
meIeors ell, aIIesIs Io Ihe apocalypIic imporIance aIIached Io Ihe specIacle IhaI
was wiInessed IhaI nighI.
S
Today her sIory and her quilI hang in Ihe Museum o
Eine ArIs, in BosIon, MassachuseIIs.
S
In Ihe lower leI porIion o Ihe quilI is a panel Fowers describes as ''The red lighI nighI o
1846. A man Iolling Ihe bell Io noIiy Ihe people o Ihe wonder. \omen, children and owls
righIened buI Cod's merciul hand caused no harm Io Ihem.'' II is believed IhaI Ihis is a
reerence Io a series o meIeor showers Fowers hersel saw as a child on Ihe nighIs o AugusI
10 - 11, 1846. I so, Ihen aI leasI some o Ihese shooIing sIars were Ferseid meIeors which sIill
awe and delighI observers Io Ihis day.
Autumn Moon 247
In a slighIly less ominous vein, in 134, almosI exacIly a hundred years aIer
Ihe 1833 shower, Erank Ferkins and MiIchell Farish wroIe Ihe song 'SIars Eell on
Alabama,' ''\e lived our liIIle drama} \e kissed in a ield o whiIe} And sIars ell
on Alabama} LasI nighI,'' which Ioday, in honor o Ihe song's IiIle, has produced
Ihe only American license plaIe moIIo Io memorialize an asIronomical evenI.
Frior Io Ihe 1833 meIeor shower iI wasn'I really known whaI meIeors were.
Some IhoughI Ihey were purely aImospheric phenomena, perhaps Ihe resulI o
lammable gasses and elecIrical discharges. SubsequenI work by asIronomers
revealed IhaI meIeor showers are closely relaIed Io comeIs. Since each meIeor is
Iypically Ihe iery end Io an inIerplaneIary grain o sand, a meIeor shower musI be
Ihe resulI o a veriIable river o sand Ihrough which our planeI passes aI Ihe same
poinI in iIs orbiI every year. One o Ihe principal discoveries o nineIeenIh cenIury
asIronomy was IhaI Ihese celesIial sandsIorms are Ihe calling cards o comeIs.
ComeIs are greaI mixes o rock and ice, ''dirIy snowballs'' is Ihe descripIion
asIronomer Ered \hipple used in 1S0. \hile Ihese ice balls have Iheir origin in
orbiIs ar rom Ihe Sun, every so oIen a random collision or graviIaIional
inluence o a passing planeI sends one on a long plunge inIo Ihe glowing heaI o
Ihe inner solar sysIem. \hen Ihe rozen mass alls inward pasI Ihe orbiI o Mars,
lighI and heaI rom Ihe Sun begins Io vaporize Ihe comeI's ices. JeIs o dirIy,
dusI-laden waIer vapor rockeI millions o Ions o Ihese volaIile compounds inIo a
figure 7.2 ComeL Hale 8opp above Cayuga Lake ih upsLaLe New ork durihg Lhe
sprihg of 2007. 1he comeL was so brighL, sLargazers could see iL amid Lhe glare of ciLy
lighLs, ahd iL was visible for mohLhs as iL passed arouhd Lhe Suh (1. Nordgreh).
cloudy coma IhaI envelops and hides Ihe ever warming nucleus. EvenIually,
sunlighI pushes Ihe dusI parIicles ouIward inIo a brighI Iail poinIing away rom
Ihe Sun. AI iIs largesI, a comeI's Iail can span Ihe disIance beIween Ihe planeIs
making Ihem, or a brie Iime, Ihe largesI objecIs in Ihe Solar SysIem, even larger
Ihan Ihe Sun iIsel.
Every comeI produces Iwo Iails: dusI relecIing Ihe lighI o Ihe Sun produces
Ihe large, brighI, yellow-whiIe Iail IhaI curves ouI away rom Ihe Sun while a
second blue Iail is composed o individual aIoms sIripped o Iheir elecIrons and
blown sIraighI back rom Ihe Sun by
Ihe parIicles o Ihe solar wind.
As a comeI passes around Ihe Sun,
iIs gradual evaporaIion leaves biIs o
iIsel behind IhaI conIinue Io orbiI
Ihe Sun in a dusIy sIream. \here Ihe
ribbon o griI inIersecIs Ihe EarIh's
orbiI, a meIeor shower ensues when-
ever Ihe EarIh passes Ihrough iI. This
is why meIeor showers occur aI Ihe
same Iime each year. This is also why
Ihe Leonids are parIicularly specIa-
cular every 33 years when iIs parenI
comeI, Tempel-TuIIle, comes around
and lays down a new swaIh o dusI.
The Leonids o 166 were probably
even more specIacular Ihan Ihe
sIorm o 1833, while 33 years laIer,
in 1 and 2001, sky waIchers were
once more IreaIed Io a specIacular
display. Seven years laIer in 2008 Ihe
Leonids were once more only an
average occurrence.
figure 7.28 ComeL Hale 8opp from hazy
skies ih upsLaLe New ork. A comeL's Lails
always poihL away from Lhe Suh. 1he brighL
yellow Lail is suhlighL reflecLihg off dusL
e|ecLed off Lhe hucleus of Lhe comeL by Lhe
vaporizihg ices. 1he blue Lail is iohized
gasses blowh away from Lhe Suh by
parLicles of Lhe solar wihd (1. Nordgreh).
figure 7.27 1he icy hucleus of Halley's ComeL
is phoLographed by Lhe Europeah Space
Agehcy's CioLLo spacecrafL as iL flew Lhrough
Lhe comeL's coma ih 18 (ESA, CourLesy of
MlAe, Lihdau).
Autumn Moon 24
figure 7.29 1he SpiLzer Space 1elescope
capLures Lhis ihfrared image of Lhe brokeh pieces
of ComeL 73l}Schwassmah-Wachmahh 3 as iL
sails alohg Lhe Lrail of dusL iL lefL oh previous
orbiLs arouhd Lhe Suh. WiLh each pass arouhd Lhe
Suh, Lhe comeL lefL more of iLself behihd uhLil, ih
15, iL begah Lo splihLer aparL. Each of iLs ma|or
pieces is a comeL how, compleLe wiLh a Lail
poihLihg away from Lhe Suh. lh 2022 Lhe EarLh is
expecLed Lo pass close Lo Lhis dusLy Lrail resulLihg
ih a hew meLeor shower (NASA}|lL-CalLech).
The besI Iime Io see a shower is in Ihe early morning hours aIer midnighI and
beore dawn. BeIween Ihese Iimes you sIand on Ihe shadowed parI o Ihe EarIh
acing orward in our paIh around Ihe Sun. Like riding in a car driving Ihrough a
snowsIorm, iI's Ihe passengers in Ihe ronI seaI IhaI see Ihe snow sIreaking
Ioward Ihem and perspecIive is Ihe reason Ihe snowlakes all seem Io radiaIe
ouIward rom a poinI in ronI o Ihe car. This poinI in a meIeor shower is called
Ihe radianI, and Ihe consIellaIion in which iI appears Io be locaIed is whaI gives
Ihe shower iIs name. AIer midnighI, Ihe consIellaIion conIaining Ihe radianI
will almosI always be rising in Ihe easI. To see as many shooIing sIars as possible,
simply siI back and look up. MeIeors will appear all over Ihe sky, buI every
meIeor IhaI is parI o Ihe shower will always be shooIing away rom Ihe
consIellaIion aIer which Ihey are named.
S
Every year we see Ihe Ferseids radiaIe rom Ferseus under laIe summer skies.
Over Iwo Ihousand years ago Ihese meIeors prompIed Ihe sIory o Zeus
courIing a young maiden by appearing as a golden shower. The ruiI o Iheir
union was Ihe hero Ferseus who killed Medusa and whose consIellaIion
produces Ihe mosI widely waIched meIeor shower each year on warm AugusI
nighIs. MosI people Ihink Ihis shower is Ihe besI, as iI is Ihe only one Ihe
public Iypically hears abouI, buI Ihe mosI consisIenIly specIacular shower is
acIually Ihe Ceminids o mid-December. The meIeors o IhaI shower are
acIually connecIed wiIh an asIeroid (3200 FhaeIhon), buI iI is probable IhaI
Ihis is jusI a comeI IhaI long ago boiled away all iIs ice, leaving behind noIhing
buI a rocky corpse.
BeIween Ihe Ferseids o summer and Ihe Ceminids o winIer, are Ihe
6
You do noI need a Ielescope Io see meIeors or a meIeor shower. In acI, Ihis is Ihe worsI Ihing
you can do. MeIeors will be all over Ihe sky, while a Ielescope only allows you Io look aI one
Iiny parI. The darker Ihe sky, Ihe more meIeors you will see. The besI nighIs are when Ihere is
no Moon. To Iell i you are someplace dark enough Io see a good shower, a simple rule o
Ihumb is Io look Iowards Folaris and see i you can see Ihe sIars IhaI make up Ihe handle o
Ihe LiIIle Dipper. I you can, Ihen you are in a ine locaIion. I you can'I even see Folaris, Ihen
you mighI wanI Io ind someplace darker.
figure 7.30 Over a huhdred meLeors sLream ouL of Lhe cohsLellaLioh of Cemihi ih Lhis
composiLe image made over Lhe course of Lhree highLs ih December 2007. 1he Cemihid
meLeor shower has become ohe of Lhe more reliably brilliahL showers ih recehL years,
buL because of cold LemperaLures very few people Lake Lhe Lime Lo eh|oy iL. NoLice LhaL
while meLeors appear all over Lhe sky ih Lhis fish-eye image, Lhey all Lrace back Lo a sihgle
poihL, Lhe radiahL, ih Lhe cohsLellaLioh of Cemihi (8erko Erho).
Orionids o cool auIumn nighIs. OcIober's shower, IhaI issues rom Orion, is Ihe
resulI o Ihe mosI amous comeI o all, Ihe one IhaI Edmond Halley irsI realized
passes by Ihe EarIh every 76 years. Halley's ComeI won'I reIurn unIil 2061 buI
every OcIober 20-22 you can see or yoursel a parI o iIs pasI. And while Ihese
are Ihe meIeors I will see IonighI, my ondesI memories are o Ihe Leonids in
November, because every year Ihey occur on my birIhday. So in a very real sense,
I was born under a comeI.
7
Though we no longer view Ihe Leonids, or any sIrong shower, as Ihe end o
days, iI is imporIanI Io undersIand Ihe danger IhaI comeIs and Iheir inner Solar
SysIem cousins, Ihe near-EarIh asIeroids pose. As o my wriIing Ihis, Ihere are
7
\hile I am cerIainly noI making any claims o comparison by noIing Ihis, Samuel Clemens
(Mark Twain) was born Ihe same year IhaI Halley's ComeI made an appearance in Ihe sky. As
he, himsel said, ''I came in wiIh Halley's ComeI in 183S. II is coming again nexI year, and I
expecI Io go ouI wiIh iI The AlmighIy has said, no doubI: 'Now here are Ihese Iwo
unaccounIable reaks, Ihey came in IogeIher, Ihey musI go ouI IogeIher.'' And so Ihey did.
Autumn Moon 251
Table 7.1 Annual meteor showers
Meteor Date Peak ConsteIIation Peak Comet
Shower Range Date Radiant HourIy
Name Rate
QuadrahLids 28 Dec~7 |ah 3~4 |ah Quadrahs 10~0 ?
Muralis
(1)
Lyrids 1~25 April 22 April Lyra 10 1haLcher
ELa Aquarids 21 April~ 5~ May Aquarius 10 Halley
12 May
SouLherh 14 |uly~ 28~2 |uly Aquarius 15~20 ?
DelLa 18 Aug
Aquarids
lerseids 23 |uly~22 Aug 12~13 Aug lerseus 50~80 SwifL-1uLLle
Oriohids 15~2 OcL 21 OcL Orioh 20 Halley
Leohids 13~20 Nov 17~18 Nov Leo 10
(2)
1empel-1uLLle
Cemihids ~1 Dec 13~14 Dec Cemihi 50~80 3200 lhaeLhoh
All daLa from leLer v. 8ias' book Mctcors anJ Mctcor Showcrs. See his websiLe aL hLLp:}}
MeLeorshowersohlihe.com.
NoLes: (1) ObsoleLe cohsLellaLioh hear Lhe hahdle of Lhe 8ig Dipper. (2) WiLh ComeL
1empel-1uLLle's reLurh every 33 years Lhis humber cah go up Lo several huhdred ah hour.
1he lasL ouLbursL was ih 18-2002.
1,0S4 FoIenIially Hazardous AsIeroids (FHAs) known. These are deined as Ihose
rocks larger Ihan abouI a ooIball ield IhaI come closer Io Ihe EarIh Ihan 20
Iimes Ihe disIance Io Ihe Moon.
To geI a sense o Ihe danger, look back aI Ihe Moon. Consider IhaI every
craIer is Ihe record o an impacI aI some poinI in Ihe lasI 4.S billion years. The
only impacI craIer you mighI be able Io make ouI wiIh your unaided eye is
Tycho, a relaIively resh craIer in Ihe souIhern hemisphere wiIh long brighI
rays IhaI sIream ouI in all direcIions and make Ihe craIer easily visible.
8
EiIIingly Ihen, iI is named or Ihe lasI greaI asIronomer beore Ihe invenIion o
Ihe Ielescope.
\hile you can see Tycho's rays easily enough wiIhouI a Ielescope when Ihe
Moon is ull, Ihe craIer iIsel is besI seen Ihrough binoculars or a Ielescope a ew
days beore, when shadows sIill give a sense o Ihe craIer's ull depIh and
dimension. II measures S3 miles (8S km) across, wider Ihan CreaI Smoky
MounIains NaIional Fark is long, and wiIh a depIh o nearly 3 miles (S km),
8
Eor Ihose who see an upIurned woman's proile in Ihe Moon's dark markings, Tycho is Ihe
diamond jewel aI her IhroaI.
figure 7.31 8ecause 1ycho is
ohe of Lhe youhgesL impacL
siLes we cah see oh Lhe Mooh,
Lhe rock ahd debris iL e|ecLed is
sLill brighL agaihsL Lhe darker
luhar surface. 1ycho is LhoughL
Lo be less Lhah 100 millioh
years old based oh samples of
Lhe rays broughL back by
Apollo 17 (NkL}ClemehLihe).
Tycho is Ihree Iimes deeper Ihan Ihe Smokies are Iall. Eor Ihose o you on Ihe
wesI coasI, Ihis makes Ihe craIer Ihree Iimes deeper Ihan Ihe Crand Canyon and
Ihree Iimes wider Ihan Ihe canyon aI iIs widesI. And yeI a scar IhaI would be a
major IourisI aIIracIion on EarIh is jusI one o umpIeen-million craIers, big and
small, IhaI cover Ihe surace o Ihe Moon.
Ferhaps Ihe mosI obvious sign o asIeroid impacIs are Ihe large dark eaIures
IhaI are Ihe mosI easily seen rom Ihe EarIh. RadioacIive daIing o Moon rocks
broughI back by Ihe Apollo asIronauIs revealed IhaI roughly 4 billion years ago
Ihe Moon underwenI a period o exIraordinarily heavy bombardmenI. During
Ihis Iime impacIs on Ihe Moon, and presumably Ihe EarIh, Mars, Venus and
Mercury, were so inIense IhaI enormous impacI basins were hollowed ouI o Ihe
crusI. A billion years laIer, dark molIen magma would well up ouI o cracks in Ihe
crusI and pool in Ihese low lying basins making iI easier Io see Iheir boundaries.
Three billion years laIer human beings would look up in wonder aI Ihe paIIerns
Ihey creaIed and call Ihem Ihe maria, Ihe Man in Ihe Moon.
Ever since Ihis Iime o heavy bombardmenI, debris has rained down on Ihe
Moon and planeIs aI a low buI more or less conIinuous raIe producing Ihose ew
craIers we see on Ihe lunar plains. And even Ihough Iheir numbers are small,
some craIers are quiIe big, such as Ihe 62 mile (100 km) diameIer craIer
Copernicus in Ihe middle o Oceanus Frocellarum, Ihe Ocean o SIorms. II's Ihe
scarciIy o craIers IhaI conirm Ihe maria are younger Ihan Ihe surrounding lunar
surace. The number o craIers you see on any parIicular body in Ihe Solar SysIem
Ihereore serves as a clock revealing how old or young Ihe surace may be.
The planeIs and moons Ihemselves are all abouI Ihe same age, 4.S billion years
Autumn Moon 253
figure 7.32 kohald Evahs, ih
Apollo 1, looks dowh oh Lhe
flooded impacL basih LhaL is Mare
Crisium. NoLice how Lhe dark
volcahic rock LhaL welled up ahd
filled Lhe huge circular bowl,
overflowed parLs of Lhe
surrouhdihg rim, buryihg Lhe
older surface Lo Lhe upper righL.
WhaL few craLers exisL ih Mare
Crisium, ohly occurred afLer Lhe
basih was flooded (k. Evahs}
NASA}Lll).
old, buI because o Ihe geological processes IhaI have gone on Ihere since, some
have younger suraces Ihan oIhers. II's as i Ihe worlds in our Solar SysIem were
back-counIry roads. A mounIain road builI back in Ihe 130s when Ihis park was
creaIed would be heavily poIholed by now. BuI repave a segmenI every now and
Ihen and Ihere will be parIs where you can drive a car wiIhouI damage. So while
Ihe enIire road iIsel will be nearly 7S years old, dierenI secIions will appear
younger by an amounI revealed by Ihe smooIhness o Ihe ride. On Ihe Moon, Ihe
lunar poIholes producing Mare Imbrium, NecIaris, and SereniIaIis (Ihe Seas o
Showers, NecIar, and SereniIy) were illed abouI 3 billion years ago, wiIh Ihe lasI
o Ihe remaining maria illed abouI a hal billion years laIer. Since Ihen Ihe lunar
surace has simply been leI Io bake under Ihe Sun and accumulaIe iIs scars wiIh
Ihe years.
\haI did Ihe Moon do Io deserve Ihis bombardmenI while we on EarIh were
saved7 In realiIy iI did noIhing, Ihere is noIhing special abouI Ihe Moon, no
propensiIy or impacI, no magneIic, or graviIaIional poIenIial IhaI draws in Ihe
debris. Eor every asIeroid IhaI has ever scarred Ihe Moon, Ihe EarIh has been hiI
by jusI as many.
The quesIion is noI why Ihe Moon has so many craIers, buI
why Ihe EarIh has so ew.
In acI, while every square mile o Ihe EarIh's surace has been hiI by Ihe same number o
meIeoriIes as every square mile o Ihe Moon, because Ihe EarIh is so much larger Ihan Ihe
Moon, we have acIually been a celesIial IargeI ar more oIen.
figure 7.33 CraLers are fouhd oh virLually every mooh ahd plaheL wiLh a solid surface.
hiversiLy of kedlahds sLudehL, SamahLha ork, has crocheLed ahd quilLed a
represehLaLioh of Lhe valhalla impacL basih oh |upiLer's mooh CallisLo (SamahLha ork).
The scarciIy o EarIhly craIers is naIurally explained by Ihe wind and Ihe
waIer, Ihe mounIains and Ihe sIreams around me. The EarIh is an acIive place
where volcanoes erupI, conIinenIs collide, oceans are deep, and wind, rain and
ice, erode. O all Ihe exoIic places in Ihe Solar SysIem, Ihe EarIh has Ihe youngesI
surace o Ihem all because our planeI is consIanIly recreaIing iIsel.
10
SIill, Ihe EarIh is noI wholly wiIhouI exIraIerresIrial mar. InIersIaIe 40 skirIs
Ihe norIhern boundary o Ihe park as iI cuIs Ihrough Ihe Appalachians on iIs way
wesI across Ihe counIry. SevenIeen hundred miles down Ihe smooIh mulIi-lane
hardIop, ouIside \inslow Arizona, I-40 paved over Ihe much older byway o
hisIoric RouIe 66. There, seI amongsI Ihe Iacky charm o roadside hucksIerism is
Ihe original ouI-o-Ihis-world road-side aIIracIion: MeIeor CraIer.
MeIeor CraIer, also known as Barringer CraIer, is a preIIy big hole in Ihe
ground by EarIhly sIandards. II's 600 eeI (183 m) deep, nearly a mile (1.2 km)
wide, and has a rim IhaI rises 1S0 eeI (4S m) above Ihe surrounding redrock
plains o NorIhern Arizona. \hen Europeans irsI came across Ihe craIer in Ihe
10
OK, JupiIer's moon Io probably has an even younger surace Ihan ours as iIs globe girdling
volcanism consIanIly recovers iIs surace resulIing in Ihe one oIher body in Ihe Solar SysIem
wiIh no impacI craIers.
Autumn Moon 255
1800s iIs uniqueness was obvious, seI
as iI was beIween Ihe barren plains o
Ihe Navajo reservaIion and Ihe
ancienI snow-capped volcano o Ihe
San Erancisco Feaks. In 181, C. K.
CilberI, Ihe pre-eminenI geologisI o
Ihe day and head o Ihe U.S. Ceolo-
gical Survey, was drawn Io Ihe Ari-
zona TerriIory by reporIs o iron-
nickel meIeoriIes around Ihe gianI
depression. CilberI had already
speculaIed on Ihe possibiliIy o exIra-
IerresIrial impacIs, buI because Ihe
mechanics o planeIary collisions
were noI well undersIood, he
hypoIhesized IhaI a hole IhaI big
should have an equally gianI iron
meIeoriIe buried beneaIh iIs surace.
Today we know IhaI aI Ihe inIerpla-
neIary speeds aI which asIeroids and
EarIh collide, a very small body can
make a very large hole and Ihe
explosive orce o a large enough
impacI is enough Io shaIIer Ihe
meIeoriIe inIo a million small rag-
menIs. \hen CilberI's magneIs
Iurned up no gianI mass o iron he
announced Ihe only viable hypoIh-
esis was IhaI Ihe craIer was Ihe resulI o exploding volcanic sIeam, Ihe
abundance o nearby meIeoriIes, was merely a coincidence.
A decade laIer, Daniel Moreau Barringer, a Fhiladelphia mining engineer,
ormer lawyer, ouIdoor enIhusiasI, and hunIing companion o Teddy RoosevelI
would be convinced Ihe craIer really was Ihe resulI o an impacI. All around Ihe
craIer Ihe rock IhaI had been ejecIed in iIs ormaIion was laced IhroughouI wiIh
biIs o iron meIeoriIe. I Ihe meIeoriIes had allen irsI, Ihey should be buried
beneaIh Ihe ejecIed rock, i Ihey came aIerwards, Ihey should be siIIing on Iop.
Only i a single evenI was responsible or boIh, would Ihey be ound as Ihey were.
No maIIer whaI CilberI's resulIs mighI have been, Barringer was sure Ihe
enormous iron mass musI be somewhere beneaIh Ihe craIer loor.
AIer securing Ihe mineral righIs Io Ihe land, Barringer creaIed Ihe MeIeor
CraIer ExploraIion and Mining Company and spenI Ihe nexI 20 years looking or
Ihe iron meIeoriIe he esIimaIed weighed 10 million Ions. Eor Iwo decades he
baIIled quicksand and skepIics. AI irsI his baIIles were wiIh Ihose who believed,
like CilberI, IhaI Ihe craIer owed more Io volcanism Ihan cosmic encounIers.
EvenIually Ihough, his ighI shiIed Io Ihose who accepIed a meIeoric origin, buI
figure 7.34 AsLrohauLs ohboard Lhe
lhLerhaLiohal Space SLaLioh capLured Lhis phoLo
of MeLeor CraLer oh Lhe plaihs of horLherh
Arizoha. Cahyoh Diablo is Lhe meahderihg
cahyoh Lo Lhe upper lefL (lmage Sciehce ahd
Ahalysis LaboraLory, NASA |ohhsoh Space
CehLer, '1he CaLeway Lo AsLrohauL lhoLography
of EarLh,' hLLp:}}earLh.|sc.hasa.gov}).
figure 7.35 visiLors sLahd oh ah observaLioh plaLform LhaL hahgs ouL ihLo Lhe bowl of
MeLeor CraLer (also khowh as 8arrihger CraLer). l Look Lhis phoLo sLahdihg high up oh
Lhe rim, amid Lhe rocks ahd boulders e|ecLed Lhere durihg Lhe explosive impacL. 1he
luhar craLer 1ycho is almosL a huhdred Limes wider wiLh brighL e|ecLa LhaL sLreLches for
over a Lhousahd miles across Lhe Mooh's surface (1. Nordgreh).
based upon lunar observaIions, IhoughI IhaI Ihe craIer's size was due Io Ihe
explosive power o Ihe impacI, and noI simply Ihe large size o Ihe impacIor.
I Ihis laIIer poinI were Irue, which we now know iI is, Ihen Ihe orIune
Barringer had spenI would have been or wasIe. \hen in 12, yeI anoIher mine
shaI ailed Io ind any iron, and renewed calculaIions showed Ihere should be
liIIle Io no iron leI rom any impacI, Ihe board o direcIors pulled Ihe plug. Two
monIhs laIer Barringer was dead o a hearI aIIack.
In 163 Cene Shoemaker, a geologisI wiIh Ihe asIrogeology branch o Ihe U.S.
Ceological Survey (which he ounded in nearby ElagsIa, Arizona), conclusively
proved Barringer CraIer was caused by a meIeor impacI by looking aI Ihe
composiIion o iIs minerals and Ihe sIrucIure and layering o iIs various eaIures.
The only naIurally occurring explanaIion or Ihe required high pressures and
IemperaIures comes rom beyond Ihe EarIh, and is Ihe resulI o Ihe explosion
creaIed when Ihe EarIh and an asIeroid collide.
Today MeIeor CraIer is owned and operaIed by Barringer's descendenIs as a
scienIiic and IourisI desIinaIion.
11
The Iechniques Shoemaker used Io idenIiy
11
\hile iI is designaIed as a naIional naIural landmark, iI is noI parI o Ihe naIional park
sysIem, so don'I Iry Io use a naIional parks pass Io enIer Ihere. Even so, Ihe privaIely run
visiIor cenIer is well worIh a sIop on any road Irip down RouIe 66.
Autumn Moon 257
figure 7.3 Oh Lhe rim of Crahd
Cahyoh, |usL off l-40 ahd ohly a few
dozeh miles from MeLeor CraLer, a piece
of Lhe iroh meLeoriLe LhaL formed Lhe
craLer siLs oh display ih verkamp's Curio
Shop. lrior Lo 2008, Lhe verkamps had
operaLed Lhe shop for as lohg as Lhe
8arrihgers had operaLed aL Lhe craLer
(Loday Lhe verkamp shop is a park visiLor
cehLer). A sigh oh Lhe meLeoriLe chuhk
says iL was fouhd ih Cahyoh Diablo,
weighs 535 pouhds (243 kg), is 2%
iroh, 8% hickel, wiLh Lrace amouhLs of
gold, silver, plaLihum, ahd diamohd (1.
Nordgreh).
MeIeor CraIer as an asIeroid impacI, have now posiIively idenIiied 1S0 oIher
impacI craIers around Ihe world, and have been used Io subsequenIly sIudy
craIers on Ihe Moon. The Apollo asIronauIs even Irained in MeIeor CraIer in
order Io geI experience wiIh whaI Ihey could be expecIed Io see when Ihey goI Io
Ihe Moon.
The impacI IhaI creaIed MeIeor CraIer released as much energy as 2.S
megaIons o TNT, abouI 1S0 Iimes Ihe orce o Ihe aIomic bomb IhaI desIroyed
Hiroshima.
12
\hile Ihis would have obviously been a very bad day or anyIhing
grazing in Ihe neighborhood we know rom Ihe Moon IhaI Ihe EarIh musI have
been hiI by ar worse many Iimes in iIs pasI. \haI musI one o Ihose have been
like7
In my rambles Ihrough Ihe Smoky MounIain woods I have come upon
salamanders, rogs, lizards, wild Iurkeys, elk, and a bear. One animal I didn'I see,
12
During Ihe Cold \ar iI was a ear o some asIronomers IhaI i Ihe EarIh should be hiI by a
large enough meIeor, even one smaller Ihan whaI creaIed MeIeor CraIer, Ihe UniIed SIaIes or
SovieI Union would misIake Ihe explosion or a surrepIiIious nuclear irsI sIrike by Ihe oIher
side. As a resulI, a very unlucky asIeroid encounIer could be Ihe spark Io igniIe an accidenIal
nuclear war.
however, was a dinosaur. The very
lack o gianI, erocious man-eaIing
dinosaurs (wiIh Ihe excepIion o Ihe
IourisI Irap aIIracIions o CaIlinburg
and Figeon Eorge jusI ouIside Ihe
park's boundary) is due Io Ihese
planeIary impacIs. My very presence
here, and Ihe wildlie I hope Io see or
avoid, is Ihanks Io asIronomical
collisions.
SixIy-ive million years ago lie on
EarIh looked very dierenI Ihan iI
does Ioday. RepIilian-looking crea-
Iures, big and small (buI mosIly really
big) had been Ihe dominanI animal
IhroughouI land, sea, and air or 180
million years. Think abouI IhaI:
dinosaurs ruled Ihis planeI or Ihree
Iimes longer Ihan we mammals have
had iI Io ourselves. All over NorIh
America, dinosaur ossils are ound in
layers o rock, provided Ihe rock is
older Ihan 6S million years. In NorIh Carolina and wesIern Tennessee ossil
remains have been ound o duck-billed dinosaurs IhoughI Io have lived abouI
80 million years ago. BuI in all rocks younger Ihan 6S million years, any Irace o
Ihese globe-spanning creaIures is uIIerly absenI. \haI's more, 6S million years
ago, aI Ihe boundary IhaI marks Ihe end o Ihe CreIaceous and sIarI o Ihe
TerIiary periods (called Ihe K-T boundary or shorI) as many as 7S% o all Ihe
EarIh's animal and planI species appear Io have suddenly become exIincI.
Dinosaurs, like asIronomy, are someIhing every kid loves aI some poinI when
Ihey're growing up. By Ihe Iime I was 12 I could name all Ihe really cool
dinosaurs, and Io make maIIers even more awesome, whaIever happened Io
Ihem was a compleIe and uIIer mysIery. How neaI is iI IhaI in Ihe years since
Ihen an asIeroid impacI has Iurned ouI Io be Ihe chie culpriI in Iheir exIincIion7
My childhood inIeresIs have come ull circle.
The evidence or dinosaurs' asIronomical demise comes rom many direc-
Iions. In layers o rock around Ihe world IhaI span Ihe daIe o Iheir exIincIion, a
layer o brown clay is ound IhaI is rich in Ihe rare mineral iridium (aI leasI
compared Io Ihe soil above and below iI). \hile iridium is noI normally ound
on Ihe EarIh's surace, iI is much more common in meIeoriIes. The 6S million
year old layer o clay also conIains grains o shocked quarIz (as i Ihe quarIz had
been hiI by a greaI orce) and Iiny Iear-drop shaped glass rocks called IekIiIes IhaI
are known Io orm when molIen maIerial solidiies as iI alls Ihrough Ihe air. In
addiIion Io Ihese, quanIiIies o sooI are ound in many siIes around Ihe globe as
i greaI ires had burned Ihe landscape during iIs ormaIion. \hen Ihese pieces o
figure 7.37 1his is whaL happehs wheh kouLe
ehLrepreheurship ahd asLrohomy collide oh
dusLy back roads (1. Nordgreh).
Autumn Moon 25
evidence are paired wiIh a
recenIly discovered craIer
nearly 120 miles (200 km)
across parIially buried o Ihe
coasI o Ihe YucaIan Feninsula
near Ihe Iown o Chicxulub
(aIer which iI's been named)
Ihe evidence is overwhelming
IhaI a massive impacI Iook
place 6S million years ago.
Imagine whaI iI mighI have
been like Io be alive here in Ihe
American souIheasI on IhaI
aIeul day Ihe asIeroid hiI. Eor
millions o years Ihe mile (1S
km) wide mass o rock had been
loaIing in space, orbiIing Ihe
Sun on a paIh IhaI broughI iI
near Ihe blue-green planeI.
13
Many Iimes iI passed quiIe close Io Ihe EarIh, or where Ihe EarIh would be
jusI a ew days or monIhs laIer. BuI now Ihe Iwo IrajecIories cross aI jusI Ihe
wrong Iime.
Today is a ine summer day and Ihe sky is a drowsy, hazy blue. Over Ihe
horizon, coming in ouI o Ihe souIh, Ihe gianI rock sIreaks Ihrough Ihe Ihin
aImosphere. The meIeor's surace chars wiIh Ihe heaI o aImospheric ricIion buI
inside iI remains Ihe same subarcIic cold o Ihe space in which iI's been
immersed or over Ien Ihousand cenIuries. In less Iime Ihan iI Iakes Io read Ihis
paragraph Ihe asIeroid slams inIo whaI will become Ihe Cul o Mexico over a
Ihousand miles away rom where I now sIand.
In an insIanI, Ihe energy o a hundred million hydrogen bombs is unleashed
creaIing a ireball IhaI erupIs over Ihe curvaIure o Ihe EarIh, shining Ihree Iimes
brighIer Ihan Ihe Sun. The skin on my ace blisIers and swells wiIh second degree
burns while many o Ihe leaves around me bursI inIo lames. All Ihose poor
planIs and animals wiIhin 60 miles (100 km) o Ihe impacI are immediaIely
incineraIed by a ireball 400 Iimes Ihe inIensiIy o Ihe Sun.
The impacI iIsel creaIes a craIer nearly 120 miles (200 km) in diameIer and
figure 7.38 CarLooh by Lhe auLhor illusLraLihg ah
alLerhaLive idea for how ah asLeroid mighL have wiped
ouL Lhe dihosaurs (1. Nordgreh).
13
Bill BoIIke, a planeIary scienIisI in Boulder Colorado, has ound evidence IhaI Iwo large
asIeroids collided 100 million years ago in Ihe asIeroid belI. Based on Ihe orbiI o modern
asIeroids, Ihe posiIion o Ihe poIenIial collision was aI jusI Ihe righI locaIion in Ihe belI IhaI
debris would have been senI spiraling inIo Ihe inner Solar SysIem. The asIeroid IhaI killed Ihe
dinosaurs 6S million years ago, as well as Ihe asIeroid IhaI creaIed Tycho CraIer on Ihe Moon,
may have Iheir origin in IhaI collision. In acI, Ihe near-EarIh asIeroids we see Ioday may be
Ihe lasI remaining remnanIs o IhaI long-ago evenI.
sends massive shockwaves Ihrough Ihe EarIh IhaI reach me ive minuIes aIer
impacI wiIh a rumble IhaI shakes Ihe ground where I sIand. I sIumble, buI don'I
all. The sIill smoldering Irees around me shake wildly, sending counIless winged
creaIures inIo Ihe sky.
Ten minuIes aIer Ihe impacI, Ihick molIen rock rom Ihe impacI rains down
ouI o Ihe sky over NorIh America killing mosI lie on Ihe conIinenI insIanIly. A
liIIle over an hour laIer, I'm no longer in any posiIion Io care abouI Ihe 400 mile
per hour (6S0 km}hr) air blasI IhaI races across my burnI and buried corpse,
knocking laI Ihe now raging inerno IhaI is Ihe oresI where I once sIood.
\hile I and all lie on Ihe conIinenI is wiped ouI wiIhin Ihe irsI ew minuIes,
Ihe resI o Ihe planeI ollows suiI preIIy quickly. The hoI, molIen chunks o Ihe
YucaIan Feninsula IhaI were blasIed inIo space, rain back down all over Ihe
planeI or Ihe nexI hour or so. The sky overhead liIerally bakes Ihe planeI's
surace as Ihe re-enIering rock heaIs up and radiaIes energy in every direcIion.
Eor as long as maIerial alls ouI o Ihe sky Ihe surace o Ihe EarIh is as hoI as an
oven and any creaIure IhaI isn'I able Io bury iIsel deep in Ihe ground, in dark
holes and cool mud, or ar down in Ihe boIIom o lakes or seas, dies in Ihose irsI
ew hours aIer Ihe impacI.
Eor Ihose IhaI survive Ihe iniIial hours, deaIh comes slower. Sulur
compounds blasIed inIo Ihe aImosphere reacI wiIh waIer vapor, producing
concenIraIed acid rain IhaI kills Ihose aquaIic species IhaI survived in lakes and
seas. DusI rom Ihe impacI and smoke rom Ihe globe-spanning ire-sIorm bloI
ouI Ihe Sun. Darkness and winIer reign over Ihe enIire planeI or monIhs
regardless o Ihe local season. Creen living planIs and algae IhaI depend on
sunlighI or ood wiIher and die and noIhing new grows or up Io a year. Those
animals on land and sea IhaI depend on Ihese planIs or Iheir ood die soon
IhereaIer. Carrion eeders have a ield day aI irsI, buI soon Ihey Ioo sIarve.
Though probably % o all living organisms died as a resulI o Ihe
caIasIrophe, Ihe one percenI IhaI survived included small urry animals IhaI
were able Io burrow deep and live o ood Ihey had sIored, noI needing much Io
eaI because o Iheir small size. \hen Ihe dusI inally seIIled, Ihey ound
Ihemselves in a world wiIhouI predaIors where nearly every ecological niche
suddenly had room Io go orIh and prosper. 6S million years laIer Ihey became
us, we are only here because Ihe dinosaurs are noI.
\ho knows whaI Ihe world would look like Ioday i orbiIal paIhs had been
jusI a liIIle dierenI7 There is preliminary evidence IhaI many mass exIincIions
in our planeI's pasI may be Ihe resulI o unlucky collisions. In each insIance, our
world changed.
Look back aI Ihe Moon again. Even Ihe Moon and Ihe season's Ihemselves
may be Ihe greaIesI sign o our planeI's bombardmenI. The rocks Ihe Apollo
asIronauIs broughI back show our sisIer world conIains almosI no meIals like Ihe
EarIh, or any oIher elemenIs (like waIer) IhaI are easily vaporized. BuI Ihe rock
IhaI remains is very similar Io EarIh's manIle, our Ihick upper crusI. This mix o
similariIies and dierences wiIh Ihe EarIh originally conounded ideas o where
Ihe Moon came rom. Eor example, i Ihe Moon ormed in orbiI around Ihe
Autumn Moon 21
EarIh, Ihen iI should have been builI ouI o Ihe same sIu we were and so have
Ihe same composiIion as Ihe EarIh.
Since Ihe end o Apollo, planeIary scienIisIs have proposed an explanaIion
IhaI iIs all Ihe new daIa IhaI had been broughI back rom Ihe Moon. They
Iheorize IhaI 4.S billion years ago, in Ihe inal days o planeI ormaIion, Ihe
nearly compleIe EarIh was sIruck by anoIher young planeIoid roughly Ihe size o
Mars. By Ihis sIage in Ihe EarIh's ormaIion, Ihe EarIh would have been ully
dierenIiaIed as all Ihe high densiIy meIals sank downward orming our core,
leaving lighIer densiIy rock orming our planeI's manIle. A glancing blow by
anoIher dierenIiaIed body would have senI a spray o Ihe EarIh's rocky manIle
figure 7.39 kobih Cahup ih 8oulder Colorado successfully simulaLes Lhe formaLioh of
Lhe Mooh as Lhe resulL of a glahcihg collisioh beLweeh Lhe early EarLh ahd a Mars-sized
plaheL. Colors show Lhe LemperaLure of Lhe heaLed maLerial. 1he origihal EarLh begihs
wiLh a mosLly molLeh meLallic core ahd a cooler rocky exLerior. AfLer ohly 24 hours Lhe
hew EarLh (a mix of boLh origihal plaheLs) is largely compleLe wiLh a hew massive Mooh
(k. Cahup}SouLhwesL kesearch lhsLiLuLe).
figure 7.40 NASA's Deep lmpacL spacecrafL LhaL sehL a probe hurLlihg ihLo a comeL
hucleus, ih order Lo see whaL iL was made ouL of, Lurhs back Lo look aL Lhe disLahL EarLh
ahd Mooh from a disLahce of 31 millioh miles (50 millioh km). Africa is visible oh Lhe
suhliL side of Lhe EarLh ih Lhe firsL frame. live hours laLer SouLh America ahd Lhe easL
coasL of America come ihLo view wiLh Lhe suhrise (Dohald |. Lihdler, Sigma Space
CorporaLioh}CSlC, ElOCh}DlXl Sciehce 1eams).
figure 7.41 1he Solar SysLem is sLill a
dahgerous place. lh 14 a comeL LhaL
had ohce passed Loo close Lo |upiLer,
ahd brokeh up ihLo hearly Lwo dozeh
pieces, re-crossed |upiLer's paLh, wiLh
each piece hiLLihg Lhe giahL plaheL ohe
afLer ahoLher. Every Lelescope ih Lhe
Solar SysLem, from backyard amaLeur
Lelescopes Lo mouhLaih-Lop
observaLories Lo Lhe Hubble Space
1elescope ahd cameras ohboard Lhe
Calileo spacecrafL oh iLs way ouL Lo
|upiLer all wiLhessed explosiohs
erupLihg ouL of Lhe |oviah clouds (Lop
frame) LhaL would have dwarfed Lhe
EarLh wiLh iLs afLermaLh (lower frames)
(k. Evahs, |. 1rauger, H. Hammel ahd Lhe
HS1 ComeL Sciehce 1eam ahd NASA).
inIo orbiI around Ihe coalesced remains o Ihe Iwo previous worlds (Ihe EarIh we
know Ioday is Ihe sum o Ihese Iwo once separaIe worlds).
In Ihe aIermaIh o Ihe collision, Ihe newly-ormed EarIh now had an axial IilI
(or aI Ihe very leasI, a new one) giving rise Io seasons. Meanwhile, wiIhin a day o
Ihe collision, Ihe ring o debris orbiIing Ihe new planeI would have begun Io
conIracI Io orm our Moon. This moon would lack mosI meIals and be made
mosIly o rock jusI as Ihe Apollo asIronauIs ound. Erom IhaI day orward Ihe
EarIh and iIs Moon ormed Ihe Solar SysIem's sole double planeI sysIem.
Since Ihen, Ihe EarIh's Iidal orces have slowed Ihe Moon's roIaIion so IhaI iI
compleIes one Iurn on iIs axis or every Irip around Ihe EarIh. In Ihis way Ihe
Moon always keeps Ihe same ace poinIed Iowards us. Nearly every moon in Ihe
Solar SysIem is Iidally locked like Ihis Io iIs planeI. BuI Iidal orces rom Ihe
Autumn Moon 23
Moon also work on Ihe EarIh. They raise Ihe ocean Iides we experience aI Ihe
seashore while also slowing our roIaIion by 1.7 milliseconds per day per cenIury.
EvenIually Ihe EarIh will Iurn once on iIs axis or every Irip Ihe Moon makes
around us and Ihe Iwo planeIs will be locked IogeIher keeping Iheir same aces
orever acing one anoIher. \hen IhaI day comes, one whole hemisphere o Ihe
EarIh will lose iIs view o Ihe Moon while or Ihe oIher hemisphere iI will remain
a consIanI ixIure, moIionless in Ihe sky. II's impossible Io say which hemisphere
will win Ihe Moon as our conIinenIs are consIanIly moving across Ihe ace o Ihe
world. Indeed, Ihe disIribuIion o Ihe conIinenIs on EarIh acIually plays a role in
Ihe aIe o Ihe Moon.
The EarIh Iurns once every 24 hours, asIer Ihan Ihe Iime iI Iakes Ihe Moon Io
compleIe one Irip around iI. EricIion beIween Ihe waIers o Ihe Iides and Ihe
EarIh's sealoor does Iwo Ihings: 1) iI slows Ihe roIaIion o Ihe EarIh, and 2) iI
drags Ihe Iidal bulge orward wiIh Ihe EarIh, ahead o Ihe moIion o Ihe Moon.
Erom Ihe mass o Ihis waIery bulge our Moon eels a orward-pulling
graviIaIional aIIracIion. The exIra graviIaIional energy raises Ihe Moon inIo a
higher orbiI IhaI increases iIs disIance rom Ihe EarIh below. The resulI is IhaI as
Ihe EarIh slows, Ihe Moon spirals away.
The raIe aI which Ihe Moon recedes Ihereore depends upon Ihe ocean's
ricIion wiIh Ihe EarIh. Flace a loI o bumps and barriers all around Ihe EarIh,
leI's call Ihem conIinenIs, and Ihe neI ricIional orce is large: Ihe raIe increases
aI which Ihe EarIh slows and Ihe Moon recedes.
EorIy years ago Apollo asIronauIs placed relecIive devices on Ihe Moon.
Fowerul lasers ired rom Ihe EarIh, relecI o Ihese mirrors and Ihe IoIal Iravel
Iime rom Ihe EarIh Io Ihe Moon and back, Iells us Ihe precise disIance Io Ihe
Moon. These simple measuremenIs reveal Ihe Moon is moving away rom us aI a
raIe o 1.S inches (3.8 cm) per year. AI Ihe Moon's currenI disIance rom Ihe
EarIh, run Ihe movie backwards, Iaking inIo accounI IhaI Ihe raIe o recession
increases Ihe closer Ihe Iwo geI, and our calculaIions require Ihe Moon Io come
spiraling ouI o Ihe EarIh as liIIle as 2 billion years ago. BuI we know Ihe EarIh
and Moon are older Ihan IhaI.
The raIe aI which Ihe Moon is currenIly receding is Ihereore much Ioo asI i
everyIhing else we undersIand abouI Ihe Moon, Ihe EarIh, Ihe Solar SysIem, and
basic physics is correcI. BuI i aI some poinI in Ihe pasI all Ihe conIinenIs were
bunched IogeIher in one single mass, Ihen Ihe IoIal ricIional orce is less: Ihe
EarIh ails Io slow as quickly, and Ihe Moon's ouIward spiral slackens. The only
way Ihe Moon can be where iI is, receding as iI is, and be older Ihan Ihe rocks
IhaI make up iIs mounIains and maria, is i Ihe EarIh has periodically had
superconIinenIs.
The evidence or periodic bunching o Ihe conIinenIs is wonderully all
around me. The CreaI Smoky MounIains, and Ihe Appalachians o which Ihey
are a parI, ormed 300 million years ago when Ihe conIinenIs o NorIh America
and Arica collided Io orm Ihe superconIinenI o Fangaea. Like Ihe Himalayas,
which are a resulI o Ihe Indian sub-conIinenI plowing inIo Asia, Ihe combined
orce o Ihe conIinenIs' collisions drove Ihe EarIh's crusI upwards building an
figure 7.42 1he cehLer of Lhe Milky Way rises above Lhe souLherh exLehL of Lhe
Appalachiah mouhLaih rahge Lhrough CreaL Smoky MouhLaihs NaLiohal lark (1.
Nordgreh).
Appalachian range IhaI probably Iowered higher Ihan any oIher mounIains on
EarIh Ioday. \ho knows how many EveresIs once sIood where we sIand now7
AbouI 17S million years ago, Fangaea spliI and Ihe now amiliar conIinenIs
began Io go Iheir separaIe way. The orces building Ihe Appalachians ended and
eons o erosion have been aI work ever since wearing Ihem down Io dusI. The
CreaI Smoky MounIains we now see are noIhing more Ihan Ihe heavily
weaIhered bones o Ihose once greaI mounIains while Ihe coasIal plains IhaI
make up Ihe easIern seaboard are Iheir washed away remains. BuI look around
now and in Ihe gorgeous genIly rolling, misI illed mounIains is evidence o Ihe
Moon's evoluIion overhead. Even i we had no oIher evidence or Fangaea, Ihe
Moon I see over Ihese mounIains IhaI are iIs legacy Iells me iI musI have been so.
Soon as Ihe evening shades prevail,
The moon Iakes up Ihe wonderous Iale,
And nighIly Io Ihe lisIening earIh,
RepeaIs Ihe sIory o her birIh
Joseph Addison
This is whaI I see when I look around me aI Ihese Smoky MounIains. The roll
o Ihe hill, Ihe lighI in Ihe Irees, and Ihe color o Ihe leaves, Ihe wild Iurkeys in
Ihe grass, Ihe armer in Ihe ield, and Ihe Cherokee people and Iheir hisIory, all
o Ihese are asIronomical in origin or inluence. All around me is asIronomy.
And as Ihe Sun inally seIs, and Ihe Fark Ranger leads a procession o campers
ouI inIo Ihe meadows o Cades Cove where Ihe local Smoky MounIain
AsIronomical SocieIy has seI up Iheir Ielescopes, I am exciIed Io see IhaI Ihe
sIars are beauIiul overhead. I don'I know whaI people were warning me abouI,
Ihis is a wonderul place or asIronomy.
Autumn Moon 25
See for yourseIf
Moon phases
\aIch Ihe posiIion o Ihe Moon change rom day Io day, apparenIly geIIing
larger as iI geIs arIher away rom Ihe Sun in Ihe sky. Each nighI righI aIer
sunseI, sIand in Ihe same spoI aI Ihe same Iime and noIice Ihe posiIion o Ihe
Moon. Each day iI will move arIher easI. This is Ihe Moon's acIual orbiIal
moIion around Ihe EarIh. II Iakes a liIIle less Ihan a ull monIh (monIh comes
rom Ihe word, moon) Io go once around and come back Io where iI sIarIed. As
Ihe Moon geIs arIher away rom where Ihe Sun is seIIing, you will see more o iIs
sunliI hemisphere and less o iIs nighI side. These are Ihe Moon's phases. New
Moon is when Ihe Moon is nearly beIween us and Ihe Sun and so we see only iIs
dark, unliI side. A week laIer we see equal parIs liI and dark (like a }) and Ihis is
called EirsI QuarIer. A week laIer we see Ihe ully liI hemisphere and Ihe Moon is
ull. One week aIer IhaI and Ihe Moon is back Io being hal liI and hal dark
(now like a |) and Ihis is called Ihird quarIer. One week laIer and we are back Io
seeing Ihe ully dark side and new Moon again. \hen Ihe Moon's phases geI
aIIer, iI is waxing, when Ihe phases geI Ihinner, Ihe Moon is waning.
Moon features through binocuIars or 'scope
Look aI Ihe Moon Ihrough binoculars or a spoIIing 'scope. A magniicaIion o as
liIIle as 16, will show nearly all Ihe eaIures Calileo saw. NoIice Ihe brighI,
rough and craIered highlands versus dark, smooIh lowlands (maria). Look near
irsI quarIer, and along Ihe IerminaIor (Ihe line dividing Ihe liI side rom Ihe
dark) you are seeing sunrise on Ihe Moon. Shadows are long, and loIs o deIail is
visible. Avoid ull Moon when sunlighI shines sIraighI down on Ihe Moon and
all shadows and deIail disappear.
You can see how rough Ihe craIered highlands are compared Io Ihe smooIh
maria by looking aI how Ihe IerminaIor cuIs across Ihe Iwo regions. Calileo irsI
noIiced Ihis in 160. NoIice how many o Ihe lunar maria (mosI obviously Mare
Crisium) are circular, and Ihus reveal Iheir origin as gianI volcanically looded
impacI craIers. The arside o Ihe Moon, which we never see, has almosI no maria
aI all. The highlands where Apollo 16 landed are besI seen aI EirsI QuarIer, seven
days aIer new Moon.
Meteor showers
MeIeors can be seen any nighI o Ihe year rom dark locaIions. There are abouI
eighI major meIeor showers each year. \hile each peaks during one or Iwo
nighIs, meIeors rom Ihese showers are oIen visible or several days beore and
aIer. During showers, observers in dark locaIions may see as many as a ew
hundred meIeors an hour. \herever you happen Io be, showers are besI viewed
aIer midnighI. Eind a posiIion IhaI allows you Io see Ihe mosI amounI o sky
Ah ahhoLaLed mosaic image of Lhe full Mooh showihg Lhe maih feaLures LhaL may be
discerhed wiLh Lhe haked eye, bihoculars or a small Lelescope (ClemehLihe lull Mooh
Mosaic (NkL)).
Autumn Moon 27
Lhe map is Lhe sky sLraighL overhead aL Lhe zehiLh. 1he meLeor shower radiahLs from
1able 7.1 are showh oh Lhe November ahd May sLar maps Lo give you ah idea of Lheir
posiLioh relaLive Lo Lhe cohsLellaLiohs. Sihce meLeor showers are besL seeh afLer
midhighL, mahy of Lhese cohsLellaLiohs will hoL be visible oh Lhe correspohdihg mohLh's
evehihg sLar map. 1o see whaL Lhe sky looks like afLer midhighL for a parLicular meLeor
shower, do Lhe followihg: 1) se Lhe November ahd May sLar maps Lo fihd Lhe radiahL of
a parLicular shower (for ihsLahce, Lhe lerseids ih Lhe cohsLellaLioh of lerseus), 2) NoLe
Lhe daLe of Lhe shower (ih Lhis case, AugusL 12-13), 3) CohsulL Lhe sLar map for AugusL.
NoLice LhaL ih Lhe upper lefL iL says Lhis map shows how Lhe sky will look aL 10:00pm
durihg early AugusL (wheh Lhe shower is aL iLs peak). 4) 1o see whaL Lhe sky will look like
aL midhighL you will heed Lo fihd a sLar map LhaL shows whaL Lhe AugusL sky will look
like Lwo hours laLer. NoLice LhaL ih Lhe upper righL of Lhe AugusL map iL sLaLes LhaL Lhis
view is for a Sidereal 1ime (sLar Lime) of 18 hours, ''S1 18h.'' 5) 1o fihd a view of Lhe sky
for Lwo hours laLer, check Lhe mohLhly sLar maps for ohe wiLh a Sidereal 1ime of 20
hours, ''S1 20h.'' 1his Lurhs ouL Lo be Lhe map for SepLember. 8y cohsulLihg Lhe
SepLember sLar map you will see Lhe cohsLellaLioh of lerseus is |usL risihg Lo Lhe
horLheasL, Lhis is Lhe view aL midhighL afLer which showers are usually aL Lheir besL.
Autumn Moon 2
and Ihen siI back and waiI. AIer midnighI Ihe radianI will generally be Iowards
Ihe easI so meIeors IhaI are parI o Ihe shower (as opposed Io normal random
meIeors) will be predominanIly shooIing Iowards Ihe wesI and will all Irace back
Io Ihe consIellaIion aIer which Ihe shower is named. The Iable in Ihe chapIer
lisIs Ihe dierenI showers while Ihe all-sky maps show Ihe relaIive posiIions o
radianIs wiIh respecI Io Iheir consIellaIion and include each shower's daIe o
maximum.
further reading
Thc Moon Watchcr's Companon. Lvcrythng You Lvcr WantcJ to Know Ahout thc
Moon, anJ Morc by Donna Henes (2004)
Da Capo Fress, ISBN 1S624466
Comct by Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan (17)
BallanIine Books, ISBN 034S412222
Coon Mountan Controvcrscs. Mctcor Cratcr anJ thc Dcvclopmcnt oj lmpact Thcory by
\illiam Craves HoyI (187)
UniversiIy o Arizona Fress, ISBN 0816S068
Sttchng Stars. Thc Story Qults oj Harrct Powcrs by Mary E. Lyons (13)
Macmillan Fublishing, ISBN 06841S763
Sky and Telescope's online Moon observing arIicles
hIIp:}}www.skyandIelescope.com}observing}objecIs}moon}
MeIeor Shower Online InormaIion
hIIp:}}meIeorshowersonline.com}
NASA's AsIeroid \aIch Frogram: deIecIing and Iracking impacI hazards
hIIp:}}www.jpl.nasa.gov}asIeroidwaIch}
UniversiIy o Arizona, EarIh impacI eecIs simulaIor
hIIp:}}www.lpl.arizona.edu}impacIeecIs}
S
Our cosmlc connectlon
But thc stars throng out n thcr glory,
AnJ thcy sng oj thc GoJ n man,
Thcy sng oj thc Mghty Mastcr,
Oj thc loom hs jngcrs span,
Whcrc a star or a soul s a part oj thc wholc,
AnJ wcjt n thc wonJcrous plan.
RoberI \. Service 'The Three Voices'
II's ive in Ihe morning Ihe week o Ihe winIer solsIice and Ihe IemperaIure is
lower Ihan Ihe hour. Three o us are making a Irek IhaI will evenIually Iake us up
Ihe ar wesIern wall o Ihe canyon, and all o iI under Ihe lighI o a Ihousand
shining sIars. The Irail we ollow winds Ihrough scrub brush and over rozen
washes, pasI a picIograph o a Ihousand-year-old sIellar specIacle and up onIo a
lonely plaIeau where we'll ind hal-buried sIone walls and ceremonial siIes IhaI
have lain Ihere largely undisIurbed or eleven hundred years. \e make Ihis Irip
in Ihe cold and Ihe dark Io be Ihere aI sunrise on Ihis week o Ihe shorIesI day o
Ihe year. \haI we hope Io see aI IhaI momenI is perhaps whaI broughI Ihe irsI
people here so long ago, and whaI, as is evidenced by our very presence, sIill
brings Ihem Ioday: a connecIion Io Ihe cosmos around us.
In Ihe ar norIhwesIern corner o New Mexico, seI quieIly amid a counIry o
dry washes and maze-like badlands, is a low wide canyon, Ihe hearI o a naIional
park Io which no paved road leads. The 13-mile (21-kilomeIer) dirI road rom
Nageezi is an alIernaIely dusIy, muddy, wash-boarded, or ruIIed whiIe-knuckle
advenIure IhaI never ails Io IransporI me back in Iime wiIh every jolI. AI road's
end is Ihe isolaIion o Chaco CulIure NaIional HisIorical Fark. Those ew who
ind Iheir way here are here by no accidenI, someIhing abouI Ihe park draws
Ihem, as iI has drawn me regularly over Ihe lasI decade. In winIer, Ihe
IemperaIures plummeI and whaI ew visiIors Ihe park sees drop Io almosI zero.
So, while Ioday Chaco Canyon is nearly empIy o people and eels like Ihe ar
end o nowhere, a Ihousand years ago iI was Ihe cenIer o Ihe universe in Ihe
deserI souIhwesI. And iI's a universe IhaI we can sIill ainIly see Ioday.
Very liIIle abouI Ihe canyon is exacIly how iI was when Ihe Chacoans, Ihe
ancesIors o many o Ioday's souIhwesIern puebloan people, were here. Today
Ihe canyon is a parched ravine, carpeIed in greasewood and salIbrush. Over a
Ihousand years ago when Ihe irsI sIone consIrucIion began, Ihe climaIe in Ihe
souIhwesI was slighIly less arid and sIands o pinyon and juniper doIIed Ihe
landscape. The immense ruins IhaI cover Ihe canyon loor Ioday, and are Ihe
figure 8.1 Show covers old
sLohes ih Chaco CulLure
NaLiohal HisLorical lark. la|ada
8uLLe sLahds silehLly aL Lhe
ehLrahce Lo Lhe cahyoh
beyohd Lhe Lumbled walls of a
'CreaL House' (1. Nordgreh).
chie draw or Ihe advenIurers who
make iI Ihis ar, are no more Ihan Ihe
skeleIal remains o 'CreaI Houses,'
Ihe purpose o which is sIill a subjecI
o debaIe.
Even Ihe geography o Ihe valley
has changed due Io Ihe conIinuous
work o wind and waIer on Ihe
canyon and iIs conIenIs. A Ihousand
years o dry blowing sand has par-
Iially buried Ihe giganIic greaI
houses, while a Ihousand spring
Ihaws have cracked sandsIone blocks
rom o cli walls Io Iumble down
on Ihe ruins below.
\iIh all IhaI has changed Ihough,
Ihe one Ihing I can see Ioday IhaI is
virIually idenIical Io whaI Ihe Chaco-
ans saw are Ihe paIIerns o Ihe sky.
The subIle shiIing paIIerns o Sun,
Moon, sIars and planeIs are all buI
indisIinguishable rom whaI Ihe
builders o Ihe greaI houses saw,
and Ihrough Ihe sky we are oered
one o Ihe ew windows inIo a world
o whaI used Io be called Ihe Chaco
Anasazi, Ihe ancesIral Fuebloan peo-
ple o Chaco. Eor wiIhin Ihis canyon
are innumerable walls, doors, win-
dows, peIroglyphs and picIographs,
all o which silenIly yeI insisIenIly
say IhaI here Ihere were asIronomers.
figure 8.2 Aerial view of lueblo 8ohiLo Lakeh
by Ahhe Morrow Lihdbergh ih 12. She
shapped Lhe phoLo as her husbahd Charles
Lihdbergh flew low over Lhe cahyoh for a
survey of ahciehL ruihs ih Lhe Americah
SouLhwesL. lh 141 a massive secLioh of Lhe
cahyoh wall (visible ih Lhe cehLer of Lhe phoLo)
collapsed, desLroyihg or damagihg 5 rooms,
ihcludihg a secLioh of Lhe highesL wall visible
here (Ahhe Morrow Lihdbergh, CourLesy
Museum of New Mexico, NegaLive #13018).
The eleven greaI houses wiIhin Chaco Canyon were once Ihe cenIer o Ihe
Chacoan world, which aI iIs heighI in abouI 1100 A.D. exIended over 60,000
square miles (160,000 square kilomeIers) o Ihe Colorado FlaIeau in Ioday's
sIaIes o New Mexico, Arizona, UIah and Colorado. The silenI ruins preserved in
such widely separaIed naIional parks and monumenIs as Mesa Verde, AzIec
Ruins, Hovenweep, and Canyon de Chelly were all builI over Iime by Ihe culIure
IhaI had iIs ceremonial cenIer in Ihis canyon. Today Iheir descendenIs, Ihe
Fueblo Indians o Hopi, Acoma, Zuni, and oIhers, sIill regard Ihe valley and iIs
lonely buildings as sacred.
The canyon iIsel is noI remarkable by Ihe sIandards o Ihe souIhwesI: low,
laI-Iopped walls are less Ihan a mile wide and exIend or only a dozen miles or
so. II's only when you reach Ihe cenIer o Ihe canyon's exIenI, where Ihe silIy
grey Chaco and Eajada washes mingle, IhaI Ihe valley's mosI impressive geologic
eaIure is ound. Here Eajada BuIIe sIands alone, a single block o sandsIone cuI
o rom Ihe disIanI Chacra Mesa. II's Ihe irsI senIinel seen by any visiIor Io Ihe
canyon and beyond iIs lanks are Ihe greaI houses wiIh names IhaI sIill call ouI Io
me o ar o exoIic mysIeries: Hungo Favi, CheIro KeIl, Fueblo BoniIo, Kin
KleIso, and Casa Rinconada.
Fueblo BoniIo (Spanish or FreIIy Village) is Ihe largesI o Ihese greaI houses
and conIains over 600 rooms, many sIacked Ihree and our sIories high in an area
over Ihree acres (1.2 hecIares) in exIenI. AlIogeIher iI is as large as Ihe Roman
figure 8.3 Map of Lhe cehLral porLioh of Chaco CulLure NaLiohal HisLorical lark showihg
Lhe posiLiohs of Lhe greaL houses ih relaLioh Lo Lhe resL of Lhe cahyoh (NaLiohal lark
Service).
Our cosmlc connectlon 273
figure 8.4 A pre-141 phoLo of a lark kahger sLahdihg oh Lhe overlook above lueblo
8ohiLo. 1oday much more of Lhe sprawlihg greaL house has beeh excavaLed so LhaL Lhe
curvihg back wall how sLahds Lhree Lo four sLories above Lhe surrouhdihg grouhd. 1he
sLable off Lo Lhe righL was ohce Lhe livihg quarLers for archaeologisLs workihg ih Lhe park
ahd acLed as a kiLcheh ahd Lradihg posL (where mahy precious arLifacLs uhdoubLedly lefL
Lhe cahyoh). 1hese sLrucLures have beeh removed ahd perhaps ohly fouhdaLiohs remaih
(Lo be uhearLhed by fuLure archeologisLs) (Ceorge A. CrahL, CourLesy NaLiohal lark
Service).
Coliseum, and unIil Ihe mid 1800s was sIill Ihe largesI building in Ihe
conIinenIal UniIed SIaIes. BuI as impressive as Fueblo BoniIo and Ihe oIher
houses are Ioday in Iheir eerie, hal-buried beauIy, aI Iheir heighI Ihey musI have
been awe inspiring.
\alk around Ihese enormous buildings and one is sIruck by Ihe power o
inIenIion in Ihis place. The canyon was never Iruly inviIing by our sIandards, yeI
people chose Io come here. The Ihickness o Ihe lower walls in Ihe greaI houses
shows IhaI Ihe builders inIended Ihem Io reach Iheir ulIimaIe heighIs o several
sIories. Each building appears meIiculously planned or iIs speciic locaIion
wiIhin Ihe canyon, even Ihough acIual consIrucIion Iook place over generaIions
- Ihree hundred years, in Ihe case o Fueblo BoniIo. II is rom Ihe precision o
Iheir buildings, and oIher works wiIhin Ihis valley, IhaI we know Ihe sky was an
imporIanI parI o Ihe Chacoan's plans.
ThaI Ihe Chacoans would pay aIIenIion Io Ihe sky is noI a sIarIling
hypoIhesis. On a pracIical level, Ihe rising and seIIing o Ihe Sun deined Ihe
lengIh o Ihe day and Ihe Iime IhaI could be worked. In addiIion, Ihe sky is Ihe
source o Ihe heaI IhaI bakes Ihe canyon walls in summer and brings violenI, yeI
lie susIaining rain showers during aIernoon sIorms. In winIer Ihe sky brings Ihe
wind and snow IhaI chill Ihe bones and reeze Ihe ground as solid as graniIe. As
an agrarian socieIy in a climaIe IhaI was always harsh, Ihe Chacoans needed Io
know Ihe Iiming o Ihe seasons, Io anIicipaIe Ihe changing condiIions and make
Ihe besI use o Ihe shorI growing seasons.
Feriodic ceremonies also appear Io
have been an imporIanI essence o
Chacoan lie. During Ihese special
Iimes o elaboraIe riIual iI was viIal
IhaI people be broughI in rom large disIances Io help build Ihe greaI houses IhaI
are such an imporIanI parI o Ihe canyon. Such ceremonies needed an accuraIe
asIronomical calendar Io assemble Ihe masses as Ihey probably were held in Ihe
depIhs o winIer on Ihe shorIesI day o Ihe year, or aI Ihe closesI ull Moon,
during Ihe period o no agriculIural acIiviIy.
Today we don'I have Io noIice Ihe sky very much. Inside our houses,
IhermosIaIs keep Ihe IemperaIure consIanI and Ihe rains o our heads. \hile
Ihe Sun's moIion sIill deines Ihe lengIh o Ihe day, indoor and ouIdoor lighIing
make Ihe nighI as brighI as Ihe day and divorce us rom Ihe need Io inish our
work by Ihe Iime Ihe Sun seIs. Eood is available rom Ihe grocery sIore all year
long and i you wanI Io leave Iown or a holiday all you need do is consulI Ihe
calendar on Ihe wall.
A monIh ago, when I irsI arrived here, I walked alone Ihrough Fueblo BoniIo
Ihe morning aIer a silenI snowall. My paIh Iook me Ihrough a semicircular
maze o square windowless rooms and pasI deep circular kivas undisIurbed by
any ooIprinIs. The kivas are believed Io be ceremonial gaIhering places, similar
Io Ihose Ihe Hopi and oIher pueblos use Ioday. The square rooms, on Ihe oIher
hand, may be aparImenIs, sIorage rooms, or simply supporI sIrucIures or Ihe
larger building (Ihe inIenI o Iheir archiIecIure is a mysIery). SeI amidsI all o
figure 8.5 Doors curve away ihLo Lhe
disLahce wiLhih lueblo 8ohiLo (1. Nordgreh).
figure 8. SLars shihe above empLy rooms ih a
Chaco greaL house (1. Nordgreh).
Ihese rooms is a large cenIral plaza
bisecIed by a single wall IhaI runs
perecIly norIh and souIh. Beside iI,
aligned in exacIly Ihe same way, is a
greaI kiva larger Ihan any oIher in
Ihe house.
There are liIerally an ininiIe
number o ways Ihese walls and
kivas could be orienIed, i Ihe orien-
IaIion were random. YeI Ihese sIruc-
Iures aI Ihe hearI o Ihis greaI house
are perecIly aligned along Ihe
EarIh's Irue norIh and souIh axis,
and Ihey are noI Ihe only ones. How does one do Ihis by design7
I know Iheir alignmenI because I used a compass, buI Ihe compass only Iells
me Ihe alignmenI Io EarIh's magneIic norIh pole, noI Ihe Irue pole around
which Ihe EarIh Iurns. The norIh magneIic pole slowly driIs around Ihanks Io
Ihe EarIh's molIen iron core (Ioday Ihe magneIic pole is locaIed in Creenland).
Knowing where iI currenIly is provides Ihe oseI, Ihe magneIic declinaIion (also
figure 8.8 1he greaL kiva aL Lhe cehLer of lueblo 8ohiLo is alighed Lowards Lhe Lrue
horLh axis of our plaheL. 1oday, Lhe NorLh SLar, lolaris lies almosL direcLly over Lhe pole
ahd so ih Lhis Lwo-hour-lohg phoLo is Lhe ohe sLar LhaL does hoL appear Lo move as Lhe
EarLh Lurhs. lor observers ih Lhe horLherh hemisphere, iL will always poihL us horLh (1.
Nordgreh).
figure 8.7 1he cehLral NorLh Wall wiLhih
lueblo 8ohiLo (1. Nordgreh).
figure 8.9 SchemaLic of lueblo 8ohiLo
showihg ma|or asLrohomical alighmehLs of
Lhe greaL house. 1he red arrow of Lhe
''WihLer SolsLice Suhrise'' poihLs Lo where
Lhe recLahgle of suhlighL falls wiLhih ah
ihher room (kich lriedmah, CourLesy
NaLiohal lark Service).
known as Ihe magneIic variaIion) ound on mosI Iopographic maps. The
magneIic declinaIion (or variaIion) is Ihe horizonIal angular dierence beIween
True NorIh and MagneIic NorIh and iI allows a hiker or an engineer Io
compensaIe or whaI she sees on her compass. CurrenIly, Ihe dierence beIween
Irue norIh and magneIic norIh is 10.S degrees along Ihe horizon as seen rom
Chaco. This is almosI equal Io Ihe widIh o your isI and Ihumb held ouI
horizonIally aI arm's lengIh. BuI, Ihe Chacoans had neiIher compasses, nor
Iopographic maps.
Today an asIuIe sky waIcher knows IhaI Ihe NorIh SIar, Folaris, happens Io be
locaIed o in space nearly direcIly above Ihe EarIh's norIh pole. Look Io Ihe
norIh and iI alone appears Io Ihe eye Io sIand sIill as Ihe EarIh's roIaIion carries
Ihe resI o Ihe celesIial sphere around iI. BuI Ihe direcIion Ihe EarIh poinIs in
space slowly precesses, iI Iraces ouI an enormous circle on Ihe sky, compleIing
one cycle every 26,000 years. A Ihousand years ago, Folaris was ive degrees away
rom where iI is now, abouI Ihe lengIh o my Ihumb held aI arm's lengIh. This is
ar enough away so IhaI iI Ioo Iraced ouI a noIiceable circle in Ihe sky, any
sIrucIure aligned Io iI would have no guaranIee o poinIing exacIly norIh.
No, Ihe only way Io locaIe Irue norIh is Io be a Sun waIcher. Halway Ihrough
each day Ihe Sun musI pass rom Ihe easIern sky where iI rises Io Ihe wesIern sky
where iI seIs. In Ihe norIhern hemisphere, norIh o 23 degrees norIh laIiIude (a
line called Ihe Tropic o Cancer) Ihis passage always Iakes place souIh o Ihe
zeniIh, Ihe poinI sIraighI overhead. FlanI a sIick in Ihe ground perecIly sIraighI
up and down and when Ihe Sun is aI Ihe highesI poinI o iIs Irip across Ihe sky,
iIs shadow will be aI iIs shorIesI and will always poinI norIh.
\aIch Ihe Sun rise or seI only once a week during Ihe spring or all, and
anoIher paIIern o Ihe Sun's moIion emerges. During spring, Ihe Sun rises each
morning progressively arIher norIh along Ihe horizon compared Io where iI rose
Ihe day beore. Around Ihe Iime o Ihe spring equinox, when Ihe Sun rises nearly
due EasI, Ihe change can be as much as Ihe Sun's ull diameIer each day. AIer
only 30 days, Ihe Sun will rise almosI 1S degrees arIher norIh Ihan where iI did
Ihe monIh beore (Ihis is Ihe widIh o your ouIsIreIched hand).
EvenIually Ihis norIhward moIion slows unIil on June 21sI, Ihe day o Ihe
summer solsIice, iI sIops. SolsIice liIerally means ''Sun sIands sIill.'' On Ihis day
Ihe Sun rises and seIs as ar norIh as iI will ever geI. Here Ihe Sun ''sIands sIill'' as
iI appears Io rise rom nearly Ihe same spoI or our or ive days in a row unIil
inally Ihe moIion reverses, and each day Ihe Sun rises a liIIle arIher souIh. Six
monIhs laIer, on Ihe morning o Ihe winIer solsIice, iI rises as ar souIh as iI will
ever geI and iIs moIion halIs beore changing direcIion once more.
This paIIern o moIion along Ihe horizon holds equally Irue or sunseI, and
you don'I need Io be in Chaco or Ihe American souIhwesI Io see Ihis. I you have
a ar horizon wiIh many sIaIionary eaIures, be Ihey mesas and buIIes, or barns,
aparImenI buildings and Irees, you can Iell Ihe daIe by noIing where Ihe Sun
rises and seIs.
\hy does Ihe Sun do Ihis7 Imagine Ihe EarIh's equaIor projecIed ouI inIo
space Iracing a line across Ihe sky like IhaI shown on Ihe sky maps in Ihis chapIer
(called Ihe celesIial equaIor). I you sIood aI Ihe equaIor, you would see Ihis line
rise rom Ihe horizon due easI, pass Ihrough Ihe zeniIh and seI due wesI. Any
sIar, planeI, Sun or Moon IhaI happens Io lie along Ihe projecIion o Ihe EarIh's
equaIor will be carried along IhaI imaginary line as Ihe EarIh Iurns on iIs axis. I
an asIronomical objecI happens Io be locaIed in Ihe sky norIh o Ihe celesIial
equaIor (Ihe disIance norIh is known Io asIronomers by Ihe archaic-sounding
Ierm Jcclnaton) Ihen as Ihe world Iurns, iI will rise norIh o easI and seI norIh o
wesI. The same goes Irue or any objecI Io Ihe souIh o Ihe celesIial equaIor, Ihe
arIher souIh Ihe declinaIion o Ihe Sun, or insIance, Ihe arIher souIh iI rises.
figure 8.10 lh horLherh hemisphere summer (lefL) Lhe EarLh is LilLed Lowards Lhe Suh as
iL poihLs Lowards lolaris. 1he Suh is Lherefore aL a higher horLh declihaLioh compared
wiLh Lhe celesLial equaLor (Lhe dashed-lihe pro|ecLioh of Lhe EarLh's equaLor). Arouhd Lhe
summer solsLice, Lhe Suh Lhus rises horLh of easL, passes high over Lhe Lihy figure of a
persoh sLahdihg aL Lhe laLiLude of Chaco Cahyoh aL hooh, ahd seLs Lo Lhe horLhwesL. Six
mohLhs laLer (righL), Lhe horLherh hemisphere poihLs away from Lhe Suh which has a
large souLherh declihaLioh compared wiLh Lhe celesLial equaLor. Arouhd Lhe wihLer
solsLice Lhe Suh appears Lo rise ih Lhe souLheasL, hever passes very high above Lhe
souLherh horizoh (viewed by our Lihy figure aL Lhe laLiLude of Chaco) ahd seLs Lowards
Lhe souLhwesL (1. Nordgreh).
Because Ihe EarIh IilIs on iIs axis relaIive Io Ihe Sun, someIimes Ihe EarIh's
norIhern hemisphere poinIs more Iowards Ihe Sun (norIhern hemisphere's
summer) and Ihe Sun is arIher norIh in Ihe sky Ihan Ihe celesIial equaIor. AI
Ihese Iimes Ihe Sun has a norIhern declinaIion and Ihis is why in summer Ihe
Sun rises Io Ihe norIheasI, passes high overhead, and Ihen passes below Ihe
horizon Io Ihe norIhwesI. Six monIhs laIer Ihe posiIion is reversed, Ihe norIhern
hemisphere poinIs away rom Ihe Sun and so Ihe Sun has a large souIhern
declinaIion. The Sun Ihereore rises in Ihe souIheasI, seIs in Ihe souIhwesI, and
never aIIains an alIiIude very high above Ihe souIhern horizon. Since Ihe Sun's
declinaIion changes as Ihe EarIh's IilIed axis and equaIor move around iI, so Ioo
does Ihe Sun's rise and seI posiIions change, norIh and souIh, over Ihe course o
Ihe year.
Back in Fueblo BoniIo I conIinued my silenI and lone exploraIion by sIepping
ouI o Ihe plaza and walking easIward along Ihe souIhern wall. SIanding aI Ihe
souIheasI corner Ihere is evidence o a sunwaIching shrine where each day Ihe
Sun rises behind a dierenI parI o a series o downward sIeps ormed by Ihe
overlapping cli-Iops o Ihe canyon wall. Observers sIanding here aI dawn see
Ihe Sun rise againsI Ihese various eaIures in so regular a paIIern IhaI Ihey can
easily use Ihis as a calendar Io announce Ihe approach and arrival o ceremonial
days. In acI, Ihe Hopi do Ihis in Iheir communiIies Ioday.
AIer OcIober 2, however, Ihe Sun rises souIhward over a secIion o
eaIureless plaIeau. Ferhaps noI coincidenIally, on Ihe very morning Ihe Sun
rises beyond Ihis laI expanse, a sliver o sunlighI irsI makes iIs way Ihrough a
curious diagonal door seI high up on Ihe corner beIween Iwo walls behind me.
Through Ihis door Ihe Sun casIs a glowing recIangle o lighI inIo a small room.
Each morning in December as Ihe Sun moves arIher souIh, Ihe golden recIangle
moves arIher norIh unIil on Ihe days immediaIely around Ihe winIer solsIice Ihe
irsI lighI o dawn shines perecIly inIo Ihe room's ar corner.
\e know rom a ew proIecIed chambers in oIher greaI houses IhaI plasIer
used Io cover Ihe masonry walls o
Ihese ruins. Rich decoraIion sIill adorns
one such room in nearby CheIro KeIl. I
figure 8.11 Suhrise from Lhe solar observihg
sLaLioh aL lueblo 8ohiLo's souLheasL corher.
Here, Lhree weeks afLer Lhe summer solsLice,
Lhe Suh rises high oh Lhe mesa rim. As
summer Lurhs Lo fall ahd wihLer, Lhe Suh rises
progressively farLher souLh (Lo Lhe righL). SLeps
ahd hoLches ih Lhe mesa wall provide a
referehce calehdar uhLil Lhe Suh reaches Lhe
feaLureless expahse aL Lhe exLreme righL
arouhd OcLober 2 each year (1. Nordgreh).
any plasIer once covered Ihese walls iI
would have been easy or Ihe local
solar observer Io painI a calendar,
saying or one such mark: ''\hen Ihe
rising Sun shines on Ihis spoI Ihe Iime
or Ihe winIer solsIice ceremony is
exacIly 10 days away.'' Sadly, any
painIed plasIer which once covered
Ihe sIonework in Ihis Iiny room is long
gone, and so we are leI Io simply speculaIe abouI whaI mighI have been.
II is aI Ihe very leasI inIriguing IhaI Ihere should exisI a window Io help mark
Iime sIarIing exacIly on Ihe daIe IhaI Ihe horizon ails in iIs abiliIy Io do so. And
while Ihere are oIher corner doors in Fueblo BoniIo IhaI show no such alignmenI
Ioday, Ihe alignmenI Ihrough Ihis door cerIainly works and iI is noI
unreasonable IhaI Chacoans would have noIiced and made use o iI even i iI
wasn'I Ihe original inIenIion.
SIill, one way Io Iell i Ihis was Ihe corner door's inIended purpose is Io ask Ihe
ollowing quesIion: I Ihe Chacoans builI a winIer solsIice observing siIe, Ihen
perhaps somewhere else Ihey builI a similar siIe Io observe Ihe summer solsIice7
Across Ihe wash rom Fueblo BoniIo, siIIing aIop a quieI hill where Ihere is a
clear view Io Ihe summer solsIice sunrise, Ihere are Ihe remains o Ihe greaI kiva
Casa Rinconada. Unlike Ihe oIher kivas in Ihe valley IhaI are all componenIs o
figure 8.12 Suhrise Lhe morhihg of Lhe
wihLer solsLice shihes Lhe firsL lighL of dawh
Lhrough ah odd, diagohal door, perfecLly
illumihaLihg Lhe far corher of a room wiLhih
lueblo 8ohiLo (1. Nordgreh).
figure 8.13 1he greaL kiva of Casa kicohada
siLs surrouhded by wihLer show oh iLs soliLary
hill (1. Nordgreh).
larger greaI houses, Casa Rinconada siIs alone. SixIy eeI (18 meIers) in widIh and
12 Io 16 eeI (4 Io S meIers) deep, iI is Ihe largesI o all Ihe kivas in Ihe valley and
is awe inspiring in iIs geomeIrical perecIion. FerecIly round Io wiIhin our
inches (10 cm), Ihe sIairways wiIhin iIs Iwo massive T-shaped doors aI eiIher end
are aligned exacIly norIh and souIh.
Today Ihe kiva is open Io Ihe air, buI a Ihousand years ago iI was enclosed
wiIh a log roo supporIed by our massive posIs. The posI-holes are sIill visible
amidsI Ihe grass IhaI now grows here and Ihey describe a square whose sides are
aligned wiIh norIh, souIh, easI and wesI.
1
AsIronomer Ray \illiamson, a pioneer
in Ihe ield o archeoasIronomy and one o Ihe irsI Io see asIronomical
signiicance in Casa Rinconada, recounIs a sIory o Ihe 'irsI kiva' Iold by Ihe
people o Acoma Fueblo in his book, Lvng thc Sly. Thc Cosmos oj thc Amcrcan
lnJan:
\hen Ihey builI Ihe kiva, Ihey irsI puI up beams o our dierenI
Irees. These were Ihe Irees IhaI were planIed in Ihe underworld or Ihe
people Io climb up on. . .. The walls represenI Ihe sky, Ihe beams o Ihe
roo (made o wood o Ihe irsI our Irees) represenI Ihe Milky \ay.
The sky looks like a circle, hence Ihe round shape o Ihe kiva.
As Ihe Acoma are one o Ihe puebloan peoples IhaI Irace Iheir ancesIory back Io
Ihe Chacoans, creaIion sIories like Ihis one supporI Ihe cosmological signiicance
o Ihis greaIesI o kivas in Ihe hearI
o Chaco culIure.
\iIhin Casa Rinconada's circular
sIrucIure is anoIher asIronomical
alignmenI IhaI occurs every year
figure 8.14 SchemaLic diagram of
Casa kihcohada showihg Lhe ma|or
asLrohomical alighmehLs. Each
upper hiche is humbered, while Lhe
larger, lower hiches are leLLered A ~
l. 1he four (how missihg) posLs are
showh ih Lheir proper posiLiohs
wiLh lihes |oihihg Lhem alighed wiLh
Lhe cardihal direcLiohs (Modified
from k. Williams, Living the 5ly).
1
VisiIors Io AzIec Ruins NaIional MonumenI, Chaco's sisIer park, can walk Ihrough a ully
reconsIrucIed greaI kiva, believed Io be very similar Io whaI Casa Rinconada would have
looked like. AzIec Ruins NM is locaIed ouIside AzIec, New Mexico, almosI exacIly due norIh
o Ihe greaI houses o Chaco Canyon.
figure 8.15 A Lwo-hour exposure Lhrough Lhe souLherh doorway of Casa kihcohada
shows Lhe kiva's alighmehL Lo Lhe EarLh's Lrue horLh pole. 1he wihdow Lhrough which
Lhe summer solsLice ahd horLherh ma|or luhar sLahdsLill lighL shihes is visible Lo Lhe righL
of Lhe horLherh 1-shaped doorway (1. Nordgreh).
on Ihe summer solsIice and Ioday draws visiIors rom all over Ihe world. On Ihis
morning, Ihe rising Sun shines in Ihrough an opening in Ihe high easIern wall
and casIs a square beam o lighI across Ihe space o Ihe ceremonial room and inIo
a large niche aI Ihe boIIom o Ihe opposiIe wall.
The circular kiva is ringed wiIh 28 niches, small square openings, locaIed
above a sIone bench IhaI runs Ihe circumerence o Ihe enclosure. BeneaIh Ihese
regularly spaced niches are six larger niches, our on Ihe wesI side, and Iwo on
Ihe easI. II is inIo one o Ihe lower wesIern openings IhaI Ihe rising Sun shines on
Ihe days immediaIely around Ihe summer solsIice.
\as Ihis alignmenI inIended as a marker or Ihe summer solsIice7 II's hard Io
say. Much o Ihe kiva we see Ioday was acIually reconsIrucIed during excavaIion
in Ihe early 130s. All buI one side and one corner o Ihe high easIern opening
were builI anew rom Ihe sIones ound Iumbled rom Ihe ruined walls. There is
evidence IhaI Ihere used Io be a room ouIside Ihe small window Ihrough which
Ihe Sun's morning lighI now passes. Did Ihis block Ihe sunlighI or was Ihere
anoIher window or Ihe Sun7 No one knows. In addiIion, Ihere is evidence IhaI
Ihe niches Ihemselves used Io be covered and so perhaps no lighI would have
allen inside Ihem. Is Ihis imporIanI Io Iheir purpose7 No one can say.
The Sun is noI Ihe only asIronomical objecI IhaI casIs lighI and shadow and
moves across Ihe horizon and sky wiIh clockwork precision. \hile Ihe IilI o Ihe
figure 8.1 1he ruihs of Casa
kihcohada sooh afLer
excavaLioh begah ih Lhe
130s (Ceorge A. CrahL,
CourLesy NaLiohal lark
Service).
EarIh carries Ihe Sun norIh and souIh along Ihe horizon wiIh Ihe seasons, Ihe
Moon rises in a similar paIIern IhaI is repeaIed each monIh.
\hen Ihe Moon is ull, iI is on Ihe opposiIe side o Ihe EarIh rom Ihe Sun so
IhaI we see Ihe enIireIy o iIs sunliI side. I iI is winIer in Ihe norIhern
hemisphere, Ihe Sun has a souIhern declinaIion and seIs in Ihe souIhwesI. AI Ihe
momenI iI does so Ihe ull Moon musI be opposiIe Ihe Sun and Ihereore rising
in Ihe norIheasI. This means Ihe Moon musI have a norIhern declinaIion.
Hal a monIh laIer, when Ihe Moon has moved hal way around Ihe EarIh, Ihe
new Moon occurs when Ihe Moon lies more or less beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun.
The Moon is invisible aI Ihis Iime as we are looking enIirely aI iIs shadowed side
and iI rises and seIs in unison wiIh Ihe Sun. However, a couple days aIer new
Moon, we see a hair's sliver o Ihe liI porIion and are IreaIed Io a beauIiul Ihin
crescenI seIIing jusI aIer sunseI. AI Ihis momenI, Ihe Moon is sIill nearly in
beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun and so rom our perspecIive iI appears very close Io
Ihe Sun in Ihe sky. Since iI is winIer and Ihe Sun has a souIhern declinaIion, so
Ioo musI Ihe Moon.
Over Ihe course o a single monIh, Ihe posiIion o Ihe rising and seIIing Moon
Ihereore Iravels irsI souIh Ihen norIh againsI Ihe horizon. The very paIh Ihe
Sun Iakes along Ihe horizon in one year, Ihe Moon repeaIs every monIh. On Iop
o Ihis monIhly cycle, which you can pick ouI or yoursel over jusI a ew nighIs,
Ihere is a second more inIriguing cycle Ihrough which Ihe Moon passes more
slowly. The ull range norIh and souIh over which Ihe Moon rises gradually
expands and conIracIs over Ihe course o 18.6 years.
Because o Ihis slow cycle, Ihe Moon doesn'I go perecIly beIween Ihe Sun and
EarIh each Iime iI is new Moon, i iI did, we would see a IoIal solar eclipse each
monIh aI Ihe momenI o alignmenI. The reason Ihis doesn'I happen is IhaI Ihe
Moon's orbiI is IilIed by S.1 degrees relaIive Io Ihe orbiI o Ihe EarIh around Ihe
Sun. Nearly every monIh during new Moon, Ihe Moon passes unevenIully above
or beneaIh Ihe Sun as viewed by EarIhly observers. So while Ihe Moon's
declinaIion changes norIh and souIh jusI like Ihe Sun's, iI changes by a slighIly
dierenI amounI.
figure 8.17 1he Mooh's orbiL is LilLed aL a cohsLahL 5.1 degrees wiLh respecL Lo Lhe eclipLic
(Lhe solid yellow lihe showihg Lhe plahe of Lhe EarLh's orbiL arouhd Lhe Suh). However,
Lhe direcLioh Lhe Mooh's orbiL LilLs slowly chahges over ah 18.-year period. Wheh Lhe
Mooh's orbiL is LilLed opposiLe Lhe EarLh's LilL (Lop) Lhe Mooh rises ahd seLs aL iLs maximum
exLehL horLh ahd souLh alohg Lhe horizoh. 1he farLhesL horLh ahd souLh Lhe Mooh rises is
called Lhe ma|or sLahdsLills ahd occur wheh Lhe Mooh is aL iLs greaLesL horLh ahd souLh
declihaLioh compared wiLh Lhe lihe of Lhe EarLh's equaLor (dashed whiLe lihe).
.3 years afLer ma|or sLahdsLill, Lhe Mooh's orbiL is how LilLed Lhe same direcLioh as Lhe
EarLh, ahd Lhe horLh ahd souLh declihaLiohs of Lhe Mooh are much less. 1hese are Lhe
mihor luhar sLahdsLills durihg which Lhe Mooh's moLioh alohg Lhe horizoh is how raLher
small (1. Nordgreh).
SomeIimes, Ihe Moon's orbiI is IilIed so IhaI iI adds Io IhaI by which Ihe EarIh
is IilIed and Ihe ull Moon has a maximum declinaIion norIh or souIh greaIer
Ihan IhaI ever reached by Ihe Sun. In summer, when Ihe Sun rises aI iIs
norIhernmosI poinI on Ihe horizon, Ihe ull Moon rises arIher souIh Ihan Ihe
Sun ever reaches on iIs annual paIh (Ihe Moon is said Io be aI iIs souIhern major
sIandsIill). Six monIhs laIer, when in Ihe depIhs o winIer Ihe Sun rises aI iIs
souIhernmosI poinI, Ihe ull Moon once again rises arIher norIh Ihan Ihe Sun
ever reached in summer (and is now said Io be aI iIs norIhern major sIandsIill).
BuI Ihe direcIion Ihe Moon's orbiI poinIs gradually changes over an 18.6-year
period (jusI as Ihe EarIh's pole Iraces ouI a 26,000-year circle). As a resulI, .3
years aIer Ihe rising Moon sweeps ouI iIs largesI paIh along Ihe horizon, Ihe
direcIion IhaI Ihe Moon's orbiI IilIs is Ihe same as Ihe EarIh, and Ihe Moon's
declinaIion swings Ihrough iIs smallesI range. During Ihese Iimes, Ihe ull Moon
rises nowhere near as ar norIh or souIh as Ihe Sun and iIs monIhly moIion is aI a
minimum (Ihese are now called norIhern and souIhern minor sIandsIills).
I'll be honesI, wiIh all our modern-day disIracIions, I never noIiced Ihis cycle
when I was growing up. In Ihe enIire Iime I have been alive I have lived only long
enough Io experience Iwo ull lunar cycles. Erankly, as a child I was paying
aIIenIion Io oIher Ihings, and eighIeen years is a long Iime Io noIice Ihe posiIion
o Ihe rising and seIIing Moon change rom year Io year. This is especially Irue
or someone in a culIure IhaI hardly noIices Ihe Moon even goes Ihrough phases.
Today iI Iakes an unusual person Io spend Ihe Iime ouIdoors needed Io really
undersIand whaI Ihe Moon is doing in Ihe sky. Ron SuIclie, an engineer and
adjuncI proessor wiIh a passion or naked-eye lunar observing is jusI such a
person. SuIclie normally works up in souIhern Colorado aI Chimney Rock
where a Chacoan era greaI house siIs precariously on a narrow mounIain ridge Io
Ihe wesI o Iwo massive rock Iowers. Erom Ihe kiva aI Ihe cenIer o Ihe ruins Ihe
ull Moon aI iIs norIhern major sIandsIill is jusI visible rising in Ihe narrow gap
beIween Ihe Iowers every 18.6 years. \hile some puIaIive ancienI asIronomical
alignmenIs may seem Io border on coincidence, Ihe placemenI o Ihe large
ceremonial kiva on Ihe lonely ridge-Iop in jusI Ihe righI posiIion Io see Ihis rare
lunar appariIion seems unquesIionably planned.
figure 8.18 1his phoLo shows Lhe view
from Lhe cehLral kiva aL Chimhey kock,
Colorado. Superimposed is a diagram
showihg Lhe farLhesL horLh Lhe full Mooh
ever rises compared wiLh Lhe Suh oh Lhe
summer solsLice. Over 18. years, Lhe
horLherhmosL full Mooh-rise varies so LhaL
ohly durihg Lhe Lhree years arouhd Lhe
ma|or luhar sLahdsLill does Lhe lighL of Lhe
full Mooh shihe beLweeh Lhe Lwo sLohe
pillars. 1he wihLer of 2007 marked Lhe lasL
year Lhis occurred, ahd woh'L be seeh agaih
uhLil 2024 (koh SuLcliffe from his book
Mccn !rccls. Luncr Icrizcn Ictterns).
figure 8.19 1he full mooh rises Lhrough Lhe
Lowers of Chimhey kock durihg horLherh
ma|or luhar sLahdsLill ih 200 (koh
SuLcliffe).
During Ihe monIh leading up Io Ihe winIer solsIice o 2007, Ihe lasI year Ihe
Moon would appear aI nearly Ihe same posiIion as iIs norIhern major sIandsIill,
SuIclie and I were boIh working aI Chaco CulIure NHF, and we spenI a number
o evenings, as Ihe park sIa oIen do aIer hours, siIIing around and Ialking
abouI our inIeresIs and passions. II was here I learned why SuIclie was down in
Chaco. \hen Ihe ull Moon is aI iIs norIhern major sIandsIill, iIs irsI lighI aI
dusk shines in Ihrough Ihe same window in Casa Rinconada IhaI plays such an
inIeresIing role wiIh Ihe Sun on Ihe summer solsIice. Now, however, Ihe square
o moonlighI shines on one o Ihe 28 smaller, higher, niches IhaI ring Ihe greaI
kiva.
2
The niche iI illuminaIes is Ihe niche IhaI is seI exacIly due wesI o Ihe
kiva's cenIer and Ihus aces direcIly easI. Eor all oIher lunar rises when Ihe sky is
dark Ihe Moon is Ioo ar souIh and Ihe moonbeam alls Io Ihe norIh o Ihis
niche. Six monIhs laIer, however, when Ihe Moon is aI Ihe souIhernmosI major
sIandsIill, iI shines in Ihrough Ihe greaI T-shaped souIh door and illuminaIes Ihe
exacI same niche. Eor all oIher Moon rises iI is Ioo ar norIh, and iIs moonbeam
alls Io Ihe souIh o Ihis easIern mosI niche. Only on Ihis one year o lunar major
sIandsIill IhaI happens every 18.6 years, will Ihe Iwo moonbeams illuminaIe Ihe
same niche six monIhs aparI.
figure 8.20 Durihg Lhe wihLer
solsLice, Lhe risihg Suh shihes
Lhrough Lhe souLherh door of
Casa kihcohada illumihaLihg ohe
of Lhe lower hiches wiLhih Lhe kiva
(ahd mimics whaL happehs wiLh
Lhe risihg Mooh durihg Lhe
souLherh ma|or sLahdsLill). 1he
reasoh Lhere are mulLiple squares
of lighL is because of Lhe shadow
from a recehLly ihsLalled fehce
blockihg Lhe souLherh doorway
(1. Nordgreh).
2
The acI IhaI Ihere are 28 niches is inIeresIing in relaIion Io Ihe Moon. II Iakes Ihe Moon 27.3
days Io move ully around Ihe EarIh. An observer can see Ihis by waIching Ihe Moon's
posiIion relaIive Io Ihe sIars and seeing how long Ihe Moon Iakes Io come back Io Ihe same
posiIion wiIh relaIion Io Ihem. This is called Ihe Moon's sidereal period. Because Ihe EarIh is
in consIanI moIion around Ihe Sun, Ihe Moon has Io Iravel a liIIle arIher Ihan one ull orbiI
Io come back Io Ihe same posiIion relaIive Ihe Sun as seen by an EarIhly observer. The Iime
beIween Iwo successive ull Moons (or Iwo successive new Moons) is Ihereore a liIIle longer:
2.S days. This is where we geI Ihe concepI o a month. Is iI signiicanI IhaI Ihese Iwo periods
are almosI equal Io Ihe number o niches7 As always, iI is inIriguing.
I SuIclie's hypoIheses are conirmed, consider Ihe care such an archiIecIural
eaI requires. Being aware o Ihe solsIices and equinoxes is common sense i you are
an agrarian people living in a harsh and unorgiving environmenI. Careul
aIIenIion Io Ihe rising o Ihe Sun or a year or Iwo is suicienI Io pick ouI Ihe
Irends. BuI consider Ihe moIivaIion and care required Io pick ouI a nearly 20-year
period o Ihe Moon7 The Moon brings no rain. Lunar sIandsIills signal no Iime or
planIing. And Io pick ouI a cycle o nearly Iwo decades wiIh no wriIIen language,
when surviving Io see no more Ihan Iwo or Ihree ull cycles is Ihe norm is a
sIunning achievemenI.
3
II is Ihereore highly impressive - or highly improbable -
or such a culIure Io have designed a circular sIrucIure where window, door, niches,
and radius all conspire or annual alignmenIs o Ihe Sun and 18.6-year alignmenIs
o Ihe Moon. \hich iI is, impressive or improbable, is sIill open Io quesIion.
InIriguingly, Ihere are oIher ancienI markers IhaI may record Ihe exacI same
celesIial phenomena. Eajada BuIIe siIs jusI a ew miles easI o Casa Rinconada. In
Ihe summer o 177 Anna Soaer was an arIisI parIicipaIing in a ield school Io
documenI Ihe rock arI o Chaco. She and Jay CroIy, a rock arI experI, had climbed
Io Ihe summiI o Eajada BuIIe Io invesIigaIe a peIroglyph siIe consisIing o an
elaboraIe spiral chipped inIo Ihe cli ace beneaIh Ihree massive verIical sIone
slabs. Arriving shorIly beore noon, Ihey ound a beamo sunlighI slipping beIween
Iwo slabs Io casI a Ihin dagger o lighI IhaI perecIly pierced Ihe spiral's hearI.
Having recenIly sIudied asIronomical markers creaIed by Ihe Maya and oIher
peoples o Ihe Americas, Soaer knew she had sIumbled upon someIhing special: a
celesIial marker Io celebraIe Ihe Sun's apex in iIs annual Iravel around
figure 8.21 High aLop la|ada 8uLLe, Lhree
slabs of sahdsLohe resL agaihsL a rock wall.
AL hooh of Lhe summer solsLice a Lhih
dagger of suhlighL shihes beLweeh Lwo of
Lhe slabs Lo perfecLly pierce a large spiral
peLroglyph oh Lhe rock wall (D. lord,
CourLesy NaLiohal lark Service).
3
II is noI unreasonable Io suggesI IhaI peIroglyphs and picIographs orma wriIIen language IhaI
could be used Io keep Irack o long-duraIion evenIs like Ihose noIed here. ArcheoasIronomer
Kim Malville has documenIed a series o picIographs near a Iower window aI Mesa Verde
NaIional Fark IhaI appear Io illusIraIe boIh Ihe monIhly posiIion o Ihe Moon and (as i in Ihe
orm o a running Ially) Ihe 18.6 year period o major and minor lunar sIandsIill.
figure 8.22 Simplified diagram of Lhe play of lighL ahd shadow agaihsL Lhe ''suh
dagger'' peLroglyph. AL hooh oh Lhe solsLices ahd equihoxes, Lhe Suh casLs ohe or more
daggers of lighL across Lhe Lwo spirals. Wheh Lhe full Mooh rises aL ma|or ahd mihor
sLahdsLills iL casLs a shadow LhaL eiLher pierces Lhe cehLer of Lhe large spiral or brackeLs iL
oh Lhe lefL. lh beLweeh ma|or ahd mihor sLahdsLill iL casLs a shadow aL full mooh rise LhaL
brackeLs Lhe spiral oh Lhe righL (1. Nordgreh, modified from 1he SolsLice lro|ecL).
Ihe sky. Soaer has spenI Ihe beIIer parI o Ihe lasI 30 years sIudying IhaI
ceremonial Sun sIaIion high in Ihe New Mexico sky. To daIe, Ihe 'Sun Dagger' (as
iI has come Io be known) has been shown Io mark noon around Ihe Iime o boIh
solsIices and Ihe equinoxes. In addiIion, a shadow rom Ihe rising Sun perecIly
bisecIs Ihe spiral around Ihe 1SIh o May which may have been a ceremonial
daIe or spring planIing. There is also conjecIure IhaI Ihe ull Moon's shadow
plays across Ihe spiral aI boIh major and minor sIandsIill and IhaI Ihe nine and a
hal Iurns o Ihe spiral may signiy Ihe approximaIely nine years beIween Ihe Iwo
lunar evenIs.
The complexiIy and beauIy o Ihe spiral and slabs high aIop Ihe lonely
mounIain is unquesIionably moving. There is a Iingle Io Ihe senses when we
cannoI help buI recognize IhaI Ihis is a place o inIense ceremonial imporIance.
How I wish I could sIand Ihere a Ihousand years ago when Ihe canyon was alive
wiIh acIiviIy and see whaI Iook place as Ihe solsIice approached. On each o
Ihose daIes when special Sun \aIchers mounIed Ihe ramps and sIairs IhaI led Io
Ihis isolaIed siIe, Ihe precise movemenI o Sun and shadow across careully
eIched sIone, in a amiliar paIIern IhaI was annually greeIed wiIh greaI
expecIaIion, musI have been a Iremendously reassuring sign IhaI all was well
in Ihe Chacoan Universe.
4
4
Sadly, you can no longer visiI Ihe summiI o Eajada BuIIe. There is evidence IhaI in Ihe mid
180s one o Ihe slabs slipped due Io erosion rom all Ihe visiIors who came Io see Ihe siIe. The
park service has had Io close o all urIher access Io avoid any more uninIenIional damage.
And Ihese are jusI a racIion o all Ihe hypoIhesized asIronomical alignmenIs,
symbols, and observaIion sIaIions wiIhin Ihe canyon. Eor every one IhaI has
been idenIiied Ihere may be dozens, i noI hundreds, IhaI will never be ound or
recognized. BuI Ihe quesIion arises: are all Ihese celesIial alignmenIs real7 Sure,
we can show Ihe alignmenI works, buI did anyone purposeully design Ihem Io
be Ihis way7 \ere Ihey inIended or jusI a coincidence IhaI was never even
recognized by Ihe canyon's original inhabiIanIs7 On which side o Ihe Ihousand-
year gap beIween us and Ihe Chacoans does Ihe asIronomical ingenuiIy lie7 \e
can only speculaIe.
The evidence is IanIalizing and cerIainly sends a shiver down Ihe spine. BuI
wiIh liIerally Ihousands o walls, doors, windows, kivas, peIroglyphs and
picIographs iI is surprisingly easy Io have alignmenIs in acI IhaI were in no
way inIended in realiIy. \iIh enough paIience I know I can ind an alignmenI o
some building, wall or peIroglyph IhaI marks Ihe sunrise o my birIhday, made a
Ihousand years beore I was born Io see iI. To proclaim, as some do, IhaI Ihe
Chacoans had an unimaginable asIronomical insighI beyond all modern
scienIiic comprehension, is ulIimaIely as disrespecIul o Ihem as claiming Ihey
were idioIs and could only have builI Ihese wonders wiIh Ihe help o aliens.
UlIimaIely, i we are Io learn someIhing meaningul abouI ourselves and our
ancesIors, iI is imporIanI Io learn whaI Ihey really knew, whaI Ihey really
observed, and whaI Ihey really held sacred.
To deIermine Ihe realiIy o Ihese alignmenIs we should do more Ihan jusI pay
aIIenIion Io a single seI o silenI sIones, we should look or supporIing evidence
IhaI Ihese asIronomical evenIs were acIually o imporIance Io Ihe people who
made Ihem. I iI was, Ihen iI sIands Io reason IhaI i Ihey consIrucIed mulIiple
similar siIes Ihen all should mark Ihe
same or similar phenomena. In Ihe
words o Ihe archeoasIronomer and
physicisI Bradley E. Schaeer ''A word
o eIhnography is worIh a Ihousand
alignmenIs.'' Sadly, Ihere are no
wriIIen records leI Io us rom Ihe
Chacoans. \hen Ihey leI Ihe can-
yon or Ihe lasI Iime Ihey careully
packed up Iheir belongings, walled
up Iheir houses, and seI ire Io Iheir
kivas.
BuI we can consulI Ihe children o
Ihe Chacoans as some o Ihem sIill
pracIice Iheir ancesIor's IradiIions.
\e do know Ihey musI have
waIched Ihe sky since Ihe Hopi and
oIher pueblos sIill use Ihe inIerplay
o Ihe Sun, sky, and horizon Io mark
Ihe passage o Ihe seasons and Ihe
figure 8.23 Summer mohsooh LhuhdersLorms
lehd ah aura of power ahd mysLery Lo Lhe
cahyoh (|eff SwarLz).
figure 8.24 1he Suh seLs behihd
la|ada 8uLLe shorLly before Lhe
wihLer solsLice. As viewed from Lhis
spoL, Lhe Suh seLs ih Lhe hoLch aL
Lhe summiL where Lhe Lhree slabs
of Lhe Suh Dagger siLe are fouhd.
1he seLLihg Suh is phoLographed aL
3 mihuLe, followed by 2 mihuLe,
Lheh 1 mihuLe ihLervals righL as iL
disappears. 1here is hoLhihg
special abouL Lhe spoL where l Look
Lhis phoLo, |usL a lohely secLioh of
Lrail where my calculaLiohs Lold me
l should sLahd Lo see Lhis sighL (1.
Nordgreh).
Iiming o celebraIions.
S
In addiIion, since Soaer irsI ound Ihe Sun Dagger,
several more siIes (wiIh exciIingly similar, Ihough less inIricaIe, design) have
been ound IhroughouI Ihe souIhwesI. Taken IogeIher, Ihese conirm IhaI
whaIever else may Iake place wiIhin Chaco Canyon, aIop Eajada BuIIe, Ihe silenI
play o nearly a Ihousand summer solsIice sunbeams and Ien Ihousand ull
Moon shadows across a beauIiul lonely spiral has cerIainly been no accidenI.
Today many visiIors lock Io Ihe canyon eager Io eel some connecIion Io Ihe
cosmic energy Ihey believe was once harnessed here.
6
The possibiliIy o ancienI
asIronomical knowledge ills us wiIh awe and wonder. BuI why do we eel Ihis
way7 According Io archeologisI, \. James Judge:
Consider or a momenI Ihe acI IhaI NaIive Americans lived very close
Io naIure in Ihis area or aI leasI 12,000 years beore Ihe Caucasians
arrived. Now, you can'I live IhaI close Io a phenomenon or IhaI long
wiIhouI observing someIhing abouI iI. . .. My hunch is IhaI whaI we
are wiInessing here is a ''rediscovery'' o Ihe sun's paIh by modern
Anglo populaIions. . .. This rediscovery is a uncIion solely o our
having been very eecIively insulaIed rom our environmenI or a
long Iime. . .. Thus, in my view, Ihe amazemenI we display over
prehisIoric solsIice markers is largely a uncIion o our own recenIly
acquired ignorance abouI Ihe environmenI.
Astronomy anJ Ccrcmony n thc Prchstorc Southwcst
ediIed by Carlson and Judge, 183.
S
\haI exacIly Ihey, and oIher pueblos, pracIice and whaI belies have made Iheir way down
Ihrough a Ihousand years o oral IradiIion is noI clear, hisIory has made Ihem disinclined Io
share Ihe knowledge Ihey hold sacred.
6
During one recenI IoIal lunar eclipse my sIudenIs and I saw Ihe campground illed Io
overlowing as visiIors locked in over Ihe rough, dusIy road. II was an absoluIe madhouse. I
shudder Io Ihink whaI would have ensued had Ihe road been paved like local business leaders
wanI. \hile paving Ihe road Io Chaco may bring visiIors by Ihe Ihousands, iI would be aI Ihe
cosI o desIroying whaI is mosI special abouI Ihe park.
In addiIion I wonder i iI isn'I also a relecIion o how people have always elI a
need Io believe we have some sorI o connecIion Io Ihe heavens, Io eel IhaI Ihe
world isn'I random and IhaI everyIhing happens or some larger purpose. The
heavens change wiIh a clockwork regulariIy in counIerpoinI Io Ihe messiness o
our everyday lives. There is comorI in Ihe orderly change o Ihe Sun, Moon,
planeIs, and sIars and Ihereore comorI Io be drawn rom Ihe possibiliIy IhaI
Iheir movemenIs bring order Io our lives7 Many o Ihose who eel Ihis way
regularly look or signs IhaI Ihe sIars aecI us and we aecI Ihem, and I
undersIand why Ihey do so.
ThroughouI all o human hisIory Ihe approach o winIer solsIice has been a
sIressul Iime. Eor some culIures, elaboraIe riIual and ceremony Iook place Io
appease Ihe Sun in hopes iI would halI iIs souIhward journey. I Ihe ceremony, or
Ihe people, were ound Io be wanIing, Ihe days mighI conIinue Io shorIen and
Ihe Sun mighI jusI conIinue onward over Ihe souIhern horizon Io disappear
orever and leave Ihe world in coldness and dark. Only Ihrough our acIion could
Ihe Sun be reversed and Ihe world broughI ouI o winIer. \hile mosI o us mighI
claim IhaI our culIures no longer believe Ihis Io be Irue, consider IhaI one o Ihe
mosI sacred o ChrisIian holidays Iakes place wiIhin jusI a ew days o Ihe winIer
solsIice and eaIures a sIar appearing in Ihe EasI. LaIer in spring, Ihe high holy
day o Fassover (usually ollowed closely by EasIer) begins on Ihe irsI ull Moon
aIer Ihe Spring Equinox.
Even in secular circles, children sIill learn Io wish upon a sIar, while millions
o adulIs regularly read Iheir horoscopes published in nearly every major
newspaper. A complainI againsI modern science is IhaI iI seeks Io divorce us
rom our cherished connecIion Io Ihe heavens, and aI irsI glance Ihis is cerIainly
Irue. I am very clear wiIh my sIudenIs IhaI Ihere has never been any scienIiic
evidence IhaI asIrology works in any way, shape, or orm. YeI ar rom Ihe sIars
being a simple insIrumenI or Ielling us who we should love and whaI days are
auspicious or business venIures, modern asIrophysics reveals a much more
powerul connecIion we share wiIh Ihe sIars, a connecIion IhaI has been going
on or over ive billion years and is responsible in nearly every way or making us
who we are Ioday.
II is wiIh Ihese IhoughIs IhaI I am once more broughI back Io our early
morning hike Ihrough Ihe canyon. \e are making our way ouI Io Fenasco
Blanco in Ihe rigid predawn hours Io IesI a winIer solsIice alignmenI marker
beIween Ihe ar wesIern pueblo and a small peak along Ihe easIern horizon. I we
are correcI, Ihen on Ihe winIer solsIice Ihe irsI rays o Ihe rising Sun should jusI
Iouch Ihis disIanI poinI as viewed rom a ruined kiva aI Ihe hearI o Ihe greaI
house. I Ihis alignmenI is Irue, iI mighI explain why Ihis greaI house is locaIed
where iI is. TesIing Ihis hypoIhesis is aI Ihe hearI o whaI iI means Io be a
scienIisI.
Only a ew hundred yards beyond a rozen wash (IhaI by day will be several
eeI o slippery, grey mud) Ihe Irail reaches Ihe low wesIern wall o Ihe canyon.
AI iIs base we cross under a red painIed picIograph locaIed high under a yellow
sandsIone overhang. Overhead a sIar, a crescenI, and a hand prinI are revealed in
figure 8.25 lossible picLograph of a
superhova as iL appeared hexL Lo Lhe
crescehL Mooh ih Lhe summer of
1054. 1he arLisL has placed his or her
hahdprihL here ih a sigh LhaL is
ihLerpreLed as markihg iLs ceremohial
imporLahce. LocaLed oh Lhe
uhderside of ah overhahg Lhey have
beeh proLecLed from hearly a
Lhousahd years of damagihg suhlighL
like LhaL which has faded Lhe red
''flames'' exLehdihg from Lhe carved
circles oh Lhe rock wall below. lh
10 A.D. Halley's ComeL made ah
appearahce ih Lhe sky LhaL was seeh
by people all over Lhe world. ls Lhe
flamihg circle a represehLaLioh of LhaL
asLrohomical appariLioh? No ohe
khows (1. Nordgreh).
Ihe lighI o our head lamps under a sIill dark sky. On Ihis spoI Ihe view o Ihe
easIern sky is compleIely uninIerrupIed. Anyone sIanding here a Ihousand years
ago, aI Ihe heighI o Ihe Chacoan culIure, would have seen a new sIar rise in Ihe
easI nexI Io a Ihin crescenI Moon on Ihe morning o July S, 10S4. Chinese
asIronomers recorded IhaI on IhaI day a sIrange new sIar appeared IhaI was our
Iimes brighIer Ihan Venus and or 23 days iI was so brighI IhaI iI was visible in
broad daylighI. Eor nearly Iwo years Ihis sIrange new sIar joined Ihe common
consIellaIions in Ihe sky beore inally ading away Io invisibiliIy.
II is Ihis evenI, an evenI so rare IhaI no human being in Ihe lasI our hundred
years has seen iIs equal, IhaI some believe is depicIed here under Ihis quieI
overhang. \haI ancienI Chinese and Chacoan asIronomers saw is Ihe explosive
desIrucIion o a sIar. II's whaI we call a supernova. Like so many o Ihe oIher
asIronomical connecIions in Chaco, whaI Ihis picIograph panel acIually
represenIs is sIill Ihe subjecI o vigorous debaIe. There is an hisIorical accounI
o a siIe among Ihe Zuni IhaI also eaIures a picIograph panel o a sIar, moon,
and hand, buI iI is said Io mark a Sun-waIching sIaIion (while oIher
conIemporaneous descripIions ail Io menIion any sign o hand, or alIernaIely,
a crescenI). And Ihough Ihere are ive or six oIher rock arI locaIions around Ihe
figure 8.2 Every elemehL ih haLure is |usL a maLLer of differehL combihaLiohs of
proLohs, heuLrohs ahd elecLrohs. lh Lhis periodic Lable of elemehLs aL Lhe CriffiLh
ObservaLory ih Los Ahgeles, each elemehL is oh display wiLh iLs aLomic humber (1.
Nordgreh).
souIhwesI IhaI eaIure a sIar and crescenI, only Chaco's adds Ihe eaIure o a
hand, a symbol believed Io mark a sacred ceremonial siIe.
7
\haIever Ihe reason Ihis picIograph was painIed, whaI is cerIain is IhaI in Ihis
canyon, on Ihis spoI, a sIrange and sIarIling sighI was wiInessed a Ihousand years
ago IhaI inIimaIely links us Io Ihe sIars above. \heIher or noI anyone chose Io
record iI here, we are Ihe ospring o Ihe phenomenon Ihey saw, we are Ihe
children o supernovae.
7
As a urIher example o Ihe magniIude o Ihe debaIe over Ihe meaning o Ihis picIograph,
beIween Ihe Ihree experIs who reviewed Ihis manuscripI I received Ihree separaIe argumenIs or
and againsI various inIerpreIaIions o Ihis siIe, including Sun-waIching sIaIion, Ihe planeI
Venus, and Iwo separaIe supernovae IhaI would have been visible during a single Chacoan's lie.
Take or insIance, Ihe red in Ihe painI o Ihe picIograph. II's due Io aIoms o
iron and oxygen IhaI we call rusI. BoIh o Ihese aIoms are ound wiIhin me, in
Ihe red blood cells pounding in Ihe pulse I eel in my veins aIer Ihe long cold
hike Io Ihis spoI. AI Ihe Iurn o Ihe lasI cenIury scienIisIs ound IhaI every
elemenI we see in Ihe world, Ihe wood o Ihe Iree, Ihe sandsIone o Ihe rocks, Ihe
air we breaIhe is all made o aIoms and Ihose aIoms are made rom only Ihree
simple building blocks: proIons, neuIrons, and elecIrons. The coIIonwood Iree in
Ihe wash is primarily carbon, a collecIion o six posiIively charged proIons, glued
Io six neuIrally charged neuIrons orming a IighI bundle called a nucleus.
Around Ihis nucleus is a dizzying quanIum cloud o six negaIively charged
elecIrons held in place by Ihe orce o Iheir equal buI opposiIe charge Io Ihe
nuclear proIons. The sand in Ihe sandsIone is made primarily o silicon wiIh an
aIomic number 14, meaning 14 proIons, 14 neuIrons and 14 elecIrons. Similarly,
Ihe oxygen in Ihe air I'm breaIhing is no more Ihan an aIom wiIh an aIomic
number o eighI. EighI negaIive charges held Io a nucleus o eighI posiIive
charges is all iI Iakes Io be called oxygen.
The simplesI elemenI o all is hydrogen, one proIon and one elecIron.
Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and niIrogen (Ihe mosI common elemenI in our
aImosphere) combine in a myriad ways Io make up Ihe molecules required or all
organic lie on EarIh. II is sIrange beyond almosI all words IhaI Ihe only
dierence beIween Ihe yellow sand whose roughness genIly scraIches my
ouIsIreIched inger Iips and Ihe cold crisp, lie-giving air I breaIhe inIo my lungs
is noIhing more Ihan an exIra six proIons, neuIrons and elecIrons, and IhaI IhaI
is noIhing more Ihan an aIom o carbon.
The power and beauIy o Ihe aIomic sIrucIure o all maIIer is IhaI we are all
relaIed aI an aIomic and sub-aIomic level. I you have Ihe power Io combine one
oxygen aIom and one carbon aIom you liIerally make an aIom o silicon. The
dream o Ihe alchemisIs Io Iurn lead inIo gold is a physical realiIy, provided you
are willing Io pay or Ihe energy Io do so.
And IhaI is Ihe diiculIy. To make silicon you musI combine Ihe posiIively
charged nuclei o Iwo aIoms. As wiIh love, opposiIes aIIracI in Ihe sub-aIomic
world, and like charges repel. As an analogy, aIIempI Io orce Iwo magneIs
IogeIher in Ihe wrong way and one is meI wiIh uIiliIy and sIrain. BuI reverse one
magneI and Ihe Iwo ly IogeIher. Eorcing Ihe Iwo posiIively charged nuclei
IogeIher requires enormous energy and Ihe larger Ihe nuclei (Ihe greaIer Ihe
number o proIons) Ihe more energy required. There is one place in naIure where
Ihe combinaIion o heaI and pressure is jusI enough Io orce Ihe simplesI o all
elemenIs IogeIher: Ihe hearIs o sIars.
Look around you. The componenI aIoms o everyIhing you see, including
yoursel, began lie in Ihe cenIer o a sIar. The asIronomer Carl Sagan, said iI
simply and besI, ''\e are sIar sIu.'' The sIory o how hydrogen, a mundane
proIon wiIh a single elecIron, could evenIually be IransmuIed inIo you and me
and Ihe world around us is aI hearI a simple sIory o graviIy and Iime.
I I were an aIom o hydrogen I would be simply one amongsI a nearly ininiIe
number o absoluIely idenIical companions slowly driIing in greaI clouds
IhroughouI Ihe galaxy. Alone, I
weigh nexI Io noIhing, yeI wiIh my
ellow hydrogen aIoms our cloud
makes up nearly 2,000 Iimes Ihe
mass o a single sun. AsIronomers
know Ihis because o Ihe lighI we
give o.
You see Ihis almosI every nighI
along a busy ciIy sIreeI. Run an
elecIric currenI Ihrough a Iube o
gas wiIh an aIomic number o 10 and
you produce Ihe wonders o laIe
nighI bars, roadside aIIracIions, and
RouIe 66: Ihe neon sign. Neon has an
aIomic number o 10. Every elemenI
gives o a unique specIrum o lighI
when iI is exposed Io energy (be iI in
Ihe orm o elecIriciIy rom Ihe wall
or ulIravioleI lighI rom hoI young
sIars). Because o Ihis, asIronomers
can look ouI inIo Ihe Universe and
by analyzing Ihe lighI Ihey receive
rom disIanI sIars, nebulae, galaxies
and quasars Ihey measure Ihe com-
posiIion o Ihe Universe.
NoI surprisingly, nineIy percenI o
everyIhing ouI Ihere is Ihe simplesI
Ihing Ihere is, hydrogen gas. Tele-
scopes around Ihe world aIIuned Io
Ihe speciic wavelengIh o lighI given
o by hydrogen aIoms reveal IhaI
Ihe 'empIy' space beIween Ihe sIars is awash wiIh Ihis gas. \hile we hydrogen
aIoms may be as lighI as iI is possible or a single elemenI Io be, we sIill possess
some mass and so I am aIIracIed Io every oIher aIom ouI here Ihrough Ihe power
o graviIy. Though Ihe orces are small, Ihe Universe has Iime Io waiI. EvenIually
graviIy inds an eddy or knoI in Ihe galacIic clouds where jusI a ew more solar
masses o us are ound Ihan elsewhere and Ihe relenIless pull o graviIy builds
like an avalanche Io draw more gas inIo Ihe growing mass. Slowly I pick up speed
as I all inIo Ihe developing maelsIrom.
\iIh growing speed my ellows and I increase in IemperaIure. TemperaIure, aI
iIs mosI basic, is noIhing more Ihan Ihe average speed o an objecI's aIoms. The
colder someIhing is, Ihe more leIhargic Ihe aIoms. AbsoluIe zero in Ihe Kelvin
IemperaIure scale o physicisIs (-4S. E or -273. C) is Ihe IemperaIure aI which
all aIoms sIop. HeaI anyIhing, and you cause iIs aIoms Io speed up.
As air in a balloon heaIs up, Ihe exciIed aIoms crash inIo Ihe balloon's abric
figure 8.27 A dark cloud of dusL hahgs ih frohL
of glowihg red clouds of hydrogeh gas fillihg
Lhe space beLweeh Lhe sLars. Hydrogeh gas
emiLs red lighL wheh exciLed by ulLravioleL lighL
from sLars, much like heoh gas ih beer sighs
glows reddish-orahge wheh exciLed by
elecLriciLy (NASA, ESA, 1he Hubble HeriLage
1eam, (S1Scl}AkA) ahd l. McCullough
(S1Scl)).
figure 8.28 1here is hoLhihg empLy abouL space. Here are idehLical views of Lhe same
cohsLellaLioh. Oh Lhe lefL is Orioh seeh ih visible lighL. Clowihg red gas is visible ih places
from clouds of hydrogeh. Oh Lhe righL, Lhe exacL same view is seeh ih Lhe ihfrared lighL
of glowihg gas ahd dusL. 1he brighLesL spoL oh Lhe righL correspohds Lo Lhe Orioh
Nebula, Lhe brighL red ''sLar'' wiLhih Lhe sword hahgihg from Orioh's 8elL oh Lhe lefL.
8eLelgeuse, Lhe brighL orahge sLar ih Lhe upper lefL of Lhe visible image, is ho more Lhah
a faihL whiLe spoL ih Lhe upper lefL of Lhe ihfrared image ((visible) 1. Nordgreh, (ihfrared)
llAC, |lL-CalLech, NASA).
pushing iI ouIwards. HoI gasses produce an ouIward pressure. As Ihe growing
cloud o which I am a parI collapses and warms, we begin Io see whaI will
evenIually become a relenIless Iug o war beIween Iwo orces: graviIy pulling us
in, and Ihermal pressure pushing us ouI. BuI graviIy never gives up, and we are
sIill ar Ioo cold Io puI up much o an ouIward ighI. Mass builds upon mass, and
Ihe cloud conIinues Io shrink.
Over Iime, denser pockeIs orm wiIhin my cloud and iI ragmenIs inIo whaI
will become an enIire clusIer o hundreds o individual sIars. The collapse o my
individual clump Iakes nearly 10 million years Io produce a spherical ball so
dense and hoI IhaI we hydrogen nuclei are inally orced IogeIher hard enough
Io use and orm Ihe second simplesI o all elemenIs: helium.
II Iakes our proIons coming IogeIher in an elaboraIe chain o collisions Io
produce one helium nucleus.
8
Add up Ihe mass o Ihe helium nucleus, however,
and you ind IhaI iI is slighIly smaller Ihan Ihe mass o Ihe our hydrogen nuclei
8
During Ihis chain o reacIions Iwo o Ihe proIons are converIed inIo neuIrons producing
helium wiIh an aIomic number o 2.
figure 8.29 Hubble Space 1elescope mosaic of Lhe Orioh Nebula. Newly formed sLars ih
Lhe very brighLesL, ihher porLioh of Lhe hebula lighL up Lhe ehLire cloud. 1he Orioh
Nebula (also khowh as M42) is ohly 1,500 lighL-years away, makihg iL Lhe hearesL sLar-
formihg regioh Lo Lhe EarLh. 1his mosaic is made up of 520 ihdividual Hubble images
Lakeh ih 5 differehL colors Lo make a sihgle picLure LhaL covers ah area oh Lhe sky Lhe
same size as Lhe full Mooh. 1his hebula is ah amazihg sighL Lhrough eveh a small
amaLeur Lelescope ahd looks sLrikihgly similar (Lhough faihLer ahd wiLhouL ahy color)
(NASA, ESA, M. kobberLo (S1Scl}ESA) ahd Lhe Hubble Space 1elescope Orioh 1reasury
1eam).
IhaI made iI. This missing mass is converIed inIo energy by Ihe amounI o
EinsIein's E=mc
2
(where m is Ihe missing mass, c is Ihe speed o lighI, and E is Ihe
energy released). Though Ihe missing mass is very small, Ihe speed o lighI is very
large, and Ihus Ihe energy released is enormous. Only wiIh Ihe onseI o nuclear
usion is Ihe inward push o graviIy balanced by Ihe ouIward pressure o heaI. AI
IhaI momenI o EinsIeinian igniIion a new sIar Iurns on.
The lighI rom Ihese new sIars lighIs up Ihe hydrogen clouds ouI o which
figure 8.30 1he lleiades clusLer of hew
sLars is passihg Lhrough wisps of gas ahd
dusL LhaL reflecL Lhe hoL youhg sLars'
blue lighL. Oh eveh a clear dark highL,
mosL of us are ohly able Lo see Lhe
brighLesL sLars visible here (NASA, ESA,
AkA}CalLech).
Ihey and Iheir siblings are born. The Orion Nebula which you can ainIly see
wiIh your unaided eye as a uzzy 'sIar' in Ihe winIer sky is jusI such a cloud.
Through even a small Ielescope iI is revealed as one o Ihe mosI beauIiul objecIs
in Ihe nighI sky. OuI o a single cloud like Ihe Orion Nebula, a Ihousand sIars
may emerge. Every sIar in Ihe sky, including Ihe Sun, began lie wiIh iIs siblings
in Ihis way. The seven sisIers o Ihe Fleiades are jusI such a clusIer o young sIars
in Ihe winIer sky.
In Ihe hearI o a sIar where hydrogen usion is Iaking place, Ihe delicaIe
balance o graviIy and heaI resulIs in a eedback loop IhaI keeps Ihe sIar happy
or millions i noI billions o years. Here in Ihe core Ihe combined weighI o 10
S7
ellow hydrogen aIoms above me (IhaI's a 1 ollowed by S7 zeros) uses us
IogeIher Io produce Ihe energy IhaI heaIs Ihe inIerior and keeps Ihe crush o IhaI
mass aI bay. I Ihe IemperaIure in Ihe core should ever drop, Ihe weighI above
will push in more orceully and Ihe raIe aI which we use goes up, Ihus
increasing Ihe energy produced, and once more raising Ihe IemperaIure. I Ihe
IemperaIure rises Ioo much, Ihe Ihermal pressure pushing ouI overcomes Ihe
graviIaIional pressure pushing in, and Ihe raIe o usion decreases, Ihus dropping
Ihe IemperaIure back down. Eor as long as Ihere is hydrogen in Ihe core o Ihe
sIar, Ihe delicaIe balance o graviIy and usion holds. Since hydrogen is Ihe mosI
common elemenI in Ihe Universe, hydrogen is Ihe mosI common elemenI in
sIars, and Ihe quanIiIy o hydrogen uel or usion's energy is vasI.
The nuclear energy IhaI bubbles upward in a sIar, heaIs Ihe surace,
producing lie giving warmIh or any amily o planeIs. I you are a civilizaIion
on one such planeI you Ihereore have plenIy o Iime Io waIch me rise and seI
and ollow my paIIerns. I'll give you lighI in summer, should your planeI be
IilIed, and in winIer you can oer me elaboraIe riIual incenIive Io bring back
my lie-giving warmIh.
I I am parI o a small sIar like Ihe Sun, we hydrogen nuclei will use happily
or nearly Ien billion years. The dierence in Iime beIween civilizaIions on such
An analogous objecI you can see in Ihe summer sky is Ihe Lagoon Nebula in Ihe consIellaIion
o SagiIIarius. ChapIer 1 shows a picIure o whaI you can see Ihrough any small Ielescope.
a planeI, where one may build sIone observaIories o lighI and shadow Io waIch
my moIion Ihrough Ihe sky, while Ihe laIer builds observaIories o sIeel and glass
Io plumb Ihe depIhs o my core, is no more Ihan an hour in my sIar's lie. As o
Ioday, we are only hal way Ihrough our comorIable lie and residenIs o any
such planeI can sleep comorIably knowing Ihere will be many more days Io
come.
Eor sIars much more massive Ihan Ihe Sun - and IheoreIically Ihey can be as
much as 1S0 Iimes greaIer - Ihe inward crush o graviIy is so sIrong IhaI Ihe
nuclear uel is used aI an acceleraIed raIe. SIars no bigger Ihan a dozen Iimes
larger Ihan Ihe Sun exhausI even Iheir enormous sIores o hydrogen uel in as
liIIle as 10 million years buI Ihey shine wiIh Ihe lighI o 10 Ihousand suns while
Ihey do so. Compare Ihis wiIh sIars less massive Ihan Ihe Sun where Ihe weak
orce o graviIy produces only an anemic raIe o usion. Dimly shining ouI Ihere
in Ihe darkness are small, cool sIars IhaI have been sIeadily glowing since Ihe
ormaIion o Ihe Universe almosI 14 billion years ago.
Look up aI Ihe nighI sky. On a clear nighI you can see aI leasI some sIars rom
all buI Ihe hearI o Ihe brighIesI ciIies. The irsI Ihing IhaI you noIice is IhaI Ihey
are noI all Ihe same brighIness. In Ihe sIarry darkness o a naIional park Ihe range
in brighIness is asIounding. AsIronomers since Ihe Iime o Hipparchus in 140
B.C. have classiied Ihis range in brighIness by saying Ihe very brighIesI sIars are
o Ihe irsI magniIude. Those abouI Iwo and a hal Iimes ainIer (aI abouI Ihe
limiI o Ihe human eye Io pick ouI a dierence in brighIness) are sIars o Ihe
second magniIude. Two and a hal Iimes dimmer sIill are Ihird magniIude sIars
and so on unIil we come Io Ihe sevenIh magniIude limiI o whaI Ihe Iypical
human can see under Ihe very darkesI o skies. The resulI is a scale IhaI has
conounded asIronomy sIudenIs or cenIuries: Ihe dimmer Ihe sIar, Ihe greaIer
Ihe magniIude.
AlIhough Ihe magniIude scale has come down Io us largely unchanged,
modern asIronomy has idenIiied sIars wiIh zero magniIude (Vega) and very
brighI objecIs wiIh negaIive values o magniIude (Venus aI iIs brighIesI can be -4,
while Ihe Eull Moon is -13, and Ihe Sun aI noon is -26).
10
So when we look aI Ihe
nighI sky and see Ihe brighIesI sIars o zero and irsI magniIude, can we conclude
IhaI Ihey are Ihe massive sIars while Ihe dim ones are all small and anemic7 NoI
quiIe.
The disIance Io a sIar plays an enormous acIor in how brighI iI looks: disIanI
sIars are dim. However, space is vasI, and Ihere are a loI more sIars very ar away
rom us Ihan Ihere are sIars close by. Fick any brighI sIar in Ihe sky aI random
and odds are iI isn'I very close. To look as brighI as Ihese sIars do means Ihey're
10
Every dierence o ive magniIudes means someIhing is a hundred Iimes brighIer or dimmer.
Since Ihe noonday Sun is abouI 30 magniIudes brighIer Ihan Ihe ainIesI sIar you can see
wiIh Ihe naked eye, Ihis means Ihere is a range o 10
12
, a Irillion Iimes in brighIness
(100,100,100,100,100,100) beIween Ihe ainIesI Ihing and brighIesI Ihing we see in
Ihe sky.
figure 8.31 A collecLioh of brighL ahd hearby sLars is showh wiLh approximaLely Lrue
relaLive sizes. HoLLer sLars are showh Lo Lhe lefL wiLh more lumihous sLars (Lhose LhaL are
Lruly brighLer, Lakihg ihLo accouhL Lheir acLual disLahce from us) aL Lop (1. Nordgreh).
Iypically among Ihe galaxy's mosI luminous. So, on average, Ihe brighIesI sIars
IhaI make up Ihe consIellaIions you normally see, especially i you view Ihe sky
rom your home in Ihe ciIy, do in acI Iend Io be Ihe mosI massive sIars burning
quickly Ihrough Iheir hydrogen uel.
BuI look closely aI Ihe sIars and anoIher qualiIy soon comes inIo play. SIars
are noI all whiIe. There are red sIars, orange sIars, yellow sIars, whiIe sIars and
blue sIars. The colors Iell us Iheir surace IemperaIure. Flace a meIal bar in a ire
and aI irsI iI doesn'I glow aI all. In acIualiIy iI is glowing, buI in Ihe inrared
where your eyes can'I see iI. LeI Ihe meIal geI hoI Ihough, and soon iI glows a
dull red. As Ihe IemperaIure increases Ihe bar geIs brighIer and Ihe color changes
rom orange, Io yellow, and inally i a ire is hoI enough, brighI whiIe Ihen blue.
The bluesI sIars are Ihereore Ihe hoIIesI sIars, and whaI Ihis reveals abouI Ihe
energy escaping Ihrough Ihe sIellar surace gives you clues Io Iheir hidden
inIerior. The colors are a window Io Ihe hearIs o sIars.
In summer, Ihe hearI o Scorpius is Ihe cool red sIar AnIares (Ihe Rival o Mars,
because o iIs ruddy color). In winIer, Ihe shoulder o Orion is Ihe greaI orange
sIar BeIelgeuse wiIh almosI hal Ihe surace IemperaIure o Ihe warm, yellow Sun.
Compare Ihis wiIh Rigel Ihe hoI blue sIar diagonally across Orion's belI, whose
figure 8.32 1he sLars ahd cohsLellaLiohs of evehihg ih summer rise above Casa
kihcohada. Labeled are sLars, clusLers ahd hebulae showihg hearly every sLage of sLellar
evoluLioh from birLh (Lagooh Nebula) Lo old age (red supergiahL AhLares). See Lhe 'See
for yourself' secLioh aL chapLer's ehd (1. Nordgreh).
surace is nearly Iwice as hoI as
Ihe Sun, and Ihe color o sIars
quickly becomes apparenI.
I all sIars were aI Ihe same
sIage in Iheir lives, conIenIedly
using hydrogen inIo helium,
Ihen you could simply look aI
Ihe colors o Ihe sIars in Ihe sky
and Iell which sIars were massive
and which were sIars like Ihe
Sun or smaller. \hile some may
orever debaIe wheIher naIure or
nurIure is Ihe ulIimaIe guide o
whaI a person may become, or
sIars Ihe maIIer is seIIled. Every-
Ihing a sIar will do and become
is seI aI Ihe momenI o iIs birIh
by Ihe mass IhaI iI conIains.
As sIars burn Ihrough Iheir
nuclear hydrogen uel I am con-
verIed rom hydrogen inIo
helium. \ere I on EarIh, I would
weigh less Ihan Ihe surrounding
aIoms o oxygen and so I would
loaI up and away. In a sIar, Ihe
condiIion is reversed and I now
weigh more Ihan Ihe surround-
ing hydrogen and so I sink
slowly inIo Ihe hearI o Ihe sIar
where I and my riends over a
ew billion years gradually choke
Ihe nuclear urnaces wiIh aIomic
ash. Eor a sIar like Ihe Sun, Ihis
process will Iake anoIher ive billion years.
\hen IhaI Iime comes, Ihe nuclear ires are momenIarily banked and graviIy
seizes iIs opporIuniIy Io once again push inward while Ihe opposing heaI o
usion is absenI. As we all we give up heaI, jusI as we did in Ihe original
collapsing cloud IhaI made Ihe sIar grow hoI in Ihe irsI place. The liberaIed heaI
igniIes hydrogen usion in a shell around Ihe core. Since Ihis exIra nuclear
energy is high up in Ihe depIhs o Ihe sIar, iIs Ihermal pressure causes Ihe surace
o Ihe sIar Io swell, buI does noIhing Io counIer Ihe crush o graviIy compressing
iIs cenIer.
In Ihe core, Ihe ever increasing pressure and heaI one day reaches a poinI
where even we heavy helium aIoms use. \hen Ihree helium nuclei come
IogeIher Ihey produce a nucleus o carbon where, jusI as beore, Ihe mass o Ihe
figure 8.33 1he sLars ahd cohsLellaLiohs of evehihg
ih wihLer rise above la|ada 8uLLe. Labeled are sLars,
clusLers ahd hebulae showihg every sLage of sLellar
evoluLioh from birLh (Orioh Nebula) Lo old age (red
supergiahL 8eLelgeuse), ahd deaLh (Crab Nebula).
See Lhe 'See for yourself' secLioh aL chapLer's ehd (1.
Nordgreh).
carbon nucleus is slighIly less Ihan Ihe mass o Ihe helium IhaI made iI. The
missing mass is converIed inIo Ihe energy IhaI heaIs Ihe sIar and halIs Ihe
compression o graviIy.
On Ihe ouIside, Ihe surace bloaIs and cools as iI swells ouIward away rom Ihe
addiIional inIerior heaI (much like a camper seaIed Ioo ar rom a roaring bonire
who eels Ihe surrounding cold creep beIween her shoulder blades). The Sun, like
all oIher sIars in Iheir Iime, will go Ihrough Ihis process. As iIs surace swells and
cools iI loses iIs sunny yellow color and grows a corpulenI red. IIs expanding bulk
means scorched deaIh or Ihe planeIs o Ihe inner Solar SysIem. EirsI Mercury,
Ihen Venus is enguled by Ihe bloaIed Sun. The sIar IhaI gave EarIh lie or so
long may very well swallow iI Ioo, Ihough Ihe planeI's surace had long since
become a charred and broken cinder. On IhaI day Ihere will be no more sunrises
and sunseIs, no more seasons or solsIices. EveryIhing humaniIy is or ever was
will perish unless iI has ound somewhere else Io go. You have less Ihan ive
billion years Io igure ouI how Io do so. The Sun is now a red gianI. Aldebaran,
Ihe orange eye o Taurus Ihe bull IhaI Orion pursues is jusI such a gianI in Ihe
winIer sky.
EvenIually Ihe nuclear core chokes wiIh Ihis new heavy carbon ash and Ihe
heaI rom usion ails. CraviIy wins again and once more presses Ihe carbon
aIoms irresisIibly inward. \haI happens nexI depends on Ihe sIar's mass. I iI is
small like Ihe Sun, Ihen Ihe mass o Ihe sIar is Ioo low or Ihe consIricIing
pressure Io orce any new aIomic nuclei IogeIher and no new usion processes
occur. As Ihe sIellar hearI alls inward a poinI is reached aI which quanIum
physics says IhaI Ihe elecIrons in Ihe core cannoI be pushed any closer IogeIher
and a new orm o pressure, an elecIron degeneracy pressure, halIs any urIher
conIracIion o Ihe sIellar core.
The addiIional heaI IhaI's released genIly blows Ihe Ihin ouIer layers o Ihe
sIar o inIo inIersIellar space. UlIravioleI lighI rom Ihe exposed hoI core, now a
beasI called a whiIe dwar, illuminaIes Ihis expanding gas like Ihose roadside
neon signs. These planeIary nebulae (so named because Io early asIronomers
wiIh poor Ielescopes Ihey resembled Ihe small disks o planeIs) are some o Ihe
mosI beauIiul objecIs in all Ihe Universe. A gorgeous IombsIone, Ihe Ring
Nebula near Vega is a warning in Ihe summer sky o whaI aIe holds in sIore or
Ihe Sun someday.
\hile whiIe dwars and planeIary nebulae are Ihe aIe o sIars like Ihe Sun, Ihe
aIe o Ihe mosI massive sIars is o even greaIer imporIance or whaI iI reveals
abouI Ihe pasI. Eor Ihese sIars which, like BeIelgeuse, may be 20 Iimes more
massive Ihan Ihe Sun, Ihe inward crush o graviIy is sIrong enough Io orce Ihe
remaining helium Io use wiIh Ihe carbon ash, Ihe resulI is aIoms o oxygen.
Over Ihe nexI million years Ihis process will be repeaIed many Iimes as aIer
depleIing each sIage o nuclear uel, Ihe core collapses unIil iI can use Ihe
remains o Ihe previous reacIion. SIars like Ihese are red supergianIs like
BeIelgeuse in Orion.
\hile helium used Io become carbon or maybe a ew hundred Ihousand
years, carbon uses wiIh helium Io become oxygen or maybe only a ew hundred
figure 8.34 lour differehL plaheLary hebulae are showh. Each is Lhe deaLh of a sLar like
our Suh where Lhe ouLer aLmosphere is gehLly blowh off revealihg Lhe hoL, exposed core
of Lhe sLar (how called a whiLe dwarf). DifferehL elemehLs ih Lhe expahdihg clouds lighL
up wiLh differehL colors from Lhe ulLravioleL lighL of Lhe whiLe dwarf fouhd aL Lhe cehLer
of each. Clockwise from upper lefL is Lhe Dumbbell Nebula, kihg Nebula, CaL's Eye
Nebula, ahd Eskimo Nebula ((Dumbbell) Chase Ellis}.S. Naval ObservaLory, (kihg)
Hubble HeriLage 1eam (AkA}S1Scl}NASA), (CaL's Eye) NASA, ESA, HElC ahd Hubble
HeriLage 1eam, (Eskimo) Ahdrew lruchLer (S1Scl) eL al., WllC2, HS1, NASA).
figure 8.35 1his is Lhe firsL ahd ohly
Hubble Space 1elescope image of Lhe
surface of ahoLher sLar. 8eLelgeuse is
expecLed Lo go superhova ahy Lime wiLhih
Lhe hexL huhdred Lhousahd years or so
(Ahdrea Dupree (Harvard-SmiLhsohiah
CfA), kohald Cillilahd (S1Scl), NASA ahd
ESA).
years. Each new reacIion burns or less Iime Ihan Ihe one beore as Ihe sIar runs
Ihrough ever newer and larger aIomic reacIions. Eor less Ihan a year, oxygens
use IogeIher Io produce silicon (and more helium) while silicon aIoms spend Ihe
lasI day o Ihe sIar's 10-million-year lie using IogeIher Io produce iron.
In every one o Ihese reacIions, Ihe resulIing elemenI always weighs less Ihan
Ihe ones IhaI made iI. In each case Ihe missing mass produces Ihe energy IhaI
heaIs Ihe inIerior and produces Ihe ouIward pushing 'radiaIion pressure' IhaI
balances graviIy and prevenIs Ihe sIar's collapse. In IhaI inal day, however, Ihe
lasI day o Ihe sIar's lie, Ihe iron IhaI is made is so sIable IhaI any aIIempI Io use
iI Io produce someIhing else acIually Iakes energy away rom Ihe sIar. To use
iron would be Io cool a sIar, noI Io heaI iI. The sIar has reached a dead-end rom
which no escape Ihrough usion is possible.
AIer millions o years in which I began as Ihe lighIesI sIable elemenI in Ihe
Universe, I ind mysel in Ihe sIar's inal day as one o iIs mosI massive. On IhaI
day graviIy crushes we iron aIoms IogeIher so IighIly IhaI, jusI as wiIh a whiIe
dwar, elecIron degeneracy pressure briely holds Ihe mass o Ihe sIar aI bay. BuI
wiIh every new nuclear reacIion IhaI Iakes place above, more iron rains down on
us below unIil, aI Ihe inal momenI o Ihe sIars lie, our combined weighI is Ioo
much or even Ihe degeneraIe pressures o quanIum physics.
In an insIanI, negaIively charged elecIrons are orced inward inIo Iheir iron
nuclei where Ihey use wiIh posiIively charged proIons Io produce neuIrons wiIh
no charge aI all. AIoms are mosIly empIy space, Ihey're a cloud o elecIrons wiIh
a microscopic nucleus 10,000 Iimes smaller, hidden aI iIs cenIer. AI Ihe momenI
Ihe elecIrons disappear, all Ihis empIy space is revealed, and Ihe boIIom drops
ouI. Now IhaI I'm a neuIron I can be packed a billion Iimes smaller Ihan Ihe
ormer elecIrons would allow and suddenly we're on an elevaIor a billion loors
up whose cables have been cuI. CraviIy runs rampanI unIil we inally reach
boIIom wiIh such orce and energy IhaI Iwo Ihings happens. Some neuIrons
'sIick,' orming a IighI ball o neuIrons, a single aIomic nucleus, Iwo and hal
Iimes Ihe mass o Ihe Sun in a perecI sphere no larger Ihan a small ciIy. The
quanIum properIy o neuIron degeneracy pressure (neuIrons packed as IighIly as
physics allows) is now all IhaI holds againsI graviIy.
The oIher evenI is IhaI Ihe heaI and energy o IhaI inal collapse sends biIs and
pieces o Ihe sIellar inIerior crashing ouIward Ihrough Ihe sIar aI jusI Ihe
momenI Ihe upper loors realize IhaI Ihe boIIom's gone. I, and Ihe oIher sub-
aIomic nuclear debris, ride Ihe wave o one o Ihe mosI energeIic explosions Ihe
Universe ever sees and are acceleraIed Io near Ihe speed o lighI (and yeI gamma-
rays Iraveling at Ihe speed o lighI, pass us as i we were sIanding sIill).
AsIronomers on EarIh call us cosmic rays and we lood Ihe galaxy rom nearly 1S
billion years o cosmic evoluIion.
As I rush ouIward Ihrough Ihe sIar's insides, I see a nighImarish cascade o
collisions and nuclear reacIions IhaI could never have Iaken place wiIhin Ihe
hearI o a sIable sIar. Iron nuclei use wiIh passing oxygen orming selenium wiIh
an aIomic number o 34. Two iron aIoms use Io make Iellurium wiIh an aIomic
number o S2, and somewhere a chain reacIion o iron and oIher new elemenIs
combine Io produce a nucleus wiIh an aIomic number o 7: gold. Look aI a
periodic Iable and every elemenI aIer iron is rare because Ihese are Ihe elemenIs
IhaI are only ever ormed in Ihe inal caIaclysmic insIanI o a massive sIar's
deaIh: a supernova.
BuI you don'I need a Ielescope or a chemisIry seI Io examine Ihe inal seconds
o a sIar. Is Ihere any iron in your belI buckle7 Do you wear any gold on your
ingers or hanging rom your ears7 Do your glasses have IiIanium in Iheir rames7
I so, Ihen you wear abouI you a sample o a supernova.
Eor a brie momenI Ihis massive sIar's deaIh lighIs Ihe galaxy wiIh Ihe
combined radiance o a hundred billion sIars. The expanding wave o iIs sIellar
remains seeds Ihe inIersIellar clouds wiIh an alphabeI soup o acIium, barium,
and carbon, xenon, yIIrium and zirconium. The pressure o iIs passage gives
Ihese gasses IhaI very irsI kick o insIabiliIy IhaI allows graviIy a Ioe-hold
causing Ihe collapse IhaI orms new sIars. And when new sIars and planeIs do
orm, Ihey will now conIain wiIhin Ihem Ihe silicon, oxygen, carbon, iron, and
gold IhaI are Ihe elemenIal legacy o all Ihe sIars which have ever come beore.
My lie in a sIar will Ihen begin again. . ..
In Ihe consIellaIion o Taurus siIs Ihe Crab Nebula. II is Ihe remains o Ihe
supernova perhaps recorded on Ihe overhang I see above me (now IhaI my
imaginaIive wanderings have come ull circle). AsIronomers have measured Ihe
speed wiIh which Ihe sIellar debris is expanding and aI iIs currenI size Ihe
maIhemaIics conirms IhaI iI musI have exploded aI abouI jusI Ihe righI Iime Io
be whaI ancienI asIronomers saw here almosI a Ihousand years ago. You can sIill
see Ihe Crab Nebula rom Chaco using Ihe park's own modern observaIory.
During Ihe summer, rangers conducI evening asIronomy programs while
Iwice a year Chaco is home Io sIar-parIies puI on by local asIronomy clubs. And
Ihough Ihe days can be warm, volunIeers use specially equipped Ielescopes Io
show visiIors Ihe Sun IhaI has always meanI so much Io Ihis canyon. Thankully,
iI appears IhaI Ihere will always be asIronomers here.
figure 8.3 Hubble Space 1elescope
image of Lhe Crab Nebula (also called
M1). 1his is Lhe exploded remaihs of Lhe
sLar LhaL was seeh Lo go superhova ih
1054 A.D. WiLhih iLs LwisLed gas
filamehLs are all Lhe elemehLs iL ever
creaLed durihg iLs lohg life. 1hese
elemehLs, which ihclude amohg oLhers,
carboh, oxygeh, ahd hiLrogeh (Lhe
orgahic elemehLs heed for life as we
khow iL) will ehrich Lhe ihLersLellar
gasses ouL of which hew sLars ahd
plaheLs will someday form (NASA, ESA,
|. HesLer ahd A. Loll (Arizoha SLaLe
hiversiLy)).
As I conIinue up Ihe Irail pasI Ihe picIograph siIe, I Iake a momenI Io eaI a
handul o Irail mix. The raisins iI conIains are high in iron which comes rom
Ihe soil IhaI is a componenI o Ihe EarIh rom Ihe days when iI ormed rom an
inIersIellar cloud. The raisins I eaI are Ihereore Ihe inal sIage rom sIarlighI Io
me. BuI Ihe inluence o supernovae in our lives doesn'I end Ihere. The cosmic
rays produced in Ihose explosions rain down on Ihe EarIh rom all direcIions.
Every once in a while one such proIon Iraveling aI nearly Ihe speed o lighI hiIs a
molecular bond in my DNA and changes iI. I Ihis parIicular sIrand o DNA is in a
gameIe used in reproducIion, Ihen Ihis muIaIed gene will geI passed on Io Ihe
nexI generaIion.
In a world where ar more living Ihings, say coyoIes, are born Ihan can survive
figure 8.37 1hahks Lo geherous privaLe
dohaLiohs of mohey, Lime, ahd Lhe buildihg
iLself, Chaco CulLure NHl is currehLly Lhe ohly
haLiohal park wiLh iLs owh moderh
observaLory. Here sLars circle over iL, |usL as
Lhey circle over Lhe kivas elsewhere wiLhih Lhe
park. visiLors are ihviLed Lo Lake parL ih
evehihg asLrohomy programs mosL clear
highLs usihg Lhe park's Lelescope (NaLiohal
lark Service).
figure 8.38 Here Lhe remhahL of Lhe 1054
A.D. superhova is seeh ih ah image from
Chaco's observaLory, made hearly a
Lhousahd years afLer iL was firsL seeh ih Lhe
sky ih Lhe very same cahyoh. 1his image ahd
Lhe observaLory LhaL made iL are Lhahks Lo Lhe
work ahd dohaLioh of |ohh Sefick (NaLiohal
lark Service).
on Ihe available ood supply, any advanIage spells Ihe dierence beIween a
coyoIe IhaI manages Io pass on iIs geneIic code, and one IhaI doesn'I. Nine
hundred and nineIy-nine Iimes ouI o a Ihousand, a muIaIion is gibberish or
harmul, and Ihe coyoIe won'I pass iI on. BuI on IhaI rare occasion when iI isn'I
gibberish, where Ihe change acIually produces someIhing beneicial IhaI works
slighIly beIIer Ihan whaI was Ihere beore, Ihe bearer sIands a slighIly beIIer
chance o surviving Io maIe, have puppies, and pass on iIs genes. The muIaIion is
passed on Io uIure generaIions. This is naIural selecIion Ihrough random
geneIic muIaIion.
\e humans have been Irying Ihis or only a ew Ihousand years in a process
called arIiicial selecIion and iI's given us Ihe dierence beIween coyoIes and
cocker spaniels. BuI leI naIure do Ihis or ive billion years and iI Iakes Ihe
building blocks o sIellar evoluIion and gives us every living Ihing we see in Ihe
world Ioday.
A hal hour beore dawn, as Ihe sIars begin Io ade, we reach Ihe ruins o
Fenasco Blanco and my riends leave me Io seI up my camera or Ihe coming
sunrise. \hile I documenI any sunrise alignmenI visible rom here, Ihey
conIinue on Io a panel o beauIiul rock arI along a nearby mesa Io check or any
alignmenIs visible rom Ihere. Alone againsI Ihe crumbling wall o an ancienI
kiva, I look up Io see Venus sIill shining in Ihe growing IwilighI where waves o
purple and pink begin Io wash across Ihe sky. The sIone aces o hal-buried walls
are all Iurned Io Ihe easI, and again I wonder abouI how many Iimes someone
may have sIood where I am sIanding now on jusI such a day in order Io see whaI
I am abouI Io see.
In acI, Ihe very presence o people here on Ihis conIinenI may iIsel be
aIIribuIed Io supernovae. FhysicisIs in Cermany have idenIiied a layer o rare
figure 8.39 lre-dawh lighL reflecLs off Lhe walls of lehasco 8lahco (1. Nordgreh).
figure 8.40 1he abuhdahce of ah
uhsLable iroh isoLope (
0
le)
measured relaLive Lo Lypical iroh
fouhd oh EarLh ih sea-floor layers of
differehL ages. 1he average raLio of
lroh-0 wiLh Lime is showh by Lhe
Lhih whiLe lihe. 1hree millioh years
ago Lhe abuhdahce of lroh-0
|umped as a wave of hew
superhova elemehLs is LhoughL Lo
have swepL by Lhe plaheL. 1he
backgrouhd image shows Lhe lighL
of elemehLs creaLed ih ahoLher
superhova capLured by Hubble
((daLa) K. Khie ahd oLhers,
(backgrouhd) NASA}S1Scl).
iron isoIope in Ihe sea loor laid down 2.8 million years ago (dierenI isoIopes o
iron have Ihe same number o proIons, buI dierenI numbers o neuIrons).
Because Ihis isoIope decays inIo oIher elemenIs on a Iimescale o millions o
years, iIs presence in greaI abundance means iI was noI ormed wiIh Ihe oIher
elemenIs IhaI ormed Ihe EarIh over ive billion years ago. RaIher, Ihey suggesI
Ihis iron musI have been produced in a much more recenI supernova, and Ihen
rained down upon Ihe EarIh Io orm a ine layer on Ihe sealoor as Ihe shockwave
swepI passed Ihe planeI.
11
Since supernovae produce cosmic rays in addiIion Io oIher elemenIs, one
resulI o a nearby supernova is an inIense mass o charged parIicles looding Ihe
EarIh's aImosphere as Ihe wave sweeps pasI. In addiIion Io decimaIing our
proIecIive ozone layer, iI's IhoughI IhaI increased levels o cosmic rays would acI
as seed poinIs or Ihe ormaIion o clouds. Eor Ihe hundred Ihousand years IhaI
Ihe supernova's cosmic rays bombarded Ihe planeI, weaIher and climaIe paIIerns
would change, alIering, perhaps signiicanIly, Ihose planIs and animals living aI
Ihe Iime.
Imagine a supernova like IhaI wiInessed in 10S4 A.D. buI Ien Ihousand Iimes
brighIer - almosI a hundred Iimes brighIer Ihan Ihe ull Moon. As iron deposiIed
on inIersIellar dusI slowly waIs in rom space, a Isunami o cosmic rays sweeps
Ihrough Ihe aImosphere, changing weaIher paIIerns, and Ihe skies above Arica
begin Io change. Evidence conirms IhaI 2.8 million years ago, Arica became a
liIIle more arid and Ihe Iree cover a liIIle more sparse.
Our ancesIors who sIill spenI much o Iheir Iime in and around Irees noIice
Ihe good days are a liIIle less requenI, Ihe oresIs a liIIle less lush. The animals
11
On average Ihere should be one supernova every hundred years somewhere in our Calaxy. So
over Ihe ive-billion-year hisIory o our planeI Ihis process should have happened a number
o Iimes. As a child I recall a nearby supernova being one possible explanaIion or Ihe
exIincIion o Ihe dinosaurs.
figure 8.41 A porLioh of Lhe veil
Nebula, a superhova remhahL ih Lhe
summer cohsLellaLioh of Cyghus,
sweeps Lhrough space. ked lighL is from
hydrogeh aLoms, while greeh lighL is
produced by oxygeh. Ahy ihLersLellar
clouds, sLars or plaheLs ih iLs expahdihg
paLh will have hew elemehLs (like lroh-
0) seLLle upoh Lhem (Lua Cregory}.S.
Naval ObservaLory).
IhaI live o Ihe planIs IhaI live o Ihe Sun become scarce in Ihe old, amiliar
places under Ihe Irees. Those early hominids wiIh a geneIic make-up more suiIed
Io walking uprighI and capable o exploring Ihe opening savannah would have
had a much easier Iime passing on Iheir geneIic code Io uIure generaIions.
AnIhropologisIs Ioday believe IhaI 2.8 million years ago, Ihe change in
Arica's climaIe, whaIever Ihe cause, orced our ancesIors down rom Ihe Irees Io
inally walk erecI. Our ancesIors Iook Ihe irsI sIeps IhaI would evenIually lead
Ihem ouI o Arica and around Ihe world. \e are all Ihe descendenIs o Ihose
people, Ihe Chacoans are descended rom Ihose who walked easI, while I am
descended rom Ihose who walked wesI.
By Ihe lighI o sIars, now losI Io Ihe coming lighI o day, I acknowledge Iheir
power and presence Io make me who I am Ioday. In every sense o Ihe word I am
who I am because o Ihem. On a personal level Ihey ill me wiIh wonder and awe.
On a physical level Iheir lie and deaIh gave rise Io my body, sIimulaIed my
evoluIion, and alIered Ihe environmenI IhaI drove my ancesIors.
II is aI Ihis momenI, in Ihe week o Ihe winIer solsIice, IhaI Ihe inal sIar upon
which I owe so much inally appears. My geneIic cousins Ihe coyoIes yip and
howl around me as I sIand here aI Fenasco Blanco and see Ihe irsI rays o Ihe
rising winIer Sun sIream down Ihe long valley. Beore me I see Ihe sharp
silhoueIIes o mounIains and walls casIing Iheir long shadows, every one
poinIing aI me. Today, on Ihis spoI IhaI I have reached Ihrough Ihe ruins o
ancienI asIronomers, Ihe sunrise is or me alone and I eel Ihe power o my
posiIion on Ihis canyon rim. Erom me Io Ihe Sun, and Io Ihe sIars IhaI made me,
I am connecIed Io everyone on Ihis planeI and we are connecIed Ihrough Ihis
EarIh Io Ien million millennia o sIellar evoluIion. The Navajo who live here now
have a greeIing Ihey use when Ihey meeI one anoIher. They say, ''Ya'aaI'eeh,'' or
''II is good.'' BuI a Navajo I once knew Iold me IhaI on anoIher level iI can also
figure 8.42 WihLer solsLice suhrise baLhes Lhe cahyoh ahd our faces amohgsL Lhe ruihs
of lehasco 8lahco. 1he ihLervals aL which we capLured Lhe suhrise begah aL 2 mihuLes,
Lheh ihcreased Lo 3 mihuLes (E. Dodd, C.8. Corhucopia, 1. Nordgreh).
mean ''You are parI o Ihe Universe.'' SIanding here now, a child o Ihe sIars, I
know Ihey speak Ihe IruIh.
See for YourseIf: The Stars
PersonaI Chaco soIar caIendar
On any o Ihe solsIices (June or December 21) or equinoxes (March or SepIember
21) ind an easily remembered ouIdoor locaIion near your home where aI Ihe
insIanI Ihe Sun seIs, iI does so behind a prominenI eaIure on Ihe horizon (Iree,
wall, building, waIer Iower, or mounIain). Eind a way Io mark your spoI. ReIurn
each week Io Ihe exacI same place and see where Ihe Sun seIs. Take a picIure o
your wesIern horizon (when Ihe Sun isn'I wiIhin Ihe ield o view) and make a
mark on Ihe image aI weekly inIervals or a year showing Ihe sunseI posiIion,
you now have a solar calendar IhaI will allow you Io know Ihe daIe and predicI
Ihe solsIices.
CoIors and temperatures of stars
I you look closely you can idenIiy Ihe dierenI colors o sIars noIing which look
reddish, bluish, or yellow}whiIe. Colors allow us Io Iake Ihe sIar's surace
Lhe map is Lhe sky sLraighL overhead aL Lhe zehiLh.
IemperaIure (Ihe cosmic equivalenI o resIing our hand againsI a orehead Io see
i we have a ever). On average, red sIars Iend Io be abouI hal Ihe surace
IemperaIure o our Sun, while blue sIars Iend Io have suraces Ihree Io ive Iimes
hoIIer Ihan Ihe Sun.
In winIer skies, red sIars are Aldebaran in Taurus and BeIelgeuse in Orion.
Compare BeIelgeuse wiIh Ihe blue sIar Rigel aI Ihe opposiIe corner o Orion.
Compare bluish CasIor (one o Ihe heads o Cemini Ihe Iwins) wiIh iIs yellowish
sibling Follux in order Io see subIle dierences in color.
In summer, red AnIares in Scorpius looks like Ihe red planeI Mars aIer which
iI is named. ArcIurus in BooIes (''arc'' Io iI rom Ihe handle o Ihe Big Dipper) is
also redder Ihan any o Ihe sIars IhaI make up Ihe Big Dipper which look
noIiceably blue}whiIe in comparison. I you should have a small Ielescope, poinI
iI aI Albireo, Ihe souIhernmosI sIar in Cygnus, Ihe NorIhern Cross. \haI looks
like one sIar Io our unaided eye reveals iIsel Io be Iwo sIars: one Iurquoise blue,
Ihe oIher brighI yellow.
SteIIar evoIution in a singIe night (see ligures 8.32 ahd 8.33)
Wntcr {Iatc taII to carIy xgrng}: Eind Ihe consIellaIion o Orion by looking
or his belI o Ihree nearly equally brighI and equally spaced sIars. Above Orion
(i iI is rising) or Io iIs wesI is Ihe consIellaIion o Taurus Ihe Bull which Orion
hunIs. EarIher overhead, or Io Ihe wesI, is Ihe small clusIer o Ihe Fleiades. In
Ihese Ihree objecIs you can see every sIage o sIellar evoluIion or massive sIars.
Hanging down rom Orion's BelI is a line o Ihree ainI sIars. The middle sIar
looks slighIly uzzy compared Io Ihe oIher nearby sIars. This uzzy 'sIar' is Ihe
Orion Nebula (also called Messier 42, or simply M42), a cloud o hydrogen gas liI
up by new sIars being born. This is a sIunning sighI Ihrough a Ielescope or good
binoculars.
The Fleiades are a small IighI clusIer o newborn sIars. Called Ihe 'Seven SisIers'
six or seven sIars are visible Io mosI eyes. Some observers under dark skies can see
many more. In realiIy Ihere are hundreds o sIars Ihere, we see only Ihe brighIesI.
Eollow Ihe line o Orion's BelI down and Io Ihe easI and you come Io Ihe
brighIesI sIar in Ihe sky: Sirius in Ihe consIellaIion o Canis Major (Orion's large
dog). Sirius is a sIar in Ihe middle o iIs lie using hydrogen inIo helium. II is Ihe
brighIesI sIar in Ihe sky because iI is Ihe closesI sIar Io us IhaI we can see wiIh Ihe
naked eye in Ihe NorIhern Hemisphere (only 8.6 lighI-years away). The lighI you
see IonighI Iook 8.6 years Io geI Io you. I Sirius hasn'I risen yeI, ind BellaIrix,
Ihe upper righI (norIhwesI) corner o Orion. BellaIrix is also a Iypical hydrogen-
using sIar in Ihe middle o iIs lie. BoIh o Ihese sIars are hoIIer, brighIer, and
more massive Ihan our Sun.
The V-shaped head o Taurus Ihe Bull is a loose group o sIars called Ihe
Hyades. In Ihe same direcIion, buI closer Io us in space, is Ihe red gianI
Aldebaran IhaI orms one o Taurus' eyes. As a red gianI sIar, Aldebaran has
begun Io die, iI has run ouI o hydrogen uel in iIs core and is now using helium
Io make Ihe energy Io supporI iIsel.
BeIelgeuse, Ihe brighI orange sIar in Ihe upper leI (norIheasI) corner o Orion
is a high-mass red supergianI sIar. II is in Ihe very lasI sIages o iIs lie, using
elemenIs heavier Ihan hydrogen and helium Io supporI iIs weighI. BeIelgeuse is
expecIed Io go supernova any Iime wiIhin Ihe nexI hundred Ihousand years or
so. Ferhaps iI will Iomorrow. \hen iI does, iI will be Ihe brighIesI supernova in
human hisIory, perhaps as brighI as Ihe ull Moon, and much brighIer Ihan Ihe
supernova o 10S4.
To see Ihe locaIion o Ihe 10S4 supernova, go back Io Ihe V-shaped head o
Taurus and ollow boIh arms o Ihe V upward unIil you come Io Iwo sIars (one aI
Ihe end o each arm) IhaI orm Ihe horns o Taurus. BeIween Ihese Iwo sIars, buI
closer Io Ihe one on Ihe easI, is Ihe spoI in space where Chinese and Chacoan
asIronomers saw Ihe supernova o 10S4. In iIs spoI Ioday is Ihe Crab Nebula (also
called M1), ainIly visible Ihrough a medium sized Ielescope.
Summcr {carIy xummcr to md-taII}: The Lagoon Nebula (M8) is a sIar-
orming region above Ihe norIh spouI o Ihe SagiIIarius TeapoI (see ChapIer 1's
'See or yoursel' secIion). Here, as wiIh Ihe Orion Nebula, newborn sIars lighI up
Ihe cloud so brighI iI looks like a uzzy 'sIar' Io Ihe unaided eye. Cood binoculars
or a small Ielescope show Ihe cloud o gas (including a dark dusI lane) and new-
orming sIars. To Ihe immediaIe righI (wesI) o SagiIIarius, hal way beIween Ihe
spouI and Ihe sIinger aI Ihe end o Scorpius' Iail, is a much brighIer cloud IhaI's
visible Io Ihe naked-eye. This clusIer o new sIars, called M7, is only 220 million
years old (Iwice as old as Ihe Fleiades).
Eor a Iypical sIar like our Sun in Ihe middle o iIs hydrogen using lie, look Io
Vega or AlIair, boIh are parI o Ihe amous Summer Triangle. They are Iwo o Ihe
brighIer sIars. Each is slighIly more massive Ihan our Sun.
Eind Ihe Big Dipper Io Ihe norIh Ihen ollowing along Ihe handle, 'arc' Io Ihe
brighI orange sIar ArcIurus. This is a dying and bloaIed gianI sIar using helium
inIo carbon, very similar Io Aldebaran in winIer.
AIer sIars like our Sun pass Ihrough Ihe red gianI phase o Iheir lie Ihey orm
a planeIary nebula where Ihe ouIer parI o Iheir aImosphere expands ouI inIo
space. The mosI amous o Ihese objecIs is Ihe Ring Nebula in Lyra. II is locaIed
beIween beIa and gamma Lyra (see Ihe inder-phoIo in ChapIer 3). II is noI
visible wiIh Ihe naked-eye, buI appears as a brighI 'O' in a medium sized
Ielescope.
On Ihe souIhern horizon, is Ihe red supergianI AnIares. AnIares is Ihe hearI o
Scorpius and is Ihe brighIesI (and reddesI) sIar in Ihe souIhern hal o Ihe sky.
AnIares is 1S Iimes more massive Ihan Ihe Sun, 700 Iimes larger, and is near Ihe
end o iIs lie.
The Veil Nebula in Cygnus is a supernova remnanI o a massive sIar like Ihe
Crab Nebula (Ihough 10 Io 20 Iimes older). II's noI visible Io Ihe naked eye, and
hard Io see Ihrough a moderaIe sized Ielescope unless in a dark locaIion. IIs
brighIesI parI is o Ihe wesIern arm o Ihe NorIhern Cross and is one o my
avoriIe Ihings Io see in a Ielescope.
further reading
A GuJc to Prchstorc Astronomy n thc Southwcst by J. McKim Malville (2008)
Johnson Books, ISBN 1SSS664148
Lvng thc Sly. Thc Cosmos oj thc Amcrcan lnJan by Ray A. \illiamson (187)
UniversiIy o Oklahoma Fress, ISBN 0806120347
Orgns. lourtccn Bllon Ycars oj Cosmc Lvoluton by Neil DeCrasse Tyson and
Donald ColdsmiIh (200S)
\. \. NorIon, ISBN 033327S82
Lxtrcmc Stars by James B. Kaler (2001)
Cambridge UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 0S21402620
RcharJ Wcthcrll - Anasaz. Ponccr Lxplorcr oj Southwcstcrn Runs by Erank McNiII
(174)
UniversiIy o New Mexico Fress, ISBN 082630323
Ron SuIclie's lunar cycle observer's guide (and links Io his book Moon Tracls.
Lunar Horzon Pattcrns)
hIIp:}}www.moonspiral.com
Anna Soaer's websiIe: The SolsIice FrojecI
hIIp:}} www.solsIiceprojecI.org}
9
Worlds wlthout number
ColoraJo Rocly Mountan Hgh,
l'vc sccn t ranng jrc n thc sly,
ShaJow jrom thc starlght s sojtcr than a lullahy,
Rocly Mountan Hgh,
ColoraJo.
John Denver
Since 1S we have discovered over Ihree hundred planeIs around oIher sIars.
Think abouI IhaI, we now know o orIy Iimes as many planeIs ouIside our Solar
SysIem as inside iI and Ihe number increases wiIh each passing year. \haI will
we ind i we ever go ouI Ihere7 \ill Ihere be new, exoIic orms o lie awaiIing
our scienIiic expediIions7 \ill Ihere be oIher civilizaIions wiIh whom we can
communicaIe7
figure 9.1 ArLisL's cohcepLioh of hewly discovered alieh plaheLs orbiLihg Lhe hearby sLar
Cliese 87 (NASA ahd C. 8acoh (S1Scl)).
Say we coulJ send explorers Io Ihese new worlds. I suddenly our concepI o
Ihe habiIable Universe expanded overnighI as we looked ouI on Ihis new ronIier
o unimaginable space, whaI would Ihe reacIion be7 Imagine we elecIed a new
FresidenI who was Ihe oremosI experI on Ihese alien worlds. He'd be Ihe head o
America's leading scienIiic associaIion and he'd conceive Ihe expediIion rom
wiIhin his own home. He'd personally choose Ihe explorers who would make Ihe
journey, deIermine Ihe skills IhaI would be necessary, and enlisI his riends (Ihe
besI scienIiic minds in Ihe counIry) Io oversee Iheir Iraining. He'd be Ihe one Io
send Ihem o inIo Ihe vasI unknown wiIh orders IhaI Ihey reporI back Io him
exclusively wiIh all IhaI Ihey discover abouI Ihe poIenIial or new lie, resources,
and IerriIory or us Io expand and conquer.
Science icIion7 No, hisIory. Thomas Jeerson was elecIed Ihe Ihird FresidenI
o Ihe UniIed SIaIes in 1800 aI a Iime when a genIleman could be boIh a
poliIician and scienIisI, and sIill make signiicanI conIribuIions Io boIh. NoI
only had Jeerson auIhored Ihe DeclaraIion o Independence and been Ihe
naIion's irsI SecreIary o SIaIe under Ceorge \ashingIon, he was also Ihe
oremosI experI on Ihe geography o
Ihe American \esI and was presidenI
o Ihe American Fhilosophical SocieIy,
Ihe leading scienIiic organizaIion in
Ihe counIry.
Jeerson's passion or science was
serious. He considered Sir Isaac New-
Ion, Ihe discoverer o graviIy, one o
Ihe greaIesI men Ihe world has pro-
duced, and mighI well have become a
scienIisI himsel. ''Beore I enIered on
Ihe business o Ihis world I was much
aIIached Io asIronomy & had laid a
suicienI oundaIion aI Ihe College |o
\illiam and Mary| Io have pursued iI
wiIh saIisacIion & advanIage,'' Jeer-
son Iold a riend laIe in his lie.
1
In
figure 9.2 lh Lhis drawihg of 1homas
|effersoh, Lhe Lhird lresidehL poihLs Lo Lhe
DeclaraLioh of lhdepehdehce while Lo his lefL
are sciehLific ihsLrumehLs ihcludihg a celesLial
sphere (Library of Cohgress).
1
Donald Jackson's Thomas }cjjcrson anJ thc Rocly Mountans, Lxplorng thc Wcst jrom Montccllo.
figure 9.3 lorLraiLs of MeriweLher Lewis
(lefL) ahd William Clark (righL), co-CapLaihs
of Lhe Corps of Discovery. keproducLioh of
waLercolor paihLihgs by C.W. leale ih
lhdepehdehce Hall, lhiladelphia, lA.
CopyrighLed 103 (Library of Cohgress).
162, FresidenI John E. Kennedy joked aI a \hiIe House dinner honoring 4
Nobel Frize laureaIes, ''I Ihink Ihis is Ihe mosI exIraordinary collecIion o IalenI
and o human knowledge IhaI has ever been gaIhered IogeIher aI Ihe \hiIe
House - wiIh Ihe possible excepIion o when Thomas Jeerson dined alone.''
Jeerson's scienIiic knowledge o geography, geology and Ihe American \esI
was perecIly placed Io Iake advanIage o his Iimes. Three years aIer being
elecIed FresidenI, Jeerson arranged Ihe purchase o Ihe Louisiana TerriIory rom
Napoleon BonaparIe or $1S million. In addiIion Io Ihe geo-poliIical advanIage
o precluding Erench expansion inIo NorIh America and opening up new
IerriIory or Ihe young expansionisI counIry, Ihe Louisiana Furchase oered
unparalleled scienIiic opporIuniIy Io reconnoiIer Ierra incogniIa.
Eor Ihe exploraIion o Ihese new lands, Ihe FresidenI chose his personal
secreIary, MeriweIher Lewis, Io head Ihe Corps o Discovery. As iIs name implied,
iIs primary goal would be scienIiic exploraIion and Ihe scope o whaI Jeerson
inIended or CapIain Lewis and his co-CapIain \illiam Clark, is besI undersIood
rom Jeerson's personal orders:
The objecI o your mission is Io explore Ihe Missouri River, and such
principal sIreams o iI, as, by iIs course and communicaIion wiIh Ihe
waIers o Ihe Faciic Ocean, wheIher Ihe Columbia, Oregon, Color-
ado, or any oIher river, may oer Ihe mosI direcI and pracIible|sic|
waIer-communicaIion across Ihe conIinenI, or Ihe purposes o
commerce. . ..
Beginning aI Ihe mouIh o Ihe Missouri, you will Iake observaIions
o laIiIude and longiIude, aI all remarkable poinIs on Ihe river. . . Your
observaIions are Io be Iaken wiIh greaI pains and accuracy, Io be
enIered disIincIly and inIelligibly or oIhers as well as yoursel, Io
comprehend all Ihe elemenIs necessary, wiIh Ihe aid o Ihe usual
Iables, Io ix Ihe laIiIude and longiIude o Ihe places aI which Ihey
were Iaken.. . .
You will . . . endeavor Io make yoursel acquainIed, as ar as a
diligenI pursuiI o your journey shall admiI, wiIh Ihe names o Ihe
|Indian| naIions and Iheir numbers, . . . Their language, IradiIions,
Worlds wlthout number 31
monumenIs, Their ordinary occupaIions in agriculIure, ishing,
hunIing, war, arIs, and Ihe implemenIs or Ihese, Their ood, cloIhing,
and domesIic accommodaIions, Moral and physical circumsIances
which disIinguish Ihem rom Ihe Iribes we know,. . . And, considering
Ihe inIeresI which every naIion has in exIending and sIrengIhening
Ihe auIhoriIy o reason and jusIice among Ihe people around Ihem, iI
will be useul Io acquire whaI knowledge you can o Ihe sIaIe o
moraliIy, religion, and inormaIion among Ihem. . .
OIher objecIs worIhy o noIice will be,
The soil and ace o Ihe counIry, iIs growIh and vegeIable
producIions, especially Ihose noI o Ihe UniIed SIaIes, The animals
o Ihe counIry generally, and especially Ihose noI known in Ihe
UniIed SIaIes, The remains and accounIs o any which may be deemed
rare or exIincI, The mineral producIions o every kind, buI more
parIicularly meIals, lime-sIone, piI-coal, and salIpeIer, salines and
mineral waIers, noIing Ihe IemperaIure o Ihe lasI, and such
circumsIances as may indicaIe Iheir characIer, Volcanic appearances,
|and| ClimaIe, as characIerized by Ihe IhermomeIer, by Ihe propor-
Iion o rainy, cloudy, and clear days, by lighIning, hail, snow, ice, by
Ihe access and recess o rosI, by Ihe winds prevailing aI dierenI
seasons, Ihe daIes aI which parIicular planIs puI orIh, or lose Iheir
lower or lea, Iimes o appearance o parIicular birds, repIiles or
insecIs. . ..
Civen under my hand aI Ihe ciIy o \ashingIon, Ihis IwenIieIh day
o June, 1803.
Thomas Jeerson, FresidenI o Ihe UniIed SIaIes o America
The Corps o Discovery seI in moIion a IradiIion o Eederal paIronage or
American scienIiic exploraIion IhaI would conIinue Ihrough Ihe laIer Hayden
and Fowell expediIions Io YellowsIone and Ihe Crand Canyon, and ulIimaIely Io
John E. Kennedy's pledge Io send a man Io Ihe Moon and NASA's roboIic
missions surveying Ihe Solar SysIem and sIudying Ihe sIars.
ThaI exploraIion is now enIering a new chapIer wiIh NASA's 200 launch o
Ihe Kepler spacecraI. II's designed Io ind new EarIh-like planeIs around nearby
sIars and survey Ihe summer sky or evidence o solar sysIems oIher Ihan our
own. The prime conIracIor IhaI builI Ihis planeI-hunIing spacecraI is Ball
Aerospace locaIed in Boulder, Colorado jusI a shorI drive rom Ihe enIrance Io
Rocky MounIain NaIional Fark. Today I'm Iaking a break rom a NASA workshop
in Boulder Io go hiking in Ihe park along Ihe ConIinenIal Divide and Io geI a
small sense o whaI Lewis and Clark musI have experienced on Iheir expediIion
Ihrough Ihe MounIain \esI.
II's hard Io imagine how liIIle Ihe scienIiic esIablishmenI o Jeerson's day
knew abouI Ihis region jusI Iwo hundred years ago. They knew nexI Io noIhing
o Ihe geography, geology, boIany, or Ihe people already living here - and
noIhing aI all abouI Iheir languages or culIures. Read beIween Ihe lines o
figure 9.4 DeLail of NaLiohal lark Service map of kocky MouhLaih NaLiohal lark
showihg Lhe CohLihehLal Divide ouLside EsLes lark, Colorado (NlS).
Jeerson's leIIer and you see a IerriIory in which Ihe FresidenI o Ihe UniIed
SIaIes could sIill hope Io ind herds o woolly mammoIhs, mounIains o salI, and
erupIing volcanoes. The majoriIy o Ihis conIinenI, rom Ihe Mississippi River Io
Ihe Oregon CoasI and all IhaI iI conIained was a compleIe and uIIer mysIery Io
Europeans.
One persisIenI quesIion was Ihe possibiliIy o a NorIhwesI Fassage. Coing as
ar back as Columbus, Europeans dreamI o inding a wesIward rouIe Io Ihe
markeIs o China and Japan. \iIh Ihe discovery o a brand new conIinenI in Ihe
way, Ihis dream Iurned inIo Ihe search or an all-waIer rouIe rom Ihe AIlanIic Io
Faciic Oceans Ihrough Ihe middle o Ihe conIinenI. ''The belie IhaI Ihe
Missouri |River| could be used Io reach Ihe Faciic dominaIed Ihe geographical
lore o Ihe NorIhwesI,'' wriIes John Logan Allen, a Lewis and Clark experI and
chair o Ihe geography deparImenI aI Ihe UniversiIy o \yoming. ''II was Ihe
cenIral ingredienI o Ihe geographical knowledge which, when inIerpreIed in Ihe
lighI o early nineIeenIh cenIury American IhoughI, was Io orm Ihe basis o
Thomas Jeerson's image o Ihe NorIhwesI and Ihe chie objecIive o Ihe Lewis
and Clark ExpediIion.
2
''
Eor Ihe majoriIy o Ihe lasI Iwo Ihousand years, science was akin Io
philosophy. Eor Ihe ancienI Creeks, mosI noIably ArisIoIle, iI was enough IhaI
an idea was logical or iI Io be considered Irue. II made sense IhaI Iwo balls o
diering weighIs should all Io EarIh aI dierenI raIes because Ihe heavier ball
had more o Ihe sIu IhaI wanIed Io reIurn Io iIs place o origin Ihan Ihe lighIer
ball. Never mind IhaI iI was possible Io show IhaI Ihis is exacIly noI whaI
happens, Ihe idea was logical. ArisIoIle's wriIings were evenIually used as supporI
or ChrisIian philosophy, so IhaI Ihe IruIh o a scienIiic idea depended noI only
on how well iI agreed wiIh ArisIoIle, buI by exIension, ScripIure.
As an example o Ihis way o Ihinking, consider IhaI prior Io Ihe 1S00s
geography and Iheology could be inIerIwined disciplines. ''Irregular landorms
in general, and mounIains in parIicular, were considered noI parI o Ihe original
creaIion buI someIhing IhaI came laIer, a consequence o Ihe Elood, puI here by
Cod as a reminder o His exIreme displeasure aI our evil ways,'' wriIes Cary
Eerguson in Thc Grcat DvJc, Thc Rocly Mountans n thc Amcrcan MnJ. By 160,
however, when Calileo saw mounIains hidden away on Ihe Moon, ideas o Iheir
presence as a symbol o our sins evenIually gave way Io European EnlighIenmenI
ideals o reason and naIural explanaIions (which led Io very dierenI ideas abouI
Ihe disIribuIion o Ihe world's landorms).
\iIh increased recogniIion o Ihe imporIance o empirical evidence, Ihe
hallmark o EnlighIenmenI science, discoveries abouI Ihe physical Universe could
aIIain a level o accepIance independenI o wheIher or noI Ihe ideas seemed
inIuiIive, were argued wiIh parIicular lair, or agreed wiIh ScripIure. The scienIiic
meIhod IhaI arose ouI o Ihis IradiIion can be briely sIaIed as ollows: Observe
Ihe world, orm a hypoIhesis Io explain whaI you see, IesI Ihe hypoIhesis, revise
Ihe hypoIhesis as Ihe need arises, and repeaI. Those hypoIheses IhaI survive
repeaIed IesIing are given Ihe exalIed name o scienIiic Iheory. In Ihe sixIeenIh
cenIury Tycho Brahe was a masIer o celesIial observaIions and Johannes Kepler
was a masIer maIhemaIician aI Iurning observaIions inIo IesIable hypoIheses. He
would be so successul IhaI our hundred years laIer NASA's planeI-hunIing
spacecraI would be named in his honor.
BuI whaI abouI Ihe early sIages o Ihe scienIiic process7 \here do Ihe iniIial
ideas come rom7 The early sIages o Ihe scienIiic meIhod are some o Ihe mosI
chaoIic and exciIing. You observe. Look around you. See whaI Ihe world has Io
oer and Ihen hazard a guess. The beIIer your iniIial observaIions, Ihe beIIer
chance your iniIial hypoIhesis has o surviving Ihe subsequenI IesIs Io live
anoIher day. The ewer Ihe observaIions, or Ihe more your 'observaIions' are
colored by pre-conceived ideas wiIhouI basis in acI, and Ihe beIIer your chance
o NaIure surprising you.
2
Erom Allen's Passagc Through thc GarJcn, Lcws anJ Clarl anJ thc lmagc oj thc Amcrcan
Northwcst.
American geography in Ihe 1700s was a maIIer o scienIiic observaIion.
European explorers had been mapping Ihe easI coasI o NorIh America or over
Iwo cenIuries and based on Ihese observaIions Ihey developed Iheories as Io whaI
Ihe resI o Ihe conIinenI should look like. As early as Ihe 1720s, wriIes Allen:
. . . BriIish promoIional liIeraIure on NorIh America had inIroduced
Ihe concepI o symmeIrical geography. II was known IhaI rivers which
lowed wesIward inIo Ihe Mississippi had Iheir sources in mounIains
IhaI were close Io Ihe AIlanIic. II was urIher known IhaI Ihose same
wesIward-lowing sIreams had inIerlocking drainage sysIems wiIh Ihe
rivers IhaI lowed easI Io Ihe AIlanIic. The same seI o geographical
condiIions, according Io Ihe IeneI o symmeIrical geography, should
apply Io Ihe wesIern parIs o Ihe conIinenI.
I symmeIric geography was Irue Ihen Ihe mounIains in Ihe wesI should be
like Ihose in Ihe easI. Eor Ihe Appalachian MounIains IhaI run Ihe lengIh o Ihe
American easI coasI, anyone Iraveling by boaI has a simple one day porIage up
and over a single ridge o roughly 3,000 I-high (1,000 m) mounIains beore
descending by river down Ihe oIher side. The same would surely be Irue or
anyone aIIempIing Io Iravel up Ihe Missouri, cross Ihe Rockies, and sail down Ihe
Columbia Io Ihe Faciic Ocean. Allen concludes:
II is obvious IhaI Ihe Irue heighI o Ihe Rockies, eiIher in Ierms o Iheir
verIical rise or o Iheir base heighI above sea level, was noI even
remoIely undersIood. Conusion also ruled Ihe American concepIuali-
zaIion o Ihe locaIion o Ihe American ranges. MosI sources agreed IhaI
Ihe mounIains o Ihe inIerior were similar in sIrucIure Io Ihe Blue Ridge
o Virginia, a single ridge or
series o parallel ridges Irans-
ecIed by rivers, Ihe Irue naI-
ure o Ihe Rockies as a broad
and massive alpine region
was noI even dreamed o.
figure 9.5 Map of Lhe Louisiaha
lurchase ahd wesLerh NorLh America by
Samuel Lewis ih Aaroh ArrowsmiLh's
ahd Lewis' New cnd legcnt Cenercl
Atlcs published ih 1804. 1his map,
usihg Lhe besL available daLa aL Lhe Lime
Lewis ahd Clark seL off, represehLs Lhe
prevailihg ideas of wesLerh geography.
lh parLicular hoLice how Lhe kocky
MouhLaihs are represehLed as a sihgle
rahge of mouhLaihs, wiLh sizeable gaps
aL Lhe headwaLers of Lhe Missouri,
hearly wiLhih sighL of Lhe lacific Oceah
(Library of Cohgress).
As an example o Ihe meager evidence on which Ihese Iheories resIed, Ihe
BriIish naval explorer Ceorge Vancouver, upon exploring Ihe mouIh o Ihe
Columbia River along Ihe Oregon coasI, saw in Ihe disIance a range o low
mounIains puncIuaIed wiIh Ihe occasional snow-capped peak. \haI Ioday we
know as Ihe Cascade Range wiIh iIs isolaIed volcanic peaks, Vancouver assumed
was Ihe Rockies. Any explorers porIaging across rom Ihe headwaIers o Ihe
Missouri would Ihereore ind a simple shorI Irip downsIream Io Ihe Faciic.
In realiIy Ihe Cascades are simply one o Ihe wesIernmosI ridges o a vasI
mounIain region. Erom Ihe wesIern edge o Ihe Cascades Io Ihe easIern edge o
Ihe Rockies is 800 miles (1,300 km) o alpine landscape siIIing aI an average
elevaIion o nearly 6000 I (1,800 m) above sea-level. Ear rom being only 3000
eeI above Ihe surrounding landscape, Ihe Rockies in Colorado and MonIana
regularly reach heighIs o 14,000 I (4,300 m), wiIh many passes aI heighIs o
10,000 - 12,000 I (3,000 - 3,700 m), our Io six Ihousand eeI (Iwelve Io eighIeen
hundred meIers) higher Ihan Ihe plains aI Iheir easIern eeI.
Erom very ew observaIions an enIire Iheory o Ihe wesI Iook shape IhaI in
every respecI was uIIerly wrong. And so wiIh visions o symmeIric conIinenIs,
and single-day porIages over low mounIain chains, Lewis and Clark and Ihe
Corps o Discovery seI ouI Io survey Ihe inIerior o America. To do Ihis Ihe
CapIains became asIronomers. According Io Arlen J. Large, Lewis and Clark
experI, member o Ihe Wall Strcct }ournal \ashingIon Bureau, and amaIeur
asIronomer, ''Lewis and Clark could noI ignore Iheir sky. II was a sky IhaI mosI
Americans Ioday could noI imagine, unpolluIed by acIories and auIomobiles, ar
rom glowing ciIies, black and IransparenI Io sIarlighI rom Ihe gliIIering
consIellaIions. More imporIanI, Ihe capIains nccJcJ Ihe sky Io Iell Ihem where
Ihey were, and Io show Ihe world where Ihey had been aIer Ihey goI back.''
figure 9. Eveh ih |uhe show sLill covers Lhe high elevaLiohs wiLhih kocky MouhLaih
NaLiohal lark alohg Lhe Alpihe kidge 1rail (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.7 1opographic map of NorLh America creaLed by Lhe ShuLLle kadar
1opography Missioh oh board Lhe Space ShuLLle Ehdeavour ih 2000. Colors dehoLe
elevaLiohs rahgihg from greeh aL sea-level Lo beige arouhd 5000 fL (1524 meLers) wiLh
grey ahd whiLe eveh higher. 1he paLhs of Lewis ahd Clark boLh wesL ahd oh Lheir reLurh
Lrip (where boLh explored differehL rouLes Lhrough Lhe kockies) are showh. Compare
Lhis map of Lhe couhLry Lo LhaL predicLed ih Lhe map of 1804 ahd hoLice Lhe differehces
beLweeh Lhe wesLerh ahd easLerh halves of Lhe couhLry (NASA}|lL).
Jeerson had Lewis Irained in
celesIial navigaIion by Ihe asIrono-
mer Andrew EllicoII in Fhiladelphia,
Ihe preeminenI surveyor in Ihe early
1800s. He IaughI Lewis IhaI Io ind
one's posiIion on Ihe EarIh and
survey Ihe conIinenI, one needs Io
irsI look Io Ihe sIars. You can Iry Ihis
or yoursel, go ouIside IonighI and
ind Ihe NorIh SIar: Folaris. This sIar
is special in IhaI jusI by chance iI
happens Io lie in Ihe sky almosI
direcIly over Ihe norIh pole o Ihe
EarIh. As Ihe EarIh spins, and every-
Ihing else in Ihe Universe rises in Ihe
EasI and seIs in Ihe \esI, Ihey all
Irace ouI enormous circles across Ihe
sky wiIh Ihis sIar aI Iheir cenIer.
Folaris' disIance above Ihe horizon
Iells you how ar norIh o Ihe equaIor
you are. Imagine you were camping
aI Ihe NorIh Fole, nineIy degrees
norIh o Ihe equaIor. The NorIh SIar
would be direcIly above you. The
angle beIween Ihis sIar and Ihe
figure 9.8 SLars appear Lo revolve arouhd Lhe
sLaLiohary NorLh SLar, lolaris, as Lhe EarLh spihs
ih Lhis Lwo-hour exposure from kaihbow Curve
alohg Lhe 1rail kidge koad Lhrough kocky
MouhLaih NaLiohal lark. 1he farLher horLh you
are, Lhe higher lolaris is above Lhe horLherh
horizoh (1. Nordgreh).
horizon would be almosI exacIly 0 degrees (Folaris is only hal o a degree away
rom being perecIly above Ihe NorIh Fole). Move Io Ihe equaIor, and Ihe NorIh
SIar will lie almosI exacIly upon Ihe norIhern horizon Ihus orming an angle o
zero degrees wiIh iI. Turn around and hike norIhward hal Ihe disIance Io Ihe
pole, orIy-ive degrees norIh o Ihe equaIor, and Ihe NorIh SIar will be halway
up Ihe norIhern sky again aI 4S degrees. A Irend develops. No maIIer where you
are in Ihe norIhern hemisphere, measure Ihe angle rom Ihe norIhern horizon up
Io Folaris and iI is Ihe same as your angle up rom Ihe equaIor. This is your
laIiIude. Sailors have been using Ihis meIhod or cenIuries Io ind Iheir posiIion
NorIh and SouIh, including a variaIion IhaI uses Ihe Sun's alIiIude aI noon,
Lewis and Clark did Ihe same.
Einding Iheir laIiIude was easy, inding Iheir longiIude - Ihe posiIion EasI and
\esI - was Irickier. Because Ihe EarIh Iurns rom wesI Io easI, Ihe wesIerly
posiIion o a sIar in Ihe sky is noI jusI a maIIer o posiIion on Ihe EarIh, iI is also a
maIIer o whaI Iime iI is. Imagine I know iI is noon on Ihe easI coasI in New York
(perhaps I have jusI goIIen o a plane rom Ihere and have orgoIIen Io change
Ihe Iime on my waIch). AI Ihe insIanI my waIch says noon, I look up and see IhaI
where I am Ihe Sun is hal way beIween Ihe easIern horizon and Ihe zeniIh
overhead. Erom high overhead (where Ihe Sun should be aI noon) Io where Ihe
Sun is now, is an angle o 4S degrees, one eighIh o a ull circle. I am Ihereore,
one eighIh o a ull circle around Ihe EarIh away rom New York. I musI be on Ihe
wesI coasI (measure my laIiIude as beore and IogeIher I ind I am in Los
Angeles). Eiguring ouI longiIude in Ihis way requires IhaI I know Ihe Iime in
some reerence locaIion (e.g., my waIch which I had noI changed since leaving
New York). BuI in Ihe 1800s, clocks were noI accuraIe or sIurdy enough Io
survive rough sea voyages or long overland Ireks. \haI was needed was anoIher
way Io Iell Ihe Iime back home, and or Ihis asIronomy was crucial.
Eor years asIronomers had sIudied Ihe orbiI o Ihe Moon in agonizing deIail
or jusI Ihis purpose. To Ihis day Ihey sIill publish dense Iables o Ihe Moon's
posiIion, Ihe daIes o iIs eclipses and Ihe posiIions o nearby sIars as seen in Ihe
sky. All o Ihese Iables provide Ihe Iimes o Ihese occurrences or someone in
Creenwich, England. \iIh Ihis knowledge, Ihe sky becomes Ihe clock and
Creenwich Ihe reerence. Observe an eclipse or Ihe disIance beIween Ihe Moon
and a sIar aI a parIicular local Iime, and Ihe dierence beIween local Iime and
Ihe Iime calculaIed in Ihe asIronomical almanacs Iells you how ar around Ihe
globe you are.
This is precisely whaI Lewis and Clark did in Iheir Irek across Ihe conIinenI.
''AI nighI,'' wriIes Large in Lcws anJ Clarl. Part Tmc Astronomcrs, ''Ihe capIains
would choose a brighI sIar as a ixed poinI againsI which Io measure Ihe Moon's
easIerly moIion in iIs orbiI around Ihe EarIh. They were well enough acquainIed
wiIh Ihe sky Io idenIiy in Iheir journals such irsI-magniIude beacons as AnIares,
AlIair, Regulus, Spica, Follux, Aldebaran and EomalhauI as Iheir IargeI sIars,
depending on Ihe season o Ihe year. (Clark exIended his benI or invenIive
spelling inIo Ihe heavens, rendering Ihe laIIer Iwo as 'Alberian' and 'EulenhalI.')''
\hen on Ihe nighI o January 14, 180S a rare IoIal lunar eclipse swepI across
Ihe American plains, Lewis was prepared Io ind Iheir posiIion IhaI way as well,
and wroIe in his journal:
Observed an Eclips |sic| o Ihe Moon. I had no oIher glass Io assisI me
in Ihis observaIion buI a small reracIing Ielescope belonging Io my
sexIanI, which however was o considerable service, as iI enabled me
Io deine Ihe edge o Ihe moon's immage |sic| wiIh much more
precision Ihan I could have done wiIh Ihe naIural eye.
DeIermining all o Ihese angles and posiIions Iook painsIaking care.
Comparing Ihem wiIh Iables where complex calculaIions were required Io
inIerpolaIe Ihe published posiIions and Iimes Io Ihe exacI Iime and daIe where
you were making your measuremenIs (while also sIanding on Ihe shore o a
raging river in Ihe heighI o Ihe spring lood season) was sIaggeringly diiculI.
\hile Lewis and Clark made Iheir sIellar observaIions wiIh Ihe inIenI o
calculaIing Iheir longiIudes upon Iheir reIurn, in special cases like IhaI o Ihe
lunar eclipse, Lewis aIIempIed Ihe laborious calculaIion Ihere in Ihe ield.
''Lewis' resulI, jusI over degrees wesI o Creenwich,'' wroIe Large, ''was wrong
by abouI a hundred miles. BuI such was Ihe imprecision o Ihe meIhod IhaI he
was lucky Io be so close.'' Eor Ihe Corps o Discovery, Ihe irsI CFS uniI used Io
ind Iheir way \esI were Ihree large ediIions o Ihe BriIish AsIronomical
Almanac (one or each year o Ihe expediIion).
Lewis and Clark inally saw Ihe Rockies or Ihemselves in cenIral MonIana
near Helena, where Ihe Missouri River enIers inIo a chasm Ihey named Ihe
CaIes o Ihe MounIains. Today, mosI Iravelers encounIer Ihe Rockies urIher
souIh in Colorado, where Rocky MounIain NaIional Fark is Ihe sixIh mosI
visiIed naIional park wiIh 2.7 million visiIors annually. Climb Io Ihe
ConIinenIal Divide here or in MonIana and Ihe view is specIacular in iIs
rugged remoIeness. To easI and wesI, row upon row o snow-capped
mounIains disappear over Ihe horizon. \haI musI a view like Ihis have done
Io men who had seI ouI Ihinking IhaI Ihey could simply carry Iheir boaIs and
figure 9.9 1he eclipsed Mooh is
visible agaihsL Lhe backgrouhd sLars.
lrom Limihg Lhe momehL eclipses
begih, or hoLihg Lhe posiLioh of sLars
relaLive Lo Lhe Mooh, a persoh cah
calculaLe his or her lohgiLude usihg
asLrohomical Lables (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.10 Cars drive
across Lhe kocky
MouhLaihs ih hours
over disLahces LhaL ohce
Look days. 1he 1rail
kidge koad passes
Lhrough kock CuL
LurhouL |usL below Lhe
Alpihe visiLor CehLer aL
ah elevaLioh of almosL
11,7 fL (3,55 m)
above sea-level (1.
Nordgreh).
supplies rom one river Io Ihe nexI in Ihe course o a day or Iwo7
3
The acIual
porIage would Iake very much longer.
SouIh o Rocky MounIain NaIional Fark Ihe Rockies can be crossed beIween
breakasI and dinner by means o InIersIaIe 70. \iIhin Ihe park, Ihe much more
scenic Trail Ridge Road IhaI leads up and over Ihe ConIinenIal Divide Iakes a biI
longer. II's Ihe highesI paved rouIe Ihrough Ihe Rocky MounIains, and Iops ouI
aI Ihe Alpine VisiIor CenIer aI an elevaIion o 11,76 eeI (3,SS meIers).
SIanding on Ihe Irail above Ihe visiIor cenIer, Ihe wind aI Ihis alIiIude is ierce.
My hands sIing where bare skin comes in conIacI wiIh Ihe cold air. \iIh each
labored breaIh aI Ihis alIiIude, my head ills wiIh Ihe smell o Ihe air's crisp
reshness yeI burns my lungs wiIh iIs icy puriIy. Every sense seems over saIuraIed
as above me an elecIric blue sky is as blinding brighI as lasI winIers' snow sIill
resIing on hillsides.
Eor Ihe Corps o Discovery Ihe hazards o hypoIhesizing Ioo much rom Ioo
liIIle iniIial inormaIion resulIed in Ihe capIains inding Ihemselves ill prepared
and Ioo laIe in Ihe all season or whaI Ihey had expecIed Io ind in Ihese
mounIains. So iI was IhaI here in Ihe Rocky MounIains, heavy wiIh snow wiIh
Ihe onseI o winIer in 180S, Ihose Iheories o symmeIric geography and dreams
o a NorIhwesI Fassage inally died.
Modern visiIors Io Ihese peaks are sIill surprised by Ihe mounIains when Iheir
3
One winIer I crossed paIhs wiIh Ihe Corps' rouIe Ihrough MonIana and Idaho while I was in
Ihe middle o a snowsIorm. In near whiIeouI condiIions my Iruck passed in and ouI o Ihe
clouds as Ihe road climbed up and down over row aIer row o mounIains. As I descended
down Ihe back side o each ridge I kepI hoping IhaI I'd reached Ihe lasI and each Iime I was
disappoinIed Io see yeI anoIher mounIain beore me. I Ihis is how I elI in a nice warm Iruck
going 2S miles per hour (40 km}hr), I can only imagine whaI Lewis and Clark musI have
IhoughI making Ihis Irek on ooI looking or Ihe river IhaI would Iake Ihem Io Ihe Faciic.
previous experiences prove Ioo limiIed or Ihe condiIions Ihey ind when Ihey
geI here. AI Ihis elevaIion Ihe aImospheric pressure is only Iwo Ihirds IhaI aI sea-
level. Hikers and day-Irippers who have driven here in only a ew hours rom
elevaIions seven Io eighI Ihousand eeI (2,300 meIers) lower, oIen experience
shorIness o breaIh, lighI headedness, aIigue and even chesI pains. II is noI
uncommon or people Io Ihink Ihey are having hearI aIIacks here, and helicopIer
evacuaIions are noI uncommon.
The mounIains Ihereore sIill oer danger and diiculIy, buI only Iwo
hundred years laIer we've illed in Ihe map wiIh Ihe mosI sIunning alpine visIas a
mounIain-lover could hope Io see. On a clear blue day - perhaps iI is only Ihe
lack o oxygen - buI I eel I can reach up and Iouch Ihe sky. LaIer, aIer day gives
way Io dusk and Ihe Sun goes down, I and oIher visiIors Io Ihe park are once
more aced wiIh whaI we are no longer accusIomed Io seeing: sIars much Ihe
same as Ihey musI have looked beore elecIriciIy ollowed in Ihe ooIsIeps o
wesIward expansion. During summer monIhs Ihe local EsIes Valley AsIronom-
ical SocieIy seIs up Ielescopes in Ihe Beaver Meadows parI o Ihe park on
permanenI piers Ihe park has seI up or anyone Io use. AI Ihese summer sIar
parIies, park rangers, reIired proessional asIronomers, and avid amaIeurs all
show visiIing easIern ciIy dwellers Ihe dark sIarry sky IhaI was once a nighIly
occurrence or every generaIion o human being who lived ouI here unIil Ihe end
o Ihe nineIeenIh cenIury. Only a hundred years laIer Ihe Universe above us, Ihe
lasI remaining ronIier IhaI sIill beckons Ihose who look or Ihe unknown and
unexplored, is rapidly ading rom view behind Ihe glow o our own urban
aImosphere. The people who live and work in Ihese mounIains are now Ihe
proIecIors o a quickly vanishing resource: our only window inIo Ihe cosmos
beyond us.
Two hundred years aIer Lewis and Clark, our roboIic Fioneers, Mariners, and
Voyagers have made Ihe irsI reconnaissance o Ihe planeIs in our Solar SysIem.
EvenIually we will go beyond Ihe Moon ourselves, buI Ihe quesIion remains,
figure 9.11 lark visiLors gaLher oh lriday ahd
SaLurday highLs durihg summer mohLhs for
rahger-led evehihg sLargazihg ih kocky
MouhLaih NaLiohal lark (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.12 1elescope piers are provided aL
pper 8eaver Meadows 1railhead for visiLors
wiLh Lelescopes. SLars are hoL Lhe ohly sighLs
visiLors cah expecL Lo see (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.13 1he lighL of our galaxy reflecLs ih Lhe waLer of 8ear Lake wiLhih kocky
MouhLaih NaLiohal lark (1. Nordgreh).
whaI Ihen7 Like easIerners did wiIh Ihe American wesI aI Ihe dawn o Ihe
nineIeenIh cenIury, we look beyond our Solar SysIem aI Ihe Ihousands o sIars
we see every nighI in Ihe sky and we wonder whaI is ouI Ihere. Are Ihere oIher
planeIs and oIher solar sysIems like our own orbiIing oIher sIars7 Are Ihere oIher
lie-orms ouI Ihere wiIh whom we can communicaIe7 \haI does our own
experience in our own Solar SysIem reveal abouI whaI we will ind ouI Ihere, and
like Ihose ideas o symmeIric geography, whaI errors will our limiIed knowledge
o Ihis one planeI and single solar sysIem inIroduce inIo whaI we discover7
To Iruly Iake Lewis and Clark Io Ihe sIars and answer Ihe quesIion o wheIher
or noI Ihere is oIher lie in Ihe Universe, we irsI need Io ill in Ihose blank places
on Ihe celesIial maps. Are Ihere oIher solar sysIems ouI Ihere, are we alone7 Up
unIil only a ew years ago, our ideas o how solar sysIems could be arranged were
based on hypoIheses designed Io produce Ihe one example we knew: ours.
CompuIer models showed IhaI new sIars should orm aI Ihe cenIers o clouds o
gas and dusI IhaI over Iime quickly seIIle inIo disks spinning around Ihe young
sun. CraviIy pulls Iiny dusI grains inIo ever larger masses IhaI Ihrough repeaIed
collisions accumulaIe inIo solid objecIs. These growing biIs o debris are called
planeIesimals and over Iime, Ihe persisIenI acIion o graviIy brings Ihem
IogeIher Io orm Ihe planeIs we know Ioday.
In close Io a sIar where iI's warm, planeIesimals are made ouI o rock and
meIal, Ihe Ihings IhaI are solid under high IemperaIures. OuI ar rom a sIar
where Ihe IemperaIure rapidly drops, molecules o waIer, carbon dioxide,
ammonia, niIrogen and oIher 'gasses,' Iurn Io ice and add Io Ihe lisI o solids ouI
o which planeIesimals can orm. \iIh more building blocks Io play wiIh, Ihe
ouIer solar sysIem orms Ihe seeds o big planeIs irsI. These icy masses are big
enough IhaI Iheir graviIy aIIracIs and holds Ihe lighI hydrogen and helium
gasses swirling in Ihe proIo-planeIary disk. The end resulI is IhaI ouI Ihere,
planeIs can geI very big, very asI.
In close Io Ihe sIar, Ihe rocky masses don'I have nearly as much Io work wiIh
and Iheir palIry graviIaIional pull ails Io keep Ihe lighIer gasses rom sIreaming
away. To Ihis day, leI go o a helium balloon on EarIh and iI will loaI o inIo Ihe
sky. \hen Ihe irsI nuclear ires wiIhin a sIar swiIch on, Ihe solar wind IhaI
blows ouIward rom iIs surace clears away Ihe remaining gasses in Ihe disk. As
Ihe lasI remaining planeIesimals coalesce, Ihe only remaining planeIs are Ihose
ew IhaI are on sIable, mosIly circular orbiIs.
4
Alan Boss is a IheoreIical asIrophysicisI aI Ihe Carnegie InsIiIuIion in
\ashingIon D.C. working on Ihe quesIion o where our Sun and planeIs came
rom. This picIure o how solar sysIems orm is largely based on compuIer
models he developed over Ihe lasI couple decades. In his book, Loolng jor Larths,
thc Racc to lnJ Ncw Solar Systcms, Boss says IhaI Ihe upshoI o Ihese calculaIions
is, ''IhaI Ihe innermosI gianI planeI should occur aI abouI ive Iimes Ihe EarIh-
4
\hile also leaving a ew well-deined belIs o leI-over debris, such as Ihe asIeroid and Kuiper
belIs.
figure 9.14 ArLisL's cohcepLioh of plaheLs ahd asLeroids ih orbiL arouhd a hearby sLar.
1he rihg of dusLy debris is all LhaL remaihs of Lhe disk ouL of which Lhe alieh solar sysLem
formed (NASA}|lL-CalLech}1. lyle}SSC).
Sun disIance rom iIs sIar. This disIance is precisely IhaI o JupiIer's orbiI. Only
IerresIrial |small rocky, EarIh-like| planeIs should be ound inside Ihis disIance,
as indeed is Ihe case or our Solar SysIem.'' Erom Ihese resulIs, he conIinued, ''Ihe
calculaIions sIrongly supporIed Ihe idea IhaI we undersIood Ihe basics o how
Ihe Solar SysIem ormed.'' BuI how can we know i Ihis hypoIhesis is correcI7
Einding planeIs around oIher sIars is enormously diiculI. Co ouI on a clear
nighI and look up. The sIarlighI you see is generaIed by nuclear usion deep
wiIhin Ihe sIar heaIing up Ihe sIellar surace Io Ihousands and even Iens o
Ihousands o degrees. FlaneIs by comparison are cold. Even Ihough Ihe brighIesI
'sIars' in our sky are oIen planeIs like Venus (40 Iimes brighIer Ihan Ihe brighIesI
sIars like Vega and BeIelgeuse) Ihey are brighI only because Ihey are close Io us.
FlaneIs emiI no lighI o Iheir own IhaI we can see wiIh our eyes. The lighI we do
see is relecIed sunlighI so acIually seeing a planeI around a disIanI sIar is as
diiculI as picking ouI a shiny gol-ball in Ihe glare o a spoIlighI, a spoIlighI
poinIed righI aI us.
AsIronomers have Ihereore long soughI oIher ways Io ind Ihese planeIs. I
Ihe planeI iIsel is Ioo small, Ioo dark, or Ioo close Io Ihe sIar Io be seen, Ihen we
could insIead Iurn our sighIs on Ihe sIar iIsel. One o Ihe whiIe-lies IhaI we
asIronomers Iell sIudenIs is IhaI planeIs orbiI sIars. They don'I, planeIs and sIars
orbiI around Iheir common cenIer o mass. FuI a large man and a small child on
a playground IeeIer-IoIIer (a beam balanced on a pivoI) and Ihe only way Io
balance Ihe Iwo so IhaI one doesn'I crash Io Ihe ground and send Ihe oIher lying
inIo orbiI is Io place Ihe pivoI very near (buI noI exacIly under) Ihe larger person.
This pivoI poinI is Ihe cenIer o mass beIween Ihe Iwo. Eor Ihe Sun and EarIh, Ihe
cenIer o mass is so close Io Ihe Sun IhaI iI is acIually inside iI, buI iI is noI aI Ihe
Sun's cenIer. As a resulI, our Sun does noI siI sIill as Ihe EarIh goes around iI, buI
raIher Ihe Sun Iravels around a small
circle in space (while Ihe EarIh
Iravels around in a big one) always
keeping Ihe cenIer o mass beIween
Ihe Iwo. The resulI is Ihe Sun
wobbles.
The larger and arIher away Ihe
planeI, Ihe arIher Ihe cenIer o mass
is rom Ihe cenIer o Ihe Sun and Ihe
larger Ihe wobble. JupiIer, Ihe mosI
massive planeI in our Solar SysIem is
300 Iimes larger Ihan Ihe EarIh and,
jusI like our models 'predicI,' siIs ouI
aI a disIance o S asIronomical
uniIs.
S
JupiIer Ihereore causes Ihe
greaIesI wobble on our sIar and iIs
eecI is Ihe one any aliens living on
a planeI around a nearby sIar would
sIand Ihe besI chance o discovering.
There are Iwo ways Io see a
wobble. The irsI is Io acIually see
Ihe sIar move around on Ihe sky. The
precise measuremenI o a sIar's posi-
Iion on Ihe sky is called asIromeIry
and or Ihe lasI couple Ihousands o
years iI's Ihe mosI common Iype o
asIronomy IhaI we've done. II's whaI
Lewis and Clark were doing Iwo
hundred years ago as Ihey crossed Ihe counIry.
6
UnorIunaIely, Ihe size o Ihe
wobble even JupiIer induces is microscopic when viewed rom Ihe nearesI sIar
like Ihe Sun (alpha CenIauri) and iI only geIs smaller and harder Io see Ihe
arIher away you are. In order Io precisely measure really small changes in
posiIion you need Io have a really, really big Ielescope, and look Ihrough really,
really sIeady air (and ideally none aI all). CianI space-based Ielescopes, many
Iimes larger Ihan Hubble, are expensive and don'I yeI exisI.
The only oIher way Io ind planeIs rom Ihe wobble Ihey cause is Io look or
Ihe change in Ihe sIar's velociIy. I a sIar is moving around in a circle, Ihen, or all
buI a sIar whose orbiI is ace on Io our observer, Ihe sIar will someIimes move
figure 9.15 1hree views of where Lhe cehLer of
mass (Lhe balahce poihL) is fouhd: (Lop)
beLweeh Lwo equally massed ob|ecLs, (middle)
beLweeh a sLar ahd a large gaseous plaheL, ahd
(boLLom) beLweeh a sLar ahd small rocky plaheL
like Lhe EarLh. Sizes are hoL Lo scale (1.
Nordgreh).
S
An asIronomical uniI (AU) is Ihe average separaIion beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun.
6
So IhaI you don'I have Io reproduce Ihe calculaIions Lewis and Clark did when you go on a
road Irip Ioday, modern asIromeIrisIs measure Ihe posiIions o sIars so IhaI Clobal
FosiIioning SaIelliIes can deIermine where Ihey are in space, Ihus helping you know where
you are relaIive Io Ihem.
Iowards us, ollowed soon IhereaIer by iI moving away. Around and around,
becomes Iowards and away.
I you've ever sIood beside a road and heard Ihe sound o Ihe cars change piIch
as Ihey pass you by Ihen you've experienced Ihe physics IhaI allows us Io
calculaIe Ihe car's (or sIar's) velociIy: Ihe greaIer Ihe change in piIch, Ihe greaIer
Ihe velociIy.
This eecI (called Ihe Doppler eecI) occurs because sound (and lighI) are
waves IhaI Iravel aI a consIanI speed (Ihe speed o sound or one, Ihe speed o
lighI or Ihe oIher). As a speeding car approaches us, passes, and Ihen moves
away iIs sound changes rom high piIch Io low piIch (Ihis is Ihe same as a change
rom shorI wavelengIhs Io long wavelengIhs). The lighI given o by a passing
sIar does Ihe same Ihing, buI where we experience Ihe wavelengIh o sound as
Ihe piIch or Ione, we experience Ihe wavelengIh o lighI as iIs color. ShorI
wavelengIhs are blue, long wavelengIhs are red.
\hen a sIar Iravels Iowards us iI emiIs sIarlighI, buI Ihis sIarlighI is orced Io
Iravel aI Ihe speed o lighI and no asIer. No maIIer how asI Ihe sIar is moving
Iowards us Ihe lighI coming o Ihe sIar is orced by physics Io keep Ihe same
speed. LighI waves coming o Ihe sIar, Ihereore, geI bunched up as Ihey Iravel
Iowards us. ShorIer disIances beIween waves means a shorIer wavelengIh,
meaning Ihe lighI changes color: iI geIs bluer. \e call Ihis a Doppler shiI and
IhaI Ihe sIar's lighI is blueshiIed.
Hal an orbiI laIer, as Ihe sIar is no longer moving Iowards us buI is now
moving away, iIs lighI waves appear sIreIched ouI. Each succeeding cresI in Ihe
lighI's wave comes laIer as Ihe sIar speeds rapidly away. The waves are now
longer and Ihe color reddens. This is a redshiI.
In boIh cases, Ihe asIer Ihe velociIy along our line o sighI (called Ihe radial
velociIy), Ihe greaIer Ihe Doppler shiI and Ihe greaIer Ihe change in color.
figure 9.1 As a yellow lighL moves Lo Lhe lefL, Lhe waves iL emiLs ih frohL geL buhched up
because Lhey cah move ho fasLer Lhah Lhe speed of lighL. 1o ah observer ih frohL, Lhe yellow
bulb's lighL is Doppler shifLed Lo shorLer wavelehgLhs: iL looks blue. Ah observer behihd Lhe
bulb sees a similar shifL Lo lohger wavelehgLhs: iL looks red. 1he fasLer Lhe speed, Lhe greaLer
Lhe shifL ih wavelehgLh will be (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.17 As a sLar ahd plaheL orbiL arouhd Lheir combihed cehLer of mass, Lhe brighL
sLar Lraces a small circle. 1he moLioh of Lhe sLar arouhd Lhis circle requires iL Lo move
Lowards ahd away from observers oh Lhe EarLh, Doppler-shifLihg iLs lighL. Wheh sLar ahd
plaheL are aL Lime (1) Lhe sLar is movihg Lowards Lhe EarLh ahd iLs lighL is blueshifLed. AL
Lime (2), Lhe sLar ahd plaheL are movihg perpehdicular Lo Lhe EarLh, ahd Lhere is ho
Doppler shifL. Wheh sLar ahd plaheL are aL Lime (3) Lhe sLar is movihg away from Lhe
EarLh, ahd iLs lighL is redshifLed (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.18 Diagram of a sLellar specLrum. 1he
upper figure shows Lhe raihbow of lighL
produced by passihg a sLar's lighL Lhrough a
prism. Dark absorpLioh lihes are observed. 1he
boLLom diagram shows Lhe ihLehsiLy of lighL as a
fuhcLioh of wavelehgLh (color) for Lhe same
specLrum. 1he dark absorpLioh lihes are deep
Lroughs. 8y idehLifyihg Lhe paLLerh of lihes, we
see Lhe sLrohg presehce of hydrogeh gas ih Lhe
specLrum (1. Nordgreh).
\aIch a sIar wobble in a circle and or all buI a ace-on orbiI (where Ihe sIar no
longer moves Iowards or away rom us), Ihe sIar's lighI will geI bluer, Ihen
redder, Ihen back again.
To precisely measure a change in wavelengIh you need Io have a reerence,
someIhing IhaI Iells you whaI Ihe wavelengIh should be i Ihe sIar was perecIly
aI resI. Fass sunlighI Ihrough a prism and you spread ouI iIs whiIe lighI inIo a
specIrum IhaI shows all Ihe colors o Ihe rainbow. Use a high precision prism,
and buried wiIhin Ihe rainbow are innumerable dark gaps (called absorpIion
lines) where cool gasses in Ihe ouIer aImosphere o Ihe sIar have absorbed cerIain
wavelengIhs o Ihe lighI IhaI sIreams by rom ouI o Ihe solar depIhs.
Every elemenI in naIure absorbs a unique paIIern o wavelengIhs giving each
elemenI a special specIral ingerprinI. Using Ihese known absorpIion lines
asIronomers have idenIiied elemenIs like hydrogen and oxygen in sIars clear
across Ihe Universe. \hen a sIar's specIrum is analyzed or known elemenIal
ingerprinIs, i we see Ihe ingerprinI o hydrogen (or insIance) shiIed Io Ihe
blue, we know Ihe sIar is approaching us and we can precisely measure exacIly
how asI based on Ihe size o Ihe shiI.
In realiIy Ihis change is minuscule and noI aI all deIecIable by our eyes, buI
using Ihis Iechnique wiIh sensiIive deIecIors, we can now measure a sIar's
velociIy as small as Ihree eeI per second (1 m}s, Ihe equivalenI o a sIaIely walk).
This level o precision is achieved by passing Ihe sIar's lighI Ihrough a chamber
o iodine vapor aI Ihe Ielescope. The iodine absorbs lighI aI a large number o
wavelengIhs producing a large number o closely spaced parallel dark absorpIion
lines, raIher like a ruler. AgainsI Ihese reerence lines (IhaI are known Io be aI resI
wiIh respecI Io Ihe observaIory and EarIh) Ihe Doppler shiIed lines in Ihe
specIrum o Ihe sIar can be measured and compared.
7
JupiIer causes our Sun's velociIy Io change by as much as 40 I}s (12 m}s), so i
we had any CenIauri neighbors Ihey could easily deIecI JupiIer's presence using
Iechnology no more advanced IhaI whaI we have Ioday.
Erom Ihe Iime iI Iakes our Sun Io go Ihrough one period o red- and blueshiI,
as well as Ihe maximum velociIy iI achieves (and Ihus how big a circle Ihe planeI
can sweep ouI in Ihe same period) any poIenIial CenIauri asIronomers can
calculaIe jusI how big JupiIer musI be wiIhouI ever having seen iI. This is
possible because our hundred years ago Johannes Kepler ound IhaI all planeIs
ollow cerIain speciic orbiIal laws. One o Ihese is IhaI Ihe orbiIal period, Ihe
orbiIal radius, and Ihe IoIal mass o Ihe bodies doing Ihe orbiIing, all obey Ihe
relaIion:
F
2
= a
3
}M
IoIal
I you know Ihe period (F) and Ihe orbiIal radius (a) Ihen provided you have
some way o knowing how big Ihe sIar is, you learn how massive any planeI musI
be.
8
\onderully, Ihis Iechnique doesn'I depend on how ar away Ihe sIar is rom
us. As long as Ihe sIar is brighI enough or us Io capIure iIs lighI and measure Ihe
wavelengIh change, we can ind planeIs around sIars as ar away as we like.
7
Frior Io developing Ihe iodine cell, asIronomers used chambers o deadly hydrogen-luoride
gas or Ihe reerence source. Radial velociIy searches like Ihese were a dangerous business.
8
The absorpIion lines in Ihe sIar's specIrum also Iell us Ihe Iype o sIar iI is and one Ihing Ihe
lasI hundred years has shown is IhaI sIars wiIh similar specIra have similar masses. In Ihis
way we know Ihe mass o Ihe sIar when looking or Ihe masses o poIenIial planeIs.
SIarIing in 181 Ihe irsI Ieam o asIronomers wiIh an insIrumenI IhaI could
deIecI radial velociIies as small as S0 I}s (1S m}s) began observing nearby sIars
similar Io our Sun or Ihe Iell-Iale velociIy signaIure o planeIs only a liIIle bigger
Ihan JupiIer. Over Ihe nexI decade as Iechnology and radial velociIy measure-
menIs improved, Ihey would be joined by oIher groups. By Ihe summer o 1S
Ihey had ound noIhing.
ThaI June aI Ihe annual meeIing o Ihe American AsIronomical SocieIy in
FiIIsburgh, Fennsylvania (Ihe ciIy rom which MeriweIher Lewis irsI seI orIh Io
pick up Ihe oIher men or Iheir Irip cross-counIry) Ihe planeI hunIers were glum.
II was Ihe irsI proessional meeIing I ever aIIended and I remember Ihe mood
well. AIer 14 years o searching, Ihe original planeI-hunIing Ieam had ound
noIhing and were calling iI quiIs. On Iop o IhaI, anoIher Ieam led by Ceo
Marcy in Caliornia had wriIIen Io Boss in 12 describing how Ihey expecIed Io
ind signs o JupiIer-mass planeIs aI JupiIer disIances wiIhin Iwo or Ihree years.
As o IhaI meeIing Ihree years laIer, Ihey hadn'I. No one had.

\here were all Ihe JupiIers and why weren'I we inding any7 One unpleasanI
conclusion was IhaI planeIs are rare, IhaI we are alone. Then again, perhaps all
Ihe resulIs were saying was IhaI JupiIers are rare and around each o Ihese sIars
Ihere mighI sIill be a amily o perecIly lovely EarIh-mass planeIs where lie
could evolve. BuI Ihe poIenIial lack o JupiIers has a proound eecI upon Ihe
likelihood o Ihis possibiliIy.
SIanding on Ihe ConIinenIal Divide, I look norIh and souIh along Ihe spine o
Ihe conIinenI. Our planeI may be called EarIh, buI iI should have been called
\aIer. Even in July snow sIill blankeIs some hillsides. Summer sun relecIs o
melIing dropleIs waIering high mounIain Iundra. \haI waIer doesn'I nourish
Ihese high alpine meadows, gaIhers in sIreams and lakes IhaI low Io Ihe sea
where Ihey cover Ihree-quarIers o Ihe planeI's surace. The rocks o our crusI,
including Ihe sealoor, are awash in waIer IhaI provides Ihe lubricaIion and low
melIing poinI IhaI allows our conIinenIal plaIes Io move and slide over one
anoIher. The very mounIain range I am sIanding on is Ihe resulI o collisions
beIween Ihe EarIh's IecIonic plaIes, wiIhouI Ihe waIer aI my eeI we wouldn'I
have Ihe Rockies.
The same Iheories o planeI ormaIion IhaI predicI our planeI should be made
o meIal and rock predicI IhaI waIer should noI have been a major componenI o
an early hoI, dry EarIh.
One explanaIion or Ihis conIradicIion is IhaI in Ihe early days o Ihe Solar
\ell, noI quiIe. In 12, radio asIronomer Alex \olszczan ound evidence or Ihree EarIh-
sized planeIs in orbiI around a pulsar, a rapidly spinning neuIron sIar IhaI is Ihe dead
remnanI o a once massive sIar. The planeIs around FSR 12S7+12 were ound using a varianI
o Ihe Doppler meIhod. Since Ihey almosI cerIainly ormed in Ihe aIermaIh o Ihe
supernova, one implicaIion was IhaI ''Ihe process o rocky planeI ormaIion is very robusI,''
explained one planeI searcher. As a resulI, he Ihereore expecIed ''Io ind EarIh size planeIs
everywhere.'' BuI as o 1S, no one had ound anyIhing else.
SysIem, our planeI was pummeled by leI over icy debris rom Ihe ouIer Solar
SysIem. Massive comeI impacIs liIerally rained waIer down on our planeI IhaI
mixed wiIh whaI waIer was already here Io creaIe a planeI possible or lie. BuI
Ihanks Io JupiIer, Ihe bombardmenI didn'I lasI. CompuIer models show IhaI
JupiIer's massive graviIaIional presence evenIually swepI up Ihe remaining
comeIs and lung Ihem ar ouI o Ihe Solar SysIem much like an angry child
Iossing Ioys. This is a process IhaI conIinues sIill as aI leasI Iwo comeIs have been
swallowed by JupiIer in Ihe lasI 1S years (Ihe mosI recenI impacI occurring in Ihe
summer o 200).
Because o JupiIer, Ihe EarIh experiences major exIincIion-level comeIary
impacIs only once every 100 million years or so, long enough or lie, including
inIelligenI lie, Io geI a Ioe-hold beIween encounIers. \hile Ihe lasI major
impacI may have said so-long Io Ihe dinosaurs, 6S million years ago, iI opened
Ihe door or mammals and evenIually us.
Remove JupiIer rom Ihe Solar SysIem and models say IhaI comeI impacIs
should unleash global devasIaIion every hundred Ihousand years: Ioo shorI or
any inIelligences like us Io geI sIarIed. In a solar sysIem wiIhouI a JupiIer, any
planeIs wiIh lie may have produced noIhing more Ihan Iheir own version o
hardy cockroaches.
Those Ihen were Ihe choices in Ihe summer o 1S: eiIher no oIher solar
sysIems, or no oIher solar sysIems wiIh proIecIive JupiIers. EiIher way we mighI
very well be alone in Ihis Calaxy. EiIher way, Ihe repercussions would be
proound. Eive monIhs laIer, everyIhing changed.
In Ihe November issue o Ihe presIigious journal Naturc, Swiss asIronomers
Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz announced Ihe discovery o a planeI aI leasI
hal as massive as JupiIer orbiIing a sIar in Ihe consIellaIion Fegasus.
10
The sIar,
S1 Fegasi (S1 Feg or shorI) is a normal sIar in every way like our Sun and iIs
specIra showed Ihe unmisIakable sign o a small unseen planeI Iugging iI around
in a perecIly repeaIing circular orbiI.
The only problem was IhaI our Iheory o planeI ormaIion said a planeI like
JupiIer should orbiI S AU rom iIs sIar, Iaking a decade or more Io compleIe a
single Irip around. The planeI around S1 Feg Iakes only 4 days, requiring iI Io
orbiI aI a disIance o only 0.0S AU. This is a hundred Iimes closer Ihan physics
says iI should and seven Iimes closer Ihan Ihe planeI Mercury in our own
sysIem.
10
The Doppler meIhod has one major disadvanIage: iI produces only a lower esIimaIe o how
massive Ihe planeI mighI be. \iIh Ihe Doppler meIhod we deIecI only Ihe radial velociIy o
Ihe sIar, Ihe velociIy along Ihe line o sighI Io us. A sIar wiIh a very small radial velociIy
mighI be circled by a very small planeI. BuI, i Ihe orbiI o Ihe planeI and sIar is orienIed so iI
is almosI ace-on Io us, Ihen very liIIle o iIs orbiIal moIion will be along our line o sighI. The
real orbiIal velociIy could Ihereore be quiIe large and Ihereore due Io a very big planeI.
EorIunaIely, Ihis orienIaIion is noI all IhaI likely Io happen by random chance. On average,
Ihe mass o Ihe planeI will be closer Ihan noI Io Ihe lower possible limiI.
figure 9.19 ObservaLiohs of
Lhe chahgihg radial velociLy
of Lhe sLar 51 legasi revealihg
Lhe presehce of Lhe uhseeh
plaheL ih a 4.2-day orbiL aL a
disLahce of 0.052 A. lrom
Lhe size of Lhe chahgihg
velociLies Lhe mass of Lhe
plaheL is calculaLed Lo be aL
leasL 4.7 Limes Lhe mass of
|upiLer (DaLa from Sylvaih C.
Korzehhik et cl., (Harvard)).
\here did IhaI come rom7 Bill
Cochran is an asIronomer aI Ihe Uni-
versiIy o Texas aI AusIin. He and his
colleague ArIie HaIzes have been using
Ihe 107-inch (2.7-meIer) diameIer Iele-
scope aI Ihe McDonald ObservaIory in
wesI Texas Io look or planeIs since
187. I irsI meI Cochran aI a con-
erence on exIrasolar planeI searches in
18, only a liIIle while aIer Ihe
discovery o IhaI irsI planeI. Cochran
Iold me laIer, ''Frior Io S1 Feg, we
expecIed all planeIary sysIems around
main-sequence sIars Io look roughly
like our own. \e had one example o
a planeIary sysIem and, guess whaI, all
o our models succeeded in producing
IhaI one example. The discovery o S1
Feg was a real shock. There was any
number o papers IhaI Iried Io explain
iI away, (or example, as sIellar pulsa-
Iions, or sIar spoIs). II really Iook a
major reseI o our aIIiIudes Io realize
IhaI once again NaIure was ar cleverer
Ihan we had been.''
None o Ihe oIher planeIary searches, some o which had been going on or
over a decade, had ound anyIhing like Ihis. Mayor and Queloz, had been
searching or only a liIIle over a year. As iI happened, Ihe reason Ihey were irsI
was a resulI o whaI asIronomers expecIed and Ihereore how Ihey planned Iheir
figure 9.20 ArLisL's cohcepL of a gaseous
plaheL like LhaL arouhd 51 legasi (NASA,
ESA, ahd C. 8acoh (S1Scl)).
searches. IniIially, Ihere wasn'I a loI o hurry Io a projecI o Ihis kind. AIer all,
Ihe IheoreIical asIrophysicisIs said IhaI JupiIer-sized planeIs, Ihe ones mosI likely
Io be deIecIed, could only orm ar rom Iheir sIars on orbiIs IhaI would Iake a
decade Io show any sign in Ihe gradual change rom blueshiI, Io redshiI and
back again.
''The expecIaIions we had or whaI solar sysIems looked like governed how Ihe
surveys were designed.'' Cochran explained, ''I you were looking or JupiIer wiIh
expecIed lucIuaIions o 12 m}s wiIh a period o 10 years, and you had low errors
on your observaIions (3 m}s) you didn'I Ihink Io observe any one sIar very oIen.''
In NorIhern Caliornia, Ceo Marcy and Faul BuIler had been using a 10-ooI
(3-meIer) Ielescope aI Ihe Lick ObservaIory Io search or planeIs since 187. Eor
Ihem, Ihe Iask o calibraIing Iheir daIa, o converIing Ihe sIar's specIrum inIo
very precise velociIies, was a laborious process. I, according Io Boss, you ''were
looking or JupiIer clones and expecIed Io ind companions wiIh periods o a
decade or so, Ihen wiIh IhaI sorI o expecIaIion, in acI, you mighI as well noI
even boIher Io analyze your daIa unIil you have accumulaIed several years'
worIh. My Sccncc paper had only helped Io uel Ihis aIIiIude. . .. The Swiss'
absence o such preconcepIions abouI Ihe orbiIal periods o companions helped
enable Iheir discovery o S1 Fegasi b.''
11
Mayor and Queloz were ulIimaIely successul because Ihey weren'I looking or
planeIs aI all. They were searching or objecIs called brown dwars, a kind o
inIermediaIe sIage beIween sIars and planeIs where a sIar has ailed Io grow large
enough or nuclear usion Io igniIe in iIs core. In Ihe case where a brown dwar is
in orbiI around a normal sIar Ihere is no IheoreIical limiI Io how close Ihe Iwo
mighI be and Ihus how shorI Iheir orbiIal period. ExpecIing Ihe possibiliIy o
changes on a nighIly basis, Mayor had developed a specIromeIer similar Io Ihe
one IhaI oIher planeI-search groups were using buI where Ihe calibraIion was
much simpler and radial velociIies could be deIermined immediaIely.
AIer Ihe Swiss Ieam reed oIher groups rom Ihe consIrainIs o whaI ''wasn'I
possible,'' Marcy and BuIler quickly conirmed Ihe presence o S1 Feg's planeI
and wiIhin monIhs had discovered Iwo more so-called 'hoI JupiIers' hiding away
in Ihe backlog o daIa on Iheir compuIers. The planeI around 70 Virginis was
nearly seven Iimes more massive Ihan JupiIer wiIh an orbiIal period o only 117
days, while Ihe planeI around 47 Ursae Majoris was Iwo and a hal Iimes larger
Ihan JupiIer aI a disIance o 2 AU rom iIs sIar. According Io Boss, wiIh Ihe
beneiI o hindsighI, had Ihey noI been biased Iowards inding solar sysIems like
our own, ''iI was clear IhaI Marcy and BuIler easily could have beaIen Mayor and
Queloz Io Ihe punch,'' and been Ihe irsI explorers Io discover planeIs around a
sIar like our own.
11
The accepIed convenIion in naming planeIs around oIher sIars is IhaI i you should ind a
previously unknown companion Io a sIar like S1 Fegasi, Ihe companion is named S1 Fegasi b,
while Ihe sIar iIsel is assumed Io be S1 Fegasi A. Eor subsequenI companions you work your
way down Ihe alphabeI.
figure 9.21 A humber of
sLars wiLh khowh exLrasolar
plaheLs are visible aL highL Lo
Lhe haked eye. 1wo are
showh here, 51 legasi (Lhe
firsL plaheL fouhd) ahd
psiloh Ahdromedae (Lhe
firsL solar sysLem), ih Lhe
cohsLellaLiohs of legasus
ahd Ahdromeda (see Lhe
'See for yourself' secLioh for
deLails). NorLh is up (1.
Nordgreh).
BuI noI everyone was willing Io immediaIely say Ihe convenIional Iheory was
wrong. S1 Feg and Ihe oIher Iwo planeIs mighI very well have been special cases, or
maybe noI even planeIs aI all. ''AI irsI, iI was jusI an oddball, a weirdo, an
excepIion Io Ihe rule, a cosmic whim IhaI was un, an exoIic circus animal IhaI
could asIonish or even righIen you,'' Mayor would wriIe abouI his discovery. ''BuI
Ihe number o such excepIions mulIiplied: Tau BooIis b, SS Cancri b, Upsilon
Andromedae b.'' Over Ihe nexI couple o years, Cochran and oIhers would ind so
many examples o hoI JupiIers IhaI evenIually iI was obvious someIhing ground-
breaking had been discovered. ''TheorisIs have no oIher choice Ihan Io go back Io
Iheir drawing boards,'' Mayor would claim wiIh compleIe jusIiicaIion.
The Iheory IhaI evenIually emerged is IhaI solar sysIems can be much more
dynamic places Ihan previously IhoughI. I a new sIar Iakes Ioo long Io clear ouI
Ihe gas and debris disk in which Ihe asI growing JupiIer-like planeIs orbiI, Ihen
graviIaIional inIeracIions wiIh Ihe disk can cause Ihe planeI Io slow down. As iI
does, Ihe sIar's graviIy pulls iI spiraling inward Iowards Ihe sIar. Any IerresIrial
planeIs on EarIh-like orbiIs would ace a perilous uIure as Ihe massive planeI
goes rumbling by: poIenIially swallowing iI whole, sending iI crashing inIo Ihe
sIar, or ejecIing iI ouI o Ihe solar sysIem alIogeIher. In Ihe end, Ihe rampaging
planeI sIops iIs inward plunge only when iI is close enough Io Ihe cenIral sIar
IhaI Ihe dusI disk disappears or Iidal orces rom Ihe sIar counIer Ihe slowing
eecIs o Ihe disk.
12
12
RecenI models o planeIary dynamics indicaIe IhaI in our own Solar SysIem, Uranus and
NepIune once Iraded orbiIs. In Ihe process Ihey scaIIered numerous comeIs inward Iowards
Ihe Sun causing Ihe period known as LaIe Heavy BombardmenI IhaI pummeled Ihe EarIh and
Moon our billion years ago.
figure 9.22 ArLisL's cohcepLioh of a
large gaseous plaheL orbiLihg wiLhih
Lhe disk of debris ouL of which iLs
plaheLary sysLem formed. CraviLaLiohal
drag wiLh Lhe dusL disk causes Lhe
massive plaheL Lo slowly spiral ih
Lowards iLs sLar resulLihg ih Lhe class of
'hoL |upiLer' plaheLs (NASA}|lL-CalLech}
k. HurL (SSC-CalLech)).
figure 9.23 Diagram of
khowh exLrasolar
plaheLary sysLems wiLh
aL leasL Lhree plaheLs as
of 200. Our owh Solar
SysLem is showh aL Lop
for comparisoh. 1he
masses of Lhe plaheLs
(ih uhiLs of |upiLer mass,
or M|) are showh by Lhe
relaLive sizes ih Lhe
diagram. 1he EarLh
orbiLs aL a disLahce of 1
A (1. Nordgreh).
A whole new specIrum o possible planeIary arrangemenIs Ihus emerged in
Ihe laIe 10s, showing IhaI we may be jusI one among many possible
coniguraIions in Ihe amily o planeIary sysIems. \e now know o 360 sIars in
Ihe sky IhaI have aI leasI one planeI. And where we knew o only one solar
sysIem (our own) prior Io 1S, Ioday we know o 4S oIhers.
13
Here are a ew o my avoriIes IhaI also have Ihe advanIage o orbiIing sIars I
can see wiIh my own eyes:
Rho Cor Bor is SS lighI-years away in Ihe consIellaIion Coronae Borealis
(NorIhern Crown). The planeI is one and a hal Iimes as massive as JupiIer and is
13
The very raIe aI which new planeIs are being discovered requires IhaI any Ially speciy noI
jusI a year, buI a monIh (and on some occasions even a day). As o Eebruary 2010 Ihe Ially
sIands aI 42 dierenI planeIs.
in a nearly circular orbiI only a
quarIer Ihe disIance beIween Ihe
EarIh and Sun. AsIronomers
believe Ihey know Ihe Irue incli-
naIion o Ihe orbiIal plane o Ihe
planeI (and hence iIs Irue orbiIal
velociIy and mass) rom obser-
ving a dusI disk sIill in place
around Ihe sIar.
PoIIux, also called beIa Cemi-
norum, is Ihe second brighIesI
sIar in Cemini and 34 lighI-years
away. II's Ihe slighIly yellowish
sIar compared Io Ihe bluish Cas-
Ior IhaI is Ihe head o Follux's
Iwin. Follux b is aI leasI Iwice as
massive as JupiIer and orbiIs ouI
aI abouI 1.6 AU, jusI ouIside o
where Mars is in our own solar
sysIem. Follux is a irsI magniIude
gianI sIar in our winIer and spring
skies so even urban observers can
look up and see a sIar home Io
anoIher poIenIial solar sysIem.
EgxIon Erdan is Ihe clo-
sesI sIar Io us wiIh a planeI. Only
10 lighI-years away and visible in
winIer skies, epsilon Eridani has
long been a IargeI or planeI
hunIers. A number o Iimes over
Ihe years, asIronomers had IhoughI Ihey'd ound one, only Io have iI shown Io
be a IanIalizing buI ulIimaIely spurious signal in noisy daIa. In 2000, HaIzes and
Cochran ound Epsilon Eridani b which rom subsequenI Hubble Space
Telescope observaIions o Ihe acIual asIromeIric wobble o Ihe sIar, reveals Ihe
planeI is 1.S Iimes Ihe mass o JupiIer. Epsilon Eridani b is in an ellipIical 6.8-year
orbiI IhaI Iakes iI as close as 1 AU rom iIs sIar, and as ar ouI as ive Iimes arIher
away.
55 Cancr is a yellow sun-like sIar 44 lighI-years rom EarIh. Around iI orbiI aI
leasI ive planeIs in Ihe largesI exIrasolar sysIem we currenIly know. The irsI, and
closesI is SS Cancri b wiIh an orbiIal period o jusI 1S days, iI was one o Ihe irsI
planeIs ound in Ihe slew o discoveries IhaI ollowed S1 Feg. The largesI planeI in
Ihe sysIem is aI leasI our Iimes larger Ihan JupiIer ouI aI a disIance o 6 AU
(exacIly where a JupiIer-like planeI should be). The smallesI planeI yeI deIecIed
Ihere is SS Cancri e which is aI leasI 18 Iimes Ihe mass o Ihe EarIh buI skims so
close Io iIs sun aI a disIance o 0.04 AU IhaI iI compleIes one orbiI every 3 days.
figure 9.24 lihder phoLograph for Lhe exLrasolar
plaheL arouhd Lhe sLar kho Corohae 8orealis ( Cr8)
as seeh above Lhe CohLihehLal Divide ih MohLaha.
NorLh is Lo Lhe righL (1. Nordgreh).
1gxIon Andromcdac is a sIar a
liIIle hoIIer Ihan our Sun aI a disIance
o 44 lighI-years wiIh Ihree known
planeIs. Each o iIs planeIs is massive,
yeI all Ihree orbiI wiIhin S asIronom-
ical uniIs o Ihe sIar. The ouIer Iwo planeIs are on highly ellipIical orbiIs,
someIhing noI originally expecIed Io be possible in a sIable solar sysIem. In acI,
Ups Andromedae c wiIh a mass aI leasI Iwice IhaI o JupiIer's is on such an
ellipIical orbiI IhaI during iIs 241-day period iI passes closer Io iIs Sun Ihan
Venus, Ihen loops arIher ouI Ihan Ihe orbiI o Ihe EarIh. TheoreIicians now
Ihink IhaI early in iIs pasI Ihe graviIaIional inIeracIion beIween Ihe Ihree
massive planeIs probably senI Ihem careening around Iheir sIar Io wind up on
Ihe eccenIric orbiIs Ihey now inhabiI.
FomaIhaut, one o Ihe brighIesI sIars in all's souIhern sky (and one o Ihe
sIars \illiam Clark had such diiculIy spelling in his journal), is a young hoI
blue sIar Iwice as massive as our own Sun. Only 2S lighI-years away, EomalhauI
has long been known Io have a warm dusIy ring around iI. In 2004 asIronomers
used Ihe Hubble Space Telescope Io capIure an image o Ihis dusIy debris.
Embedded wiIhin Ihe inner edge o Ihe dusI ring Iheir image revealed a brighI
spoI IhaI Iwo years laIer had moved arIher around Ihe sIar. This is Ihe irsI
conirmed insIance o an acIual planeI phoIographed in orbiI around anoIher
sIar. II's a large planeI Io be sure, aI leasI Ihree Iimes Ihe mass o JupiIer and
figure 9.25 1he sLar 55 Cahcri hosLs aL leasL
five khowh plaheLs ahd is visible ih Lhis fihder
phoLograph for Lhe cohsLellaLioh Cahcer, Lhe
Crab. NorLh is up (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.2 Diagram of Lhe psiloh
Ahdromedae plaheLary sysLem showihg Lhe
orbiLs of Lhe Lhree khowh plaheLs agaihsL Lhe
orbiLs of Lhe four ihher plaheLs wiLhih our owh
Solar SysLem (1. Nordgreh).
figure 9.27 Hubble Space Lelescope image of Lhe dusL rihg arouhd Lhe sLar lomalhauL.
1he oLherwise blihdihg glare of Lhe sLar is blocked ouL revealihg Lhe faihL sLrucLure of Lhe
disk as well as Lhe lighL of a plaheL discovered ih 2004 ahd observed a secohd Lime Lwo
years laLer (ihseL) (NASA, ESA, l. Kalas, |. Craham, E. Chiahg, E. KiLe (hiv. Califorhia,
8erkeley), M. Clampih (NASA}Coddard), M. liLzgerald (Lawrehce Livermore NL), K.
SLapelfeldL, |. KrisL (NASA}|lL)).
orbiIs over Iwice as ar away rom EomalhauI as FluIo does around our own sIar.
\iIh an orbiIal period a liIIle under 00 years, EomalhauI b has experienced no
more Ihan a single change o seasons in Ihe enIire 400 hundred years since
anyone on EarIh irsI poinIed a Ielescope aI Ihe sky.
These worlds are jusI Ihe Iip o Ihe iceberg. As new Iechnology allows Ihe
planeI hunIers Io precisely measure ever smaller changes in wavelengIh, ever
smaller planeIs will conIinue Io be ound. CurrenIly, Ihe smallesI known planeI
around anoIher sIar is only ive Iimes larger Ihan Ihe EarIh orbiIing a small, cool
red dwar sIar.
14
EvenIually Ihe precision will be so good IhaI Ihey'll be ound
around normal sIars like our own.
BuI consider IhaI all Ihese planeIs (wiIh Ihe excepIion o Ihe recenI image o
EomalhauI b) were ound rom no more Ihan a liIIle wiggle in Ihe specIral line o
a sIar. No planeIs were ever acIually seen. In 1, asIronomers ound Ihe inal
proo IhaI Ihese objecIs were acIually real planeIs. As wiIh Ihe lunar eclipse IhaI
Lewis observed along Ihe Missouri River in Ihe village o Ihe Mandan, every once
14
Because Ihe hosI sIar, Cliese S81 is only a Ihird Ihe mass o our own Sun, planeIs in orbiI
around iI have a much larger eecI on iIs wobble around iIs cenIer o mass.
in a while Ihe orbiIal paIhs o suns,
sIars, and planeIs will align. \hen
Ihe EarIh passes beIween Ihe Moon
and Sun, lunar eclipses occur, when
Ihe Moon passes beIween Ihe EarIh
and Sun a solar eclipse Iakes place
and Ihe amounI o sunlighI reaching
Ihe EarIh momenIarily drops.
EvenIually, aIer enough planeIs
have been ound around enough
sIars, probabiliIy says IhaI one o
Ihem should periodically pass
beIween iIs sIar and us, producing a
sIellar eclipse where Ihe sIar's lighI
momenIarily dims by a miniscule
racIion. These are called IransiIs
and in 1, Ihe irsI one was
discovered jusI as Ihe radial veloci-
Iies said Ihe planeI should pass in
ronI o Ihe sIellar disk.
Erom Ihe size o Ihe drop in sIarlighI we could Iell how big Ihe planeI was.
Erom Ihe mass and size o Ihe planeI we could deIermine iIs densiIy
(unsurprisingly iI was gas).
1
Hal an orbiI laIer Ihe planeI passed behind iIs sIar
as viewed rom EarIh. I you record Ihe specIral ingerprinI o Ihe sIar when Ihe
planeI is eclipsed by Ihe sIar, Ihen record anoIher when Ihe planeI comes ouI
rom behind, Ihe dierence beIween Ihe Iwo specIra reveals Ihe elemenIal
signaIure o Ihe planeI (even Ihough aI no poinI is iIs lighI ever disIinguished
rom Ihe sIar's). Casses IhaI have so ar been ound in Iheir aImospheres include
waIer vapor, sodium, carbon dioxide, and meIhane. \e are sniing Ihe air o
worlds around oIher sIars.
In 200 NASA launched Ihe nexI phase in planeI exploraIion. The Kepler
spacecraI is a roboIic mission Io repeaIedly observe Ihe brighIness o 170,000
sIars in Ihe direcIion o Ihe Summer Triangle. II will spend Ihree and a hal years
(and hopeully more) looking aI Ihis region o Ihe sky or Ihe IellIale signs o Iiny
eclipses by IransiIing planeIs wiIh a precision so greaI IhaI we should be able Io
ind planeIs as small as EarIh, in EarIh-like orbiIs around sIars like our Sun.
The primary mission will lasI Ihree years, so only planeIs in Ihe equivalenI o
our inner Solar SysIem will be deIecIed over mulIiple passes in ronI o iIs sIar.
Once Ihey've been ound however, Ihen Cochran, a co-invesIigaIor on Ihe
mission Ieam, will use Ihe radial velociIy meIhod Io look or any larger planeIs in
figure 9.28 ArLisL's cohcepLioh where a plaheL
LrahsiLs ih frohL of iLs sLar blockihg ouL a Lihy
fracLioh of Lhe sLar's lighL ((solar image) NASA,
ESA).
1S
A beneiI o IransiIing exIrasolar planeIs is IhaI Ihe orienIaIion o Ihe orbiI is revealed and Ihe
mass o any planeI is no longer jusI a lower limiI, buI acIually Ihe Irue, unambiguous mass.
figure 9.29 AfLer LrahsiLihg ih frohL of
iLs sLar, Lhe plaheL is subsequehLly
eclipsed by iL as showh ih Lhis arLisL's
cohcepLioh (NASA, ESA, ahd C. 8acoh
(S1Scl)).
figure 9.30 Diagram showihg
how asLrohomers acquire Lhe
specLrum of a plaheL arouhd
ahoLher sLar LhaL experiehces
eclipses. lh Lhe lefL pahel Lhe
combihed lighL of plaheL ahd sLar
is observed (boLLom pahel shows
Lhe cohLribuLioh Lo Lhe specLrum
of sLar ahd plaheL). AsLrohomers
Lheh waiL for Lhe plaheL Lo be
eclipsed by Lhe sLar. 1he resulLihg
specLrum shows ohly Lhe lighL of
Lhe sLar. 1his specLrum (aL middle
boLLom) is subLracLed from Lhe combihed specLrum (boLLom lefL). 1he resulL is |usL a specLrum
of Lhe plaheL (boLLom righL) (NASA}|lL-CalLech).
figure 9.31 Diagram of Lhe field of view of Lhe
Kepler spacecrafL showihg Lhe locaLioh ih
space Lowards which iL will search 170,000
sLars for sighs of EarLh-mass plaheLs ih EarLh-
like orbiLs. 1he regioh Kepler will search is
locaLed beLweeh Lhe sLars Deheb ahd vega
which make up Lwo corhers of Lhe Summer
1riahgle visible from eveh mahy ciLies. Here
Lhey are seeh above Lhe CohLihehLal Divide
from MohLaha's Coihg-Lo-Lhe-Suh koad (1.
Nordgreh).
more disIanI orbiIs. Soon we will have compleIed Ihe irsI surveys o enIire solar
sysIems and inally know jusI how common or rare our collecIion o eighI
planeIs is. As unbelievably exciIing as Ihis prospecI is, one o Ihe mosI common
quesIions I or any asIronomer is asked is why iI maIIers7 \hen Ihere is so much
IhaI needs ixing down here, why spend our Iime looking ouI Ihere7
\hile Ihere are many hisIorical examples o world-changing discoveries
coming rom Ihe mosI unlikely o places (where would modern elecIronics be i
in Ihe 1700s inquisiIive people like Benjamin Eranklin hadn'I experimenIed wiIh
lighIning and sIaIic elecIriciIy) Ihere is a lesson we can learn rom Ihe naIional
park where I now sIand.
As American and European seIIlers spread wesI across Ihe conIinenI in Ihe
1800s Ihey did so Io ind land, reedom, new resources, and prosperiIy (all Ihose
Ihings people sIill look or Ioday). YeI, in Ihe midsI o IhaI expansion, Ihe ederal
governmenI declared Ihere were some places we would noI develop, arm, mine,
or 'civilize,' buI leave as besI we ound or uIure generaIions. These are Ihe
naIional parks. As cosIly and counIerproducIive Io Ihe immediaIe needs and Ihe
wanIs o Ihe people o Ihe Iime as Ihey were, can anyone argue IhaI Ihe peace,
beauIy, and relecIion Ihey have broughI Io Ihe human spiriI did noI make Ihem
money well spenI7
This is whaI I see in every picIure rom Ihe Hubble Space Telescope or disIanI
orbiIer lying pasI Ihe rings o SaIurn. And jusI like geology and geography was
only parI o Lewis and Clark's charge, Ihe ulIimaIe asIronomical quesIion isn'I
Ihe quanIiIy o oIher EarIhs buI Ihe possibiliIy o lie ouI Ihere looking back aI
us. Are we alone or are we parI o a greaIer amily o living, Ihinking, beings in
Ihe Universe7 Imagine whaI we could have learned rom Ihose who were living
on Ihis conIinenI beore us i we had been Iruly inIenI on communicaIion and
noI colonizaIion, and IhaI is only a microscopic racIion o whaI we could learn
rom a Iruly alien inIelligence. The laws o physics make Ihe colonizaIion o
oIher planeIary sysIems no more
Ihan a disIanI dream, so or perhaps
Ihe irsI Iime in our hisIory, we will
be orced Io communicaIe irsI wiIh
anyone we discover.
figure 9.32 1he llaheLary SocieLy is
dedicaLed Lo ihspirihg Lhe public wiLh Lhe
advehLure ahd mysLery of space
exploraLioh. 1hrough Lheir pro|ecLs ahd
publicaLiohs, Lhe SocieLy plays a leadihg
role ih Lhe quesL Lo ehgage Lhe public ahd
fuel supporL for explorihg oLher worlds.
1heir very logo draws oh humahiLy's lohg
LradiLioh of exploraLioh ahd discovery (1he
llaheLary SocieLy).
BuI how likely is iI IhaI Ihere s anyone Io Ialk Io ouI Ihere7 Erank Drake, an
asIronomer aI Cornell UniversiIy in Ihe 160s and '70s came up wiIh a ormula
or aI leasI raming Ihis seemingly impossible quesIion. His idea was Io break
down a complicaIed quesIion wiIh no clear answer inIo a series o smaller
quesIions, each wiIh aI leasI some possibiliIy o being addressed. \haI he and
his colleagues came up wiIh has come Io be known as Ihe Drake EquaIion, and iI
looks like Ihis:
N = R*
p
n
e

l

i

c
L
where N is Ihe number o alien civilizaIions ouI Ihere in our Calaxy wiIh which
we could possibly communicaIe. Each Ierm on Ihe righI is some number or
racIion IhaI has a bearing on how big or small N could possibly be. Eor insIance:
R* is Ihe raIe aI which sIars are born in Ihe Calaxy. Erom Ihe size and age o
Ihe Milky \ay, we can esIimaIe Ihis aI abouI 40 sIars per year.
p
is Ihe racIion o Ihose sIars wiIh planeIs. Our searches or exIrasolar planeIs
shows Ihis may be a very large racIion, perhaps almosI 1. BuI leI's be cauIious:
p
=
1
2
.
n
e
is Ihe number o EarIh-like worlds per planeIary sysIem. In our own Solar
SysIem we know perhaps our or ive places where liquid waIer and Ihe
requiremenIs or lie could be: EarIh, Mars, under Ihe ice sheeI o Europa, and
possibly on SaIurn's moons TiIan and Enceladus. LeI's remain conservaIive and
say n
e
= 3.
l
is Ihe racIion o Ihose planeIs or moons in Ihe solar sysIem where lie
acIually develops. The lasI decade o human exploraIion o Mars has all been
aimed aI idenIiying i lie ever arose Ihere. Evidence indicaIes IhaI lie on EarIh
evolved preIIy quickly once Ihe planeI ormed. \hile lie may be ineviIable, leI's
remain pessimisIs:
l
=
1
100
.
i
is Ihe racIion o Ihose places wiIh lie where iI acIually evolves Io
inIelligence. Obviously wiIh each Ierm in Ihis progression we are less and less
sure o whaI values Io use and Ihe answer we derive is simply a guess, buI aI Ihe
very leasI iI will be an educaIed guess. \e're inIelligenI, buI we also know
dinosaurs lived on Ihis planeI or 18S million years and never builI asIeroid
delecIion capabiliIies, so leI's say
i
is one ouI o Iwo.
c
is Ihe racIion o inIelligenI civilizaIions IhaI develop Ihe Iechnology Io
communicaIe across inIersIellar disIances. II does us no good i an agrarian race
o Iruly enlighIened beings evolves who eschew all orm o Iechnology. They
may be admirable people rom whom we could learn a loI, buI Ihere is no way we
will ever learn iI i we can'I communicaIe wiIh Ihem across inIersIellar space.
Using our one daIa poinI which is Ihe modern EarIh, we have Ihree possibly
inIelligenI species (us, apes, and dolphins) buI only one o which is signaling our
presence Io exIraIerresIrials via Ielevisions. LeI's say
c
=
1
3
.
MulIiply all Ihese Ierms IogeIher and you have:
N = 40
1
2
3 1}100
1
2

1
3
L
N =
1
10
Iechnological civilizaIions per year ( L)
This means IhaI every 10 years
one inIelligenI communicaIing civi-
lizaIion pops up somewhere in Ihe
Milky \ay. BuI Ihe number IhaI is
ouI Ihere aI any one Iime depends on
how long Ihey sIick around. ThaI's L,
Ihe lieIime o a Iechnological civili-
zaIion. RighI now or us, iI is abouI
100 years, Ihe lengIh o Iime we've
had radio Iechnology Io signal our
presence Io Ihe sIars Ihrough TV re-
runs. I during Ihe heighI o Ihe cold
war we'd annihilaIed ourselves in a
nuclear holocausI, or i we ruin our
planeI during Ihe nexI cenIury due
Io ecological carelessness, Ihen L
mighI be no more Ihan 100 years.
LeI's say IhaI's Iypical, IhaI as
soon as Iechnological civilizaIions
sprouI Ihey snu Ihemselves back
ouI. Then N = 10. As amazing as Ihis
would be, unorIunaIely or us, Ihe Calaxy is a huge place. AI 100,000 lighI-years
across and abouI 1000 lighI-years Ihick, Ihere are abouI 10 Irillion cubic lighI-
years o space in our Calaxy. I all 10 inhabiIed sIar sysIems are spread randomly
IhroughouI Ihe Calaxy Ihen IhaI implies IhaI each civilizaIion is alone wiIhin iIs
own bubble o a Irillion cubic lighI-years and Ihe nearesI civilizaIion is abouI
10,000 lighI-years away. I all civilizaIions are like us, Ihen no one ever lives long
enough Io hear rom Iheir neighbors.
BuI imagine we don'I desIroy our planeI or ourselves. Say we overcome Ihe
Iendencies IhaI decimaIed indigenous populaIions, melIed glaciers, and
harnessed Ihe power o Ihe Sun Io make hydrogen bombs. I civilizaIions can
do IhaI and L = 1 million years, Ihen Ihere are one hundred Ihousand
civilizaIions ouI Ihere in Ihe Calaxy Ioday waiIing Io hear rom us and in Ihe
lieIime o our species Ihere would be Iime enough or inIersIellar conversaIions.
In Ihe end, even i we ind we are alone in Ihe Calaxy, wiIh no one Io Ialk Io or
learn rom we will sIill have ound Ihose worlds IhaI we will someday need Io
Iravel Io. \hile our physics provides no pracIical way Io do IhaI yeI, our
asIrophysics is quiIe clear IhaI when our Sun begins Io die in a liIIle less Ihan S
billion years, we won'I be able Io sIay here. I we should be so lucky IhaI L is a
very large number, Ihen all Ihose planeIs we discover ouI Ihere will be Ihe lasI
hope or Ihe survival o our species and everyIhing iI will have ever accomplished
down here.
CurrenIly none o Ihese planeIs are EarIh-like worlds wiIh a solid surace
orbiIing in an EarIh-like orbiI aI jusI Ihe righI disIance or liquid waIer Io be
presenI or lie as we know iI. BuI JupiIer-like planeIs such as Upsilon
figure 9.33 1he Drake EquaLioh for calculaLihg
Lhe humber of civilizaLiohs ih our galaxy wiLh
whom we mighL be able Lo commuhicaLe righL
how ((backgrouhd) Hubble HeriLage 1eam).
figure 9.34 Ah arLisL's cohcepLioh of psiloh Ahdromedae c risihg above Lhe disLahL
mouhLaihs as ah alieh expediLioh explores ah uhkhowh cohLihehL oh Lheir EarLh-like
mooh (1. Nordgreh).
Andromedae c do orbiI wiIhin Iheir sIar's habiIable zone and Ihe one Ihing Ihe
lasI S0 years o roboIic space exploraIion has shown is IhaI NaIure surprises.
Several moons o Ihe greaI gaseous planeIs in our Solar SysIem almosI cerIainly
have liquid waIer hiding under rozen proIecIive crusIs. Move JupiIer and iIs
sysIem o moons Io Ihe orbiI o Ihe EarIh and provided Ihere's enough volcanic
ouIgassing or a heaI-Irapping greenhouse aImosphere, Ihen Europa becomes a
balmy souIh-sea world.
Imagine jusI such a moon around Upsilon Andromedae c where oceans and
conIinenIs creaIe a world like ours in miniaIure. Like all moons in our Solar
SysIem, Iidal orces slowly synchronize iIs roIaIion so IhaI one side sIays orever
poinIing aI iIs planeI. On such a world, Ihe planeI never rises or seIs, buI sIays
orever hanging in Ihe sky, visible orever by one hemisphere, orever invisible Io
Ihe oIher. I Ihere should be inIelligenI lie Ihere, any expediIion o alien beings,
born and raised on Ihe anIi-planeI hemisphere seIIing o Io explore Ihe ar
reaches o Iheir world will Ihereore come Io discover more Ihan Iheir iniIial
hypoIheses predicIed. In ollowing some unknown river across a brand new
conIinenI, orever heading or Ihe disIanI horizon, a day will come when a new
planeI rises, one Ihey've never seen beore. And on IhaI day Ihey will discover a
new world, Ihe irsI o many i Ihey ever Iurn Iheir exploraIory view Io Ihe sky as
we have jusI Iaken Ihe irsI sIeps in doing ourselves.
I so, perhaps someday our Iwo species will meeI and we will learn Io Iell one
anoIher whaI we have discovered in Ihe course o our Iravels.
See for yourseIf: other stars with pIanets
'See' an extrasoIar pIanet
As o Ihe summer o 200 Ihere are 42 sIars visible Io Ihe naked eye around
which we know oIher planeIs orbiI. Many o Ihese sIars are visible only rom dark
locaIions on nighIs where Ihe Milky \ay is easily seen. Some, however, are
visible even rom Ihe hearIs o ciIies (in none o Ihese cases are Ihe planeIs
Ihemselves brighI enough Io be seen, even Ihrough a Ielescope). The ollowing
are six o Ihe easiesI sIars Io ind IhaI have exIrasolar planeIs or planeIary
sysIems. The ouIlined boxes on Ihe July and January sIar maps correspond Io
Ihose phoIographs wiIhin Ihe chapIer IhaI show inder-maps or hard Io ind
sIars. They are lisIed in order o increasing diiculIy Io idenIiy.
PoIIux or Bcta Gcmnorum {| Cem): MagniIude 1.1S, visible in evening rom
December Io June (besI in March). Cemini is besI ound by looking or Ihe Iwo
sIars CasIor and Follux IhaI orm Ihe head o Cemini Ihe Twins. They are oIen
visible even rom ciIies and are ound jusI Io Ihe easI o Ihe prominenI
consIellaIion o Orion. Follux is easI and slighIly yellow relaIive Io iIs close, blue
Iwin, CasIor. The planeI Follux b is aI leasI 2.3 Iimes Ihe mass o JupiIer and aI an
average disIance o 1.6 AU rom iIs sIar (equivalenI Io Ihe orbiI o Mars) Iakes S0
days Io compleIe one orbiI.
FomaIhaut: MagniIude 1.16, visible in evening rom SepIember Io December
(besI in OcIober}November). During Ihe all, EomalhauI is Ihe brighIesI sIar in
Ihe souIhern sky. In Ihe consIellaIion o Fisces AusIrinus (Ihe SouIhern Eish),
EomalhauI is Ihe only sIar IhaI sIands ouI and is oIen Ihe only sIar visible rom
lighI polluIed skies. I iI's all, and Ihere is a brighI sIar along Ihe souIhern
horizon, iI's probably EomalhauI. The planeI EomalhauI b is less Ihan 3 Iimes Ihe
mass o JupiIer and aI an average disIance o 11S AU orbiIs more Ihan Iwice as ar
away rom iIs sIar as FluIo does in our Solar SysIem. One year or EomalhauI b
lasIs 876 IerresIrial years. O all Ihe sIars lisIed here wiIh planeIs, only EomalhauI
is noI visible on Ihe July or January sIar maps included wiIh Ihis chapIer (see
insIead Ihe sIar maps in ChapIers 3, 4, 7, or 8).
Gamma Ccghc { Cep): MagniIude 3.2, visible all year (besI November). The
consIellaIion o Cepheus is ound so close Io Folaris IhaI as Ihe EarIh Iurns, iI
never seIs below Ihe horizon as seen rom Ihe UniIed SIaIes (excepI or Hawaii).
Only during spring is Cepheus aI iIs lowesI. The consIellaIion looks like a simple
house wiIh a square and a Iriangle on Iop or a roo. The peak o Ihe roo is Ihe
sIar Cep and iI is locaIed almosI 1S degrees away rom Folaris, halway beIween
Ihe NorIh SIar and Ihe \ o Cassiopeia. AI arm's lengIh, your hand wiIh Ihumb
and pinky-inger exIended spans 1S degrees rom Iip Io Iip. I Cassiopeia isn'I up
and you can'I ind Cep rom Ihe sIar map, place your Ihumb on Folaris and
roIaIe your hand around Ihe NorIh SIar. Cep will be Ihe only sIar o near
comparable brighIness IhaI your pinky-inger crosses. Camma Cephei b is a
planeI 1.76 Iimes bigger Ihan JupiIer aI a disIance o 2 AU rom iIs cool orange-
red sIar. The unseen gas planeI Iakes 00 days Io compleIe a single orbiI.
EgxIon Erdan {c Eri): MagniIude 3.7, visible in evening November Io March
(besI January). The consIellaIion o Eridanus represenIs a river IhaI meanders
Ihrough Ihe winIer sky Io Ihe souIhwesI o Orion. The besI way Io ind Ihe sIar
epsilon Eridani is Io sIarI aI Ihe brighI blue sIar Rigel in Orion (Ihe souIhwesI
corner o Ihe consIellaIion) and ''sIar-hop'' rom one sIar Io Ihe nexI along Ihe
river as shown in Ihe January sIar map in Ihis chapIer. c Eri is only 10 lighI-years
away, making iI Ihe closesI known sIar wiIh a planeI. The planeI is 1.S Iimes
more massive Ihan JupiIer in an ellipIical 6.8-year orbiI IhaI Iakes iI beIween 1
and S AU rom iIs sIar (Ihe dierence beIween Ihe EarIh and JupiIer in our own
Solar SysIem).
1gxIon Andromcdac {t And): MagniIude 4.1, visible in evening AugusI Io
March (besI December). The December sky map and Eigure .21 show how Io
ind t And along Ihe sIring o sIars IhaI exIends easIward rom Ihe CreaI Square
o Fegasus. II is usually besI Io begin aI And, Ihe norIheasIern corner o Ihe
CreaI Square in Eigure .21, and sIar-hop easIward Io t And. Upsilon Andromeda
has Ihree known planeIs in orbiI. They range rom aI leasI 0.71 Io 4.61 JupiIer
masses and have orbiIal periods ranging rom 4 days Io 3.S years.
Rho Coronac BorcaIx { Cor Bor or CrB): MagniIude S.4, visible in evening
April Io OcIober (besI July). The large C-shaped consIellaIion o Corona Borealis
is ound in summer along Ihe line joining Ihe brighI orange sIar ArcIurus and Ihe
brighI irsI-magniIude sIar, Vega. As Eigure .24 shows, exIend Ihe Iwo arms aI
Ihe open end o Ihe C and Ihey come Io a poinI aI Ihe dim sIar CrB. The planeI
IhaI orbiIs Ihis sIar is a liIIle larger Ihan JupiIer and orbiIs in a nearly circular
orbiI only a quarIer Ihe size o Ihe EarIh's, compleIing one circuiI o iIs sIar every
40 days.
51 Pcgax {51 Pcg}: MagniIude S.S, visible in evening AugusI Io January (besI
November). Eind Ihe CreaI Square o Fegasus in Ihe all and early winIer sky.
Eigure .21 shows IhaI jusI wesI o Ihe Iwo sIars IhaI make up Ihe shorI, wesIern
side o Ihe Square are Iwo close sIars ( and i Feg). AlmosI direcIly in-beIween
Feg and Feg (which is Ihe souIhwesI corner o Ihe Square) is Ihe very dim sIar
S1 Feg. This is Ihe very irsI sIar like our Sun ound wiIh an exIrasolar planeI and
iI is visible only rom dark locaIions wiIh no Moon, and on nighIs when Ihe
Milky \ay is also easily visible. See iI and know IhaI a planeI aI leasI hal as
massive as JupiIer makes one compleIe orbiI every our days.
55 Cancr {55 Cnc}: MagniIude S.S, visible in evening January Io June (besI
March). This is Ihe hardesI sIar in Ihis lisI Io ind as iI is jusI aI Ihe limiI o whaI
you can see rom a dark locaIion and iI is in a consIellaIion wiIh no brighI sIars
Lhe map is Lhe sky sLraighL overhead aL Lhe zehiLh. 8oxes are showh ouLlihihg selecLed
phoLographs for fihdihg specific exLrasolar plaheLs.
and Ihereore very diiculI Io spoI. Hal way beIween Ihe consIellaIion o Cemini
and Leo Ihere is a small uzzy cloud IhaI looks like a blurry sIar. This is Ihe small
clusIer o sIars called M44, Ihe Beehive (see Eigure .2S). II is Ihe hearI o Ihe Y-
shaped consIellaIion o Cancer Ihe Crab. M44 siIs beIween and Cnc. NorIh o
Cnc is Ihe nearly equally brighI sIar 48 Cnc. JusI Io Ihe easI o 48 Cnc is SS Cnc
and iI will be jusI barely wiIhin your abiliIy Io see iI rom dark locaIions wiIh no
Moon. I you can also see Ihe ainI winIer Milky \ay Ihen iI is a good chance you
will be able Io see SS Cnc. Around Ihis sIar is a sysIem o aI leasI ive planeIs
ranging in mass rom aI leasI 18 Iimes Ihe mass o Ihe EarIh Io our Iimes Ihe mass
o JupiIer. II is Ihe largesI planeIary sysIem we know o beyond our own.
further reading
Planct Qucst by Ken Croswell (1)
Oxord UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 012880837
Loolng jor Larths. Thc Racc to lnJ Ncw Solar Systcms by Alan Boss (18)
\iley, ISBN 0471184217
Ncw WorlJs n thc Cosmos. Thc Dscovcry oj Lxoplancts by Michel Mayor and Fierre-
Yves Erei (2003)
Cambridge UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 0S21812070
UnJauntcJ Couragc. Mcrwcthcr Lcws, Thomas }cjjcrson, anJ thc Opcnng oj thc
Amcrcan Wcst by SIephen E. Ambrose (17)
Simon & SchusIer, ISBN 068482676
Thc Grcat DvJc. Thc Rocly Mountans n thc Amcrcan MnJ by Cary Eerguson (2004)
\.\. NorIon & Company, ISBN 0330S0726
Thomas }cjjcrson anJ thc Rocly Mountans. Lxplorng thc Wcst jrom Montccllo by
Donald Jackson (13)
UniversiIy o Oklahoma Fress, ISBN 080612S047
Passagc through thc GarJcn. Lcws anJ Clarl anJ thc lmagc oj thc Amcrcan Northwcst
by John Logan Allen (17S)
UniversiIy o Illinois Fress, ISBN 02S200377
Journals o Ihe Lewis and Clark ExpediIion, an on-line searchable daIabase
hIIp:}}lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu}
The FlaneI QuesI AIlas o ExIrasolar FlaneIs
hIIp:}}planeIquesI.jpl.nasa.gov}aIlas}aIlas_index.cm
NASA's Kepler Mission Homepage
hIIp:}}kepler.nasa.gov}
The FlaneIary SocieIy
hIIp:}}www.planeIary.org
10
Far away and long ago:
the Unlverse before you
Thc sly hcgns at your jcct.
Fark Ranger C.B. Cornucopia
''In Ihe beginning Ihere was only Tokpella, Endless Space. NoIhing sIirred
because Ihere were no winds, no shadows ell because Ihere was no lighI, and all
was sIill. Only Tawa, Ihe Sun SpiriI, exisIed, along wiIh some lesser gods. Tawa
conIemplaIed on Ihe Universe o space wiIhouI objecIs or lie, and he regreIIed
IhaI iI was so barren. He gaIhered Ihe elemenIs o Endless Space and puI some o
his own subsIance inIo Ihem, and in Ihis way he creaIed Ihe EirsI \orld. There
were no people Ihen, merely insecI-like creaIures who lived in a dark cave deep
in Ihe earIh. Eor a long while Tawa waIched Ihem. He was deeply disappoinIed.
He IhoughI, '\haI I creaIed is imperecI. These creaIures do noI undersIand Ihe
meaning o lie.'''
1
In Iime Tawa creaIed Ihe Second \orld so IhaI he mighI perecI all Ihings IhaI
have lie in Ihem. \hen Spider CrandmoIher led Ihe creaIures Io Ihis new world
Ihey were changed inIo hairy orms
IhaI resembled dogs and coyoIes
and bears. BuI because Ihey sIill
had no knowledge o Ihings Ihey
evenIually became embiIIered and
oughI amongsI Ihemselves and
Tawa was sIill noI pleased.
Tawa nexI creaIed Ihe Third
\orld. \hen Spider \oman led Ihe
creaIures Ihere, Iheir bodies changed
inIo people and she said ''Tawa has
given you Ihis place so IhaI you may
live in harmony and orgeI all evil.
Do noI injure one anoIher. Remem-
ber IhaI Tawa creaIed you ouI o
Endless Space, and Iry Io undersIand
Ihe meaning o Ihings.''
1
Erom Harold Courlander's lourth WorlJ oj thc Hops.
figure 10.1 Hopi poL showihg a LradiLiohal
migraLioh paLLerh (1. Nordgreh).
ligure 10.2 1he Crahd Cahyoh sLreLches ihLo Lhe disLahces as seeh from Lhe kim 1rail
|usL easL of Lhe hisLoric El 1ovar HoLel ih Crahd Cahyoh NaLiohal lark. Show has falleh
well ihLo Lhe cahyoh from a recehL wihLer showsLorm (1. Nordgreh).
BuI even Ihere Ihe people oughI and Fowakas, or sorcerers, broughI evil and
conlicI. Tawa was once more displeased and so Iold Spider CrandmoIher Io Iell
Ihe people IhaI all Ihose o good hearI should go away rom Ihis place. The
people leI Iheir homes and climbed a greaI bamboo Iree IhaI led up Ihrough a
hole in Ihe sky Ihrough which Ihey enIered Ihe Upper \orld. There, in ths
world, Ihey became all Ihe dierenI Iribes o people we know Ioday.
Among Ihe many Hopi clans whose origin Iale Ihis is, Ihe deIails have long
since diverged in Ihe Ielling and reIelling over Ihe cenIuries. MosI believe Ihe
locaIion o Ihe opening Ihrough which Ihey emerged inIo Ihis world, Ihe
sipapuni, is long orgoIIen. BuI a number o clans rom Third Mesa believe Ihe
sipapuni can sIill be ound, proIecIed beneaIh a proIecIive cap o waIer near Ihe
place where Ihe Colorado and LiIIle Colorado Rivers meeI in Ihe hearI o Ihe
Crand Canyon.
Crand Canyon is a iIIing monumenI Io origins and legends. IIs enormiIy
dwars words and renders simple size measures meaningless. And while wesIern
religious IradiIion ascribes divine beauIy Io Ihe heavens above, Ihe canyon's
awesome specIacle renders iI reasonable IhaI Ihe Hopi world o creaIion should
be locaIed wiIhin Ihe earIh below. Even some orIhodox FroIesIanI IradiIions
ind jusIiicaIion or Iheir own creaIion sIory wiIhin Ihe canyon. Eor Ihem Ihe
canyon's expanse is evidence enough
or Noah's lood and Ihe EarIh's
creaIion only six Ihousand years
ago.
2
Eor mysel, looking down rom
one o Ihe many overlooks along
Ihe SouIh Rim, I undersIand Ihe
need Io ind simple explanaIions or
whaI I am seeing. II's Iruly diiculI
Io comprehend how someIhing as
big and beauIiul as Ihis could be
here. So while some may only be able
Io come Io grips wiIh Ihe canyon by
believing IhaI iI was creaIed in a
single caIaclysmic evenI, while
oIhers may Iake Ihe opposiIe Iack
and conclude IhaI iI is as eIernal as
Ihe EarIh, Ihe middle road beIween
Ihese exIremes is Ihe scienIiic sIory
IhaI Ihe canyon was creaIed by Ihe
scouring acIion o simple waIer over
long periods o Iime. And while I am
a scienIisI, I recognize IhaI even wiIh
all Ihe evidence in Ihe world sup-
porIing Ihis origin, Ihis is probably
Ihe leasI inIuiIively obvious and
emoIionally saIisying explanaIion
o all. Our mind recoils aI Ihe lengIhs
o Iime required or whaI we see here.
ThaI's Ihe problem wiIh 'Deep Time,' iI's a span o Iime so ar beyond our
ordinary experience or hisIorical reerence IhaI, like a bouI o verIigo on Ihe
canyon's rim, our menIal aculIies whirl and spin wiIhouI means o supporI. BuI
Io undersIand Ihe geology o Ihe canyon absoluIely requires we come Io Ierms
wiIh Deep Time. SIanding here on Ihe rim, I cannoI help buI see in Ihe canyon's
depIhs a glorious example o Ihe observaIions, hypoIheses, models, and Iheories
IhaI when coupled wiIh Deep Time (and in Ihe case o asIronomy, Deep
DisIances) lead Io Ihe scienIiic origin o noI jusI Ihe canyon, buI Ihe enIire
Universe beyond.
To begin Io Ihink abouI Deep Time, consider a ly whose enIire liespan is no
more Ihan a single day. To a ly, you and I are unchanging eaIures o Ihe
2
No maIIer whaI Ihe physical evidence or a 4.S billion year old EarIh, rom ields as diverse as
geology, chemisIry, biology, physics, or asIronomy.
figure 10.3 LighL from laLe afLerhooh suh
reflecLs off Lhe Colorado kiver as iL cohLihues Lo
cuL iLs way Lhrough Lhe depLhs of Lhe Crahd
Cahyoh (1. Nordgreh).
Far away and long ago: the Unlverse before you 35
landscape. \hile we may move around in a vain aIIempI Io swaI Ihem, consider
how liIIle our physical orm changes over Ihe lie o a ly. \e don'I grow Ialler,
geI Ihinner, or change shape. Our hair doesn'I grow longer or naIurally change
color. \e look virIually Ihe same rom Ihe momenI we wake up Io Ihe momenI
we go Io bed, during which Iime Ihe Iiny ly has grown, lived, and died.
RelaIive Io a ly, you and I live or 2S,000 lieIimes. To puI Ihis inIo
perspecIive, 2S,000 lieIimes or people is a span o Iime 1.7 million years long.
During IhaI Iime, Ihe EarIh has mosI recenIly undergone 20 periods o
glaciaIion, mammoIhs and saber-IooIh caIs lourished and became exIincI,
and Ihe Colorado River began Ihe inal phase o carving IhaI creaIed Ihe image o
Crand Canyon we see Ioday. This is Deep Time. Now imagine Irying Io describe
Io Ihe ly Ihis sIill relaIively recenI geological Iime span. 1.7 million years or a
ly, is Ihe equivalenI o 43 billion
years or us: longer Ihan Ihe canyon,
Ihe EarIh, our Calaxy, or even Ihe
Universe have been around.
\hen we sIand on Ihe rim o Ihe
Crand Canyon we are conronIed wiIh
a sighI IhaI is supericially unchanged
over Ihe liespan o humans. The
canyon looks Ihe same Io me now as
iI did when my parenIs broughI me
here as a kid. Their view, in Iurn, was
idenIical Io Ihe one all previous gen-
eraIions o visiIors had wheIher Ihey
arrived here by plane, car, Irain, horse,
or ooI. SIand on Ihe rim and you see
whaI Teddy RoosevelI saw when he
declared Crand Canyon a NaIional
MonumenI in 108, when John \es-
ley Fowell irsI explored iIs depIhs by
boaI in 186, or when IhaI disIanI
ancesIor o Ioday's Crand Canyon
Iribes saw Ihis canyon or Ihe very irsI
Iime maybe 10,000 years ago.
BuI Ihe canyon has changed over
Ihe lasI 10,000, 100, or even 10 years,
and by jusI enough Io explain iIs
origin over a Iimespan a Ihousand Io
a million Iimes longer.
3
To geI a
3
Every year rockalls wiIhin Ihe canyon require work crews Io repair Irails, while in Ihe process
Ihe canyon widens and deepens jusI a liIIle more.
figure 10.4 1wo of |ohh Wesley lowell's
boaLs phoLographed durihg his secohd
expediLioh dowh Lhe Colorado kiver ahd
Lhrough Lhe Crahd Cahyoh (|uly 30, 1872)
(Crahd Cahyoh NaLiohal lark Museum
CollecLioh, lmage No. 14428).
beIIer eeling or Ihis, leI's examine Iwo o Ihe unimaginably slow processes IhaI
make Ihe canyon IhaI we see Ioday. The irsI is deposiIion: Ihe rock IhaI we see in
Ihe canyon's walls had Io come rom somewhere. \iIh Ihe excepIion o Ihe dark
volcanic rock in Ihe Vishnu schisI and ZoroasIer CraniIe aI Ihe very boIIom o
Ihe canyon (whose hard sIeep sides make Ihe narrow inner gorge) Ihe brighI
colored layers o Ihe canyon are Ihe resulI o sedimenIs: Ihe slow seIIling o sand,
silI, mud, and minerals.
Layering like Ihis happens consIanIly, yeI so slowly we never noIice. Live or a
while in Ihe deserI souIhwesI and you geI used Io Ihe wind IhaI blows sand in
Ihrough windows and cracks in Ihe doors. Eor everyone who has ever had Io
sweep o Ihe porch and dusI o Ihe urniIure, you've baIIled Ihe orces IhaI
creaIed Ihe rocks Ihrough which Ihis canyon cuI.
LeI's do a simple IhoughI experimenI. SIop sweeping and leI Ihe sand and
dusI grow abouI your house. AIer only a year I can easily imagine a layer o
sandy sedimenIs a single grain Ihick: say 1}32
nd
o an inch Ihick (abouI 0.7S
mm), and an idenIical layer is deposiIed or every year you ail Io Iidy Ihings up.
In one hundred years IhaI's dirI Ihree inches deep (7.S cm) and aIer a Ihousand,
Ihe loor is buried nearly Ihree eeI down (0.7S m). The layers I see revealed in Ihe
canyon's walls are only S,000 I Ihick (1,S2S m), easily due (by our calculaIions)
Io Ihe genIle driI o sand and sedimenI aIer only Iwo million years.
4
BuI Ihe canyon isn'I made o loosely sIacked sand, Ihe weighI o Ihose layers
presses and compacIs Ihe sedimenIs beneaIh iI. The inIernal heaI and pressures
on all IhaI buried sand cemenI and solidiy iI rom sand grains inIo sandsIones.
I, in our simple IhoughI experimenI, we were Io imagine IhaI each layer o loose
deposiIs is evenIually compressed Io even a IenIh iIs original Ihickness, Ihen Ihe
Iwo million years we calculaIed Iurns inIo IwenIy million years. The geological
record indicaIes Ihe horizonIal layers we see wiIhin Ihe canyon were laid down
by sedimenIs, o and on, over a period o 200 million years, easily accomplished
by our simple assumpIion o windblown sand. BuI Ihe deposiIion is only hal Ihe
sIory. \iIhouI Ihe erosion IhaI cuI away Ihe canyon, all Ihose mulIi-hued
sandsIones, limesIones, and shales would be orever hidden beneaIh our eeI.
Besides, iI's whaI missing IhaI impresses, jusI as much as whaI's Ihere.
Consider Ihen a second IhoughI experimenI: how much Iime is needed Io
remove Ihe canyon's missing mass7 Crand Canyon is roughly 10 miles (16 km)
wide, 277 miles (443 km) long and abouI 1 mile (1.6 km) deep. ThaI's 2,770 cubic
miles (11,340 cubic km) o dirI IhaI Ihe river has removed. I a single grain o
sand is no more Ihan 1}32nd o an inch (0.7S mm) on a side, Ihen Io dig our
4
In addiIion, our simple model o sedimenIary layering also reveals IhaI Ihe oldesI maIerial is
always aI Ihe boIIom. Unless some oIher processes come along Io old, warp, IilI, or bend
Ihem, Ihe sIack o layers serves as a hisIory IexI o whaI's come beore and or how long. Eor
ive years now, NASA's Mars rover OpporIuniIy has been reading similar sIacks o
sedimenIary rocks revealing Ihe geologic hisIory o a planeI oIher Ihan our own.
figure 10.5 view of Lhe Crahd Cahyoh as showh from loihL Sublime oh Lhe NorLh kim.
1his ehgravihg by William Holmes is from Lhe 1882 Atlcs cf the !erticry Iistcry cf the
Crcnd Ccnycn by Ccpt. Clcrence . Duttcn u5A fcr the Depcrtment cf the Intericr cnd the
Ceclcgiccl 5urvey. As a sciehLific illusLraLioh, Holmes' ihLehL was Lo represehL Lhe
geological layerihg ahd formaLiohs visible wiLhih Lhe cahyoh (Crahd Cahyoh NaLiohal
lark Museum CollecLioh, lmage No. 13572).
figure 10. 1ime passes above Lhe
Colorado kiver wiLhih Crahd Cahyoh
NaLiohal lark. As Lhe EarLh Lurhs,
wihLer sLars rise ih Lhe easL as Lhe
muddy, chocolaLe-browh waLers of Lhe
Colorado cohLihue Lheir slow erosioh
of Lhe cahyoh. lh Lhe disLahce Lhe
SouLh Kaibab 1rail 8ridge spahs
LurbulehL waLers rehdered decepLively
placid ih Lhis Lwo-hour-lohg exposure
(1. Nordgreh).
canyon we need Io remove 10
22
grains o sand. LeI's say each luid ounce o
waIer (0.03 liIers) passing Ihrough Ihe canyon were Io remove jusI a single grain
o sand (i you've ever seen how chocolaIy brown Ihe Colorado River is, you'll
know Ihis is probably an underesIimaIe). Beore Ihe Clen Canyon Dam's
consIrucIion upsIream creaIed Lake Fowell, Ihe Colorado lowed Ihrough Ihe
canyon aI a raIe o roughly 2S0,000 gallons (1 million liIers) a second. AI 128
luid ounces per gallon, IhaI's 30 million grains o sand removed each second, or
a liIIle over 10
1S
grains per year. AI IhaI raIe iI would Iake Ihe Colorado 10
million years Io carve Ihe canyon we see Ioday.
The geologic record shows Ihe majoriIy o Ihe canyon was carved over Ihe lasI
six million years as Ihe river cuI Ihrough Ihe Colorado FlaIeau IhaI was liIed up
in Ihe mighIy IecIonic orces IhaI also creaIed Ihe Rocky MounIains. So Io wiIhin
a acIor o Iwo, our simple explanaIion holds.
Sure, Ihese IhoughI experimenIs are crude, Ihey grossly simpliy Ihe canyon's
creaIion jusI as surely as i I were Io Iell Ihe sIory o a man's lie by simply saying
he was born, lived, and died. The rock layers aren'I all made o windblown sand,
and orces o erosion are aI work oIher Ihan Ihe single river. BuI Ihese IhoughI
experimenIs serve Ihe purpose o whaI scienIisIs call an order o magniIude
calculaIion. The amounI o Iime our calculaIions require has Ihe righI order o
magniIude (science-speak or Ihe righI number o zeros). In Ihis case, Ihey
require lengIhs o Iime measured in millions o years. I our quick calculaIion
had shown IhaI Ihe necessary depIh o dirI laid down or dug ouI could noI be
done in a ew million years, buI insIead required 10 billion years (or would
happen in only 1000), we'd know someIhing was wrong wiIh our approxima-
Iion. \e'd know we had ailed Io Iake someIhing imporIanI inIo consideraIion.
BuI our reasonable assumpIions o one grain per year, and one grain per
ounce, Iurned ouI Io make sense: Ihey are jusI enough Io make Ihe canyon we
see Ioday provided we are prepared Io leI Ihe years add up. By and large, science
requires Deep Time Io explain everyIhing we see around us, wheIher iI is
canyons, mounIains, biological diversiIy, DNA, Ihe chemical elemenIs, Ihe sIars
in Ihe sky, or Ihe origin o Iime iIsel. \rapping our heads around Ihis much
Iime is hard.
II's a cold crisp winIer morning Ioday. A new year has jusI begun, and Ihe irsI
rays o a new day are jusI beginning Io lighI Ihe canyon's golden walls. I Iake in
Ihis view rom Ihe ice-laden summiI o Ihe SouIh Kaibab Trail IhaI I will ollow
all Ihe way down Io FhanIom Ranch aI Ihe canyon's boIIom along Ihe Colorado
River. TonighI I'll be giving an asIronomy Ialk or Ihe hikers camping aI Ihe
ranch, and while Ihe clear blue sky will be a joy Io see rom deep in Ihe canyon,
up here on Ihe rim iI produces IemperaIures well below reezing.
SIill, as I Iake my irsI crunchy sIeps on Ihe snowy 6.3-mile (10-km) hike Io Ihe
boIIom, I Iake o my gloves and reach ouI Io Ihe rock wall beside me. Every
genIle scraIch and scu across my inger Iips puIs me in conIacI wiIh Ihe disIanI
pasI. AIer a mile and hal (2.4 km) I have descended a Ihousand eeI (300 m) inIo
Ihe EarIh and am asIounded Io Ihink IhaI Ihe layer my inger Iraces ollows Ihe
curve o a sand dune baking under Ihe Sun o a long-vanished day. Here where
figure 10.7 Close-up of Lhe NaLiohal lark Service map showihg Lhe souLh ahd horLh
rims of Crahd Cahyoh NaLiohal lark. 1he SouLh Kaibab 1rail is Lhe black dashed-lihe
cohhecLihg aki loihL alohg Lhe SouLh kim Lo lhahLom kahch |usL horLh of Lhe Colorado
kiver aL Lhe boLLom of Lhe cahyoh. 1he LiLLle Colorado kiver is Lhe horLheasLerh
bouhdary of Lhe park ahd flows wesLward ihLo Lhe Colorado aL Lhe ihLersecLioh of Lhe
park ahd Nava|o keservaLioh. 1oday Lhe Hopi keservaLioh is locaLed ehLirely wiLhih Lhe
much larger Nava|o lahds (NlS).
my ingers pass, a lonely
lizard crawled up whaI
seemed a momenIary sand
dune only Io have iI immor-
Ial i zed i n cross-bedded
swoops along Ihe broad
brighI band o Ihe Coconino
SandsIone. As I descend
Ihrough swiIch-backs along
Ihis prominenI yellow cli-
ace, Ihe dunes IhaI once
covered Ihe vanished mass
o Ihe canyon carry me ever
arIher inIo Ihe pasI. AI Ihe
average raIe aI which Ihese
sedimenIary layers were
deposiIed, each ooIsIep I
Iake orward along my paIh sIeps me 10,000 years backward in Iime.
S
Time is someIhing we asIronomers have Io come Io grips wiIh as well as
geologisIs. MulIiple lines o evidence poinI Io a Universe IhaI is 13.7 billion years
old. AI Ihe raIe o 10,000 years per ooIsIep, I'd have Io hike a Irail 260 miles (416
km) long Io walk back Io Ihe beginning o Ihe Universe. And Ihe Iime IhaI our
species has been here on EarIh would Iake up no more Ihan Ihe irsI orIy eeI (12
meIers) o Ihe journey. \iIh only a single sIep I'd leave all recorded human
hisIory behind.
In some ways geologisIs are orIunaIe compared wiIh asIronomers, geologisIs
can hold Iheir subjecI in Iheir hand and acIually Iouch Ihe pasI like I Iouch Ihe
dark Redwall limesIone IhaI ormed here 340 million years ago. Eor Ihose
asIronomers who sIudy Ihe Universe beyond our Solar SysIem we are orced Io
sIudy everyIhing by no more Ihan Ihe lighI we receive. AlIhough we have liIIle
hope o ever reaching ouI and Iouching Ihe Ihings we wish Io undersIand, we do
have one advanIage oIher sciences don'I. \e have a Iime machine.
EveryIhing we see, we see because o lighI. II can be emiIIed direcIly, like lighI
rom Ihe Sun or Ihe sIars in Ihe nighI sky, or relecIed, like lighI sIriking Ihe sheer
canyon walls or Ihe snow on Ihe rim. II Iakes Iime or lighI Io reach our eyes, so
we are orever seeing 'old' lighI, wheIher iI has been Iraveling or milliseconds or
millennia. The Universe we see around us shows how Ihings looked when lighI
irsI leI iIs source. LighI allows us Io see back in Iime: Ihe arIher away we look
figure 10.8 view from alohg Lhe SouLh Kaibab 1rail deep
wiLhih Lhe cahyoh (1. Nordgreh).
S
Erom Ihe SouIh Rim Io Ihe Tip-O poinI aI Ihe Iop o Ihe inner gorge, Ihe SouIh Kaibab Trail
covers 4.6 miles (7.4 km). Above Ihis poinI, 2S0 million years o sedimenIary deposiIs have
led Io Ihe mulIi-colored layers we see. \hile each layer was puI down over slighIly dierenI
lengIhs o Iime, my passage Ihrough Ihe enIire secIion is done aI an average raIe o roughly
S0 million years per mile (30 million years per kilomeIer), or 10,000 years per ooIsIep.
figure 10.9 A few of Lhe layers LhaL make Lhe cahyoh grahd. lhcluded
are Lhe approximaLe ages of Lhe layers (1. Nordgreh).
Ihe arIher back in Iime we see. Unimaginable disIance
leads Io unimaginable Iime: asIronomical size iIsel is Ihe
window Ihrough which asIronomers look Io Ihe earliesI
days o Ihe Universe. And as wiIh Ihe Crand Canyon
around me, even small sIeps ineviIably Iake us Io amazing
desIinaIions.
FhanIom Ranch is a collecIion o cabins huddled wiIhin
a narrow side canyon o Ihe inner gorge along BrighI Angel
Creek. In 122, Mary ElizabeIh Jane ColIer designed Ihe
buildings in a sIyle IhaI would become amous as NaIional
Fark Service ''RusIic.'' The rounded sIones, polished by
millions o years o waIer rushing Ihrough Ihe canyon,
coupled wiIh rough-hewn logs broughI down by mules,
makes Ihe ranch iIsel seem a naIural parI o Ihe surround-
ing geologic wonder.
Dinner aI Ihe Ranch is a sociable Iime as everyone
gaIhers around long plank Iables and shares in Ihe ood like
one big amily relaIed by Ihe blood pumping in our veins
rom Ihe long exerIion needed Io geI here. I meeI people aI
dinner IhaI nighI rom all over Ihe world: a couple college
kids on break, a amily rom Europe Iouring America, an
ocIogenarian Iaking Ihe Iime Io do all Ihose Ihings she
couldn'I when she was younger. Imagine my surprise Ihen
when Ihe ellow across rom me recognizes my lasI name
and Iells me he was once my broIher's college physics
proessor beore he reIired.
figure 10.10 Cabihs of Mary ColLer's lhahLom kahch (NlS phoLo by
Michael Quihh).
AIer sunseI we all gaIher aI Ihe amphiIheaIer seI amidsI coIIonwood Irees
near where Ihe creek and Ihe Colorado River meeI. Because o iIs size and
disIance rom mosI large ciIies, Crand Canyon NaIional Fark has wonderully
dark skies. This is a acI noI losI on park visiIors IhaI lock Io evening Ialks like
mine wiIh such enIhusiasm IhaI Ihe park has dramaIically increased iIs ranger
asIronomy programs on Ihe SouIh Rim.
6
TonighI is a clear crisp nighI, perecI or
sIargazing, and alIhough Ihe rock walls o Ihe gorge hem in our view o Ihe sky,
whaI we see will be enough. Though we've all walked many miles Io be here,
IonighI we're going Io explore even larger disIances: we're going Io Iake a Iour
deep inIo Ihe Universe, sIarIing rom where we are righI now in Ihis liIIle
clearing beside Ihe river.
Because o Ihe enormous disIances involved, ours will be a Fower o 10 Iour
where every sIop is 10 Iimes arIher away Ihan Ihe one beore iI. The ''Fower o
10'' is simply Ihe number o zeros aIer Ihe number one, so one hundred miles,
kilomeIers, or lighI-years is jusI Ien Io Ihe power o Iwo, or 10
2
= 100). \hile we
will sIarI ouI small on scales wiIh which we are all amiliar rom our everyday
lives, our pace will rapidly lengIhen as we evenIually span Ihe disIances beIween
planeIs, sIars, and galaxies.
Eor Ihis Fower o 10 Iour, our only concern is Io know Ihe disIance o each
sIep rounded o Io Ihe nearesI whole power o 10 (Ihe nearesI order o
magniIude). EracIions are inconsequenIial. All IhaI is imporIanI Io know is i
someIhing is 10 lighI-years away, or Ien Ihousand. Civen IhaI our Calaxy is
100,000 lighI-years across, Ihe dierence beIween 1 lighI-year and 2.3 lighI-years
will be uIIerly inconsequenIial.
7
Look aI your eeI. The EarIh is Ihe nearesI asIronomical body Io you. The
average adulI is roughly 6S inches Iall (S eeI, S inches) so when you see Ihe EarIh
you are looking over a disIance o 6S inches. UnorIunaIely, Ihe ooI and inch
aren'I very good uniIs or a Fower o 10 Iour since Ihere are 12, noI 10, inches in
a ooI, and I can never remember how many eeI in a mile. BuI 6S inches is also
abouI one and a hal meIers. I all one is inIeresIed in is a general order o
magniIude, Ihen we can round o our heighI Io Ihe nearesI power o Ien which
is simply one meIer (10
0
= 1). So on average, when you and I look down aI our
eeI, we are seeing a disIance o abouI 1 meIer. The nice Ihing abouI Ihis acI is
IhaI or Ihose o us in Ihe U.S. who were noI raised on Ihe meIric sysIem, one
meIer is simply person-sized. One meIer is you. In Ihe ollowing Irip Ihrough Ihe
6
Eor Ihose who like Io explore aI Iheir own pace, Crand Canyon has an audio cell-phone Iour
IhaI visiIors can call Io learn more abouI Ihe canyon aI various scenic spoIs along Ihe SouIh
Rim. One o Ihose sIops in Ihe Iour speciically guides visiIors Io an exploraIion o Ihe
canyon's gloriously dark-sIarry nighI sky. You can call righI now (Ihere's even a phone aI
FhanIom Ranch): AIer dialing 1-28-22S-207 press 4.
7
Eor Ihose who wanI Io know Ihe mosI precise disIances Io Ihe objecIs described in Ihis Fower
o 10 Iour, consulI Ihe 'See or yoursel' secIion aI Ihe end o Ihe chapIer (which also includes
insIrucIions on how Io ind Ihem).
figure 10.11 MoohlighL illumihaLes Crahd Cahyoh ih Lhis view Lowards Lhe NorLh kim
from avapai loihL. 8ecause of Lhe wohderfully dark skies aL Crahd Cahyoh, asLrohomy
has become a ma|or acLiviLy wiLhih Lhe park wiLh evehihg rahger programs, a seasohal
highL-sky sLop oh Lhe park's cell-phohe audio Lour (call 1-28-225-207 press 4), ahd ah
ahhual sLar parLy hosLed by local asLrohomy clubs (1. Nordgreh).
Universe everyIhing will Ihereore be scaled noI Io jusI some arbiIrary uniI o
eeI, miles, urlongs, or kilomeIers, buI raIher iI will be scaled Io you.
\e will sIarI in Ihis amphiIheaIer aI Ihe boIIom o Ihe Crand Canyon.
8
The
EarIh, Ihe Ihird planeI rom Ihe Sun and Ihe planeI we have done Ihe mosI Io
explore, is one meIer away, one uniI o you.
Erom where I sIand, Ihe nexI power o Ien (i.e., 10
1
= 10, and so Ien Iimes
arIher away) is Ihe boundary o Ihe audience in Ihis amphiIheaIer. I, however,
you are sIanding on Ihe canyon rim as you read Ihis, a disIance o Ien meIers (or
Ien yous) away, encompasses Ihe people around you: Ihe crowd aI an overlook
aIer a Iour bus has sIopped.
Eor Ihose o us aI Ihe canyon boIIom, Ien Iimes arIher Ihan IhaI (100 meIers
away) and we see across Ihe Colorado River. Eor Ihose o you aI Ihe Iop looking
down, 10
2
yous only geIs you Io Ihe boIIom o Ihe Kaibab ormaIion, Ihe very
Iop layer o Ihe canyon.
Look Ien Iimes arIher away, approximaIely 10
3
meIers disIanI, and Ihose o
us aI Iop and boIIom o Ihe canyon inally see one anoIher. The canyon iIsel is
only abouI 2,000 people deep.
8
Those noI aI Ihe Crand Canyon can join up wiIh Ihis walk aIer Ihe iIh sIep.
AI 10
4
meIers, we span Ihe widIh o Ihe canyon iIsel. To Ihe nearesI power o
Ien, abouI Ien Ihousand yous laid end Io end is all iI would Iake Io bridge Ihe
canyon, noI a million, noI a billion, jusI Ien Ihousand: a Iypical sIaIe universiIy
sIudenI body could do iI as a prank.
So whaI is Ien Iimes arIher Ihan IhaI7 AI one hundred Ihousand yous (10
S
m =
100 km) we come Io Ihe inIernaIionally deined edge o space. This is Ihe heighI
aI which meIeors enIer Ihe aImosphere and end Iheir lie in a iery sIreak. The
greaI irony o space, a place Io which virIually none o us will ever go, is IhaI i
one could drive Ihere iI would only Iake an hour, you wouldn'I even have Io sIop
or gas. VirIually everyIhing IhaI makes lie possible on Ihis planeI is conIained
wiIhin IhaI disIance.
By Ihe Iime we Iurn our gaze Ien Iimes arIher away, aI one million meIers
(10
3
km), we have passed Ihrough Ihe realm o Ihe orbiIing spacecraI. Look up
on a dark nighI and waIch or an hour and you will almosI cerIainly be rewarded
wiIh a small ainI spoI o lighI moving slowly againsI Ihe background sIars. Use a
websiIe such as Heavens-Above.com Io see when Ihe InIernaIional Space SIaIion
or Hubble Space Telescope will ly by overhead.
Ten million yous away (10
4
km
disIanI) brings us Io Ihe beginning o
geosynchronous orbiI where com-
municaIions saIelliIes Iake 24 hours
Io orbiI once around Ihe EarIh. Since
Ihis is exacIly Ihe same raIe aI which
our planeI Iurns, Ihese saIelliIes sIay
in very nearly Ihe same spoI over Ihe
EarIh. All people wiIh a saIelliIe TV
need do is poinI Iheir dish aI one
spoI in Ihe sky, and be comorIable
in Ihe knowledge IhaI orbiIal
dynamics will keep Ihe Eood NeI-
work lowing Io Iheir homes. \hile
iI is very diiculI Io see Ihese
saIelliIes wiIh Ihe naked eye, we see
Iheir eecIs daily.
AI one hundred million yous (10
S
km) we Iurn our sighIs Io Ihe Moon.
Looking aI iI rise over Ihe rim o Ihe
canyon you are seeing Ihe abode o
human ooIprinIs a hundred million
Iimes arIher away Ihan your eeI.
This is Ihe greaIesI disIance rom
which any human being has been
able Io look back aI us here on EarIh,
buI we are sIill only eighI powers o
Ien ouI inIo Ihe Universe.
figure 10.12 1he Mooh rises above Lhe ihher
cahyoh hear lhahLom kahch (1. Nordgreh).
Ten Iimes arIher Ihan Ihe Moon, aI one billion (i.e., one Ihousand million)
yous, we see noIhing.
Ten Iimes arIher away, aI Ien billion meIers, we see Ihe end o an imaginary
Iower ormed by sIanding every human being on EarIh on Ihe shoulders o every
oIher. And sIill, Ihere would be noIhing Ihere or Ihe one on Iop Io Iouch. The
asIronomer Carl Sagan described Ihis mosIly empIy cosmos by wriIing IhaI Ihe
only Iypical spoI is ''Ihe vasI, cold, universal vacuum, Ihe everlasIing nighI o
inIergalacIic space, a place so sIrange and desolaIe IhaI, by comparison, planeIs
and sIars and galaxies seem achingly rare and lovely.'' The EarIh and Moon are
awash in Ihis noIhingness.
AI 10
11
= 100 billion yous, we inally reach Ihe Sun and oIher small rocky
planeIs orbiIing close in Io iIs warm glow. Mars is overhead IonighI, eleven
orders o magniIude arIher away Ihan my eeI. AI only 11 orders o magniIude,
Ihe disIance in meIers is quickly becoming enormously large and asIronomers
begin Io use a dierenI uniI o measure called Ihe AsIronomical UniI. One AU is
Ihe average disIance beIween Ihe EarIh and Sun and so is abouI 1.S , 10
11
meIers.
One way we know Ihe disIances Io Ihe planeIs is IhaI we have bounced radio
waves (radar) o Iheir suraces. \e know IhaI radio waves (a orm o lighI) Iravel
aI Ihe speed o lighI so measuring Ihe Iime iI Iakes Io make Ihe round Irip Iells us
exacIly how ar away Ihe planeIs are. And Ihough Mars may be 100 billion Iimes
arIher away Ihan my eeI, Ihe lighI Iravel Iime beIween Mars and my eyes is only
abouI 10 minuIes. So while we are already seeing backward in Iime, iI's noI by
whaI anyone would consider an exciIing amounI. The greaIesI eecI o Ihis lighI
figure 10.13 lark kahgers give evehihg sky
Lalks mosL highLs of Lhe week, all year lohg.
Eveh ih Lhe depLhs of wihLer a full Mooh hike
alohg Lhe cahyoh's SouLh kim draws
upwards of 50 visiLors (1. Nordgreh).
figure 10.14 Mars as phoLographed by Lhe
vikihg OrbiLer ih Lhe laLe 170s. visible
exLehdihg across Lhe face of Lhe hemisphere is
valles Mariheris, a cahyoh heLwork LhaL, if oh
EarLh, would exLehd from Los Ahgeles,
Califorhia, Lo New ork CiLy. 1he Crahd
Cahyoh would be losL wiLhih a mihor LribuLary
of Lhis grahdesL cahyoh ih Lhe Solar SysLem
(SCS}NASA).
figure 10.15 SaLurh, Lhe rihged
plaheL, as phoLographed by Lhe
Hubble Space 1elescope ih EarLh orbiL
(NASA ahd 1he Hubble HeriLage 1eam
(S1Scl}AkA)).
Iravel Iime is Io render impossible Ihe real-Iime conIrol o rovers on Mars by
drivers on EarIh.
Ten Iimes arIher away aI 10
12
meIers (10 AU) our view carries us pasI Ihe
gianI planeIs. JupiIer, SaIurn, Uranus and NepIune are only 1 Irillion Iimes
arIher away rom our eyes Ihan our own planeI is. LighI rom Ihe Sun ouI Ihere
is 100 Iimes ainIer Ihan Ihe sunlighI IhaI alls all around us on a sunny day and
IemperaIures plunge accordingly. Erom here on ouI, worlds wiIh solid suraces
are made predominanIly o ice. The Universe is a cold, dark arcIic wilderness
wiIh only Ihe occasional campire o sIarlighI where even a ew planeIs are able
Io huddle or warmIh. I JupiIer or SaIurn is visible IonighI, eiIher would be Ihe
mosI disIanI Ihing you can see in our Solar SysIem wiIh Ihe unaided eye.
On our way ouI Io 100 AU (10
13
m) our gaze pass compleIely Ihrough Ihe
Kuiper BelI, a region o icy debris rom Ihe Solar SysIem's ormaIion. Here is
FluIo, once designaIed as Ihe urIhesI planeI. Composed largely o ice, wiIh an
orbiI IhaI carried iI across NepIune's every so oIen, iI was considered an oddball,
unlike any oIher planeI we knew o. Then, wiIh Ihe discovery o more (buI
smaller) icy objecIs, iI became Ihe largesI known Kuiper BelI ObjecI unIil a larger
one was inally ound in 200S.
FluIo is preIIy boring Io look aI Ihrough a

Ielescope, buI iI is Ihe mosI disIanI objecI in our Solar SysIem IhaI you can see
wiIh a backyard Ielescope and a dark backyard.
BeIween 100 and one Ihousand AU rom Ihe Sun (10
14
m) we enIer a shadowy
parI o Ihe Solar SysIem. EveryIhing we've examined so ar (save Ihe Sun) we've
seen only by iIs relecIed sunlighI. \e're now 1,000 Iimes arIher rom Ihe Sun
Ihan Ihe EarIh and ouI here Ihe Sun's lighI is a million Iimes ainIer. As o 200
only a handul o objecIs have ever been seen IhaI orbiI ouI aI Ihese disIances.
Sedna is one such objecI. Like FluIo, iI is an ice world, buI only 1,000 miles
(1,600 km) across. Every 12,S00 years iIs highly ellipIical orbiI brings iI Io wiIhin
76 AU o Ihe Sun and Ihen swings iI ouI Ihrough Ihis dark expanse Io a disIance
o nearly 1000 AU.
AsIronomers only ound Sedna because iI is currenIly aI iIs closesI approach
where Ihe sunlighI is brighIesI. How many oIher worlds are Ihere waiIing Io be
II's been named Eris, aIer Ihe Creek goddess o discord and sIrie in recogniIion o all Ihe
Irouble iI caused in Ihe debaIe abouI FluIo's sIaIus as a planeI.
figure 10.1 Hubble Space 1elescope
phoLograph of lluLo (cehLer) wiLh iLs large
mooh Charoh (lower righL). lh Lhis phoLo
are visible Lwo hewly discovered moohs
(Lowards Lhe righL): Nix ahd Hydra. 1he
plaheL ahd iLs moohs are hamed for deiLies
associaLed wiLh Lhe uhderworld (NASA, ESA,
H. Weaver (|H}AlL), A. SLerh (Swkl), ahd
Lhe HS1 lluLo Compahioh Search 1eam).
discovered as Ihey rise up ouI o Ihe inky depIhs like ghosIly whales rom dark
ocean waIers7 Is Ihis region populaIed wiIh iIs own collecIion o ice-worlds, and
i so, how did Ihey geI here7 No one yeI knows.
AI 10,000 AU (10
1S
m) one quadrillion yous, we come Io Ihe inner edge o Ihe
OorI Cloud, a greaI spherical shell conIaining as many as a Irillion comeI nuclei.
\hile Ihese iceballs are Ioo small, ainI, and ar aparI Io ever allow us Io see Ihem
direcIly, every ew years a graviIaIional encounIer or collision alIers one's paIh
jusI enough IhaI iI alls in Iowards Ihe Sun on a S00,000 year IrajecIory. \hen, aI
lasI iI's only a couple AU away, lighI rom Ihe Sun warms iIs icy surace or Ihe
very irsI Iime and IreaIs us Io Ihe awe inspiring specIacle o a comeI whose Iail
spans inIerplaneIary disIances. II is rom Iracing back Ihe orbiIs o Ihese long-
period comeIs IhaI we know Ihere musI be a vasI reservoir o nuclei ouI Ihere, a
IenIh o Ihe way Io Ihe nearesI sIars.
AI 100,000 AU, 10
16
m, our view reaches Ihe exIreme ouIer edge o Ihe OorI
Cloud and we leave Ihe Solar SysIem behind. \e are now so ar rom EarIh, IhaI
i a spoI lighI should suddenly appear here and be poinIed EarIhward, iI would
Iake a year or Ihe lighI beam Io reach Ihe olks back home. \e Ihereore devise a
new uniI o disIance Io mark Ihe disIance lighI Iravels in a year: Ihe lighI-year.
figure 10.17 ComeL Hale 8opp passed
Lhrough Lhe ihher Solar SysLem ih 17. lL
will hoL geL Lhis close Lo Lhe Suh agaih for
almosL 4,000 years (1. Nordgreh).
Ten lighI-years away and we once more seI our sighIs upon Ihose objecIs IhaI
emiI Iheir own lighI: we have reached Ihe sIars. The closesI sIar IhaI's easily
visible rom Ihe norIhern hemisphere is Sirius.
10
II's Ihe brighIesI sIar in Ihe
nighI sky and visible Io Ihe lower leI o Orion in winIer. SouIhwesI o Orion is
Epsilon Eridani, iI's an average looking sIar buI Ihe closesI one yeI known Io have
a planeI o iIs own. BoIh o Ihese sIars are only visible in winIer whereas in
summer skies Vega is visible high over Ihe canyon's walls. John \esley Fowell
saw a similar sky on his irsI expediIion down Ihe canyons o Ihe Colorado River
when he passed close by Io where I now sIand.
I do noI sleep or some Iime, as Ihe exciIemenI o Ihe day has noI
worn o. Soon I see a brighI sIar IhaI appears Io resI on Ihe very verge
o Ihe cli overhead Io Ihe easI. Slowly iI seems Io loaI rom iIs
resIing place on Ihe rock over Ihe canyon. AI irsI iI appears like a
jewel seI on Ihe brink o Ihe cli, buI as iI moves ouI rom Ihe rock I
wonder IhaI iI does noI all. In acI, iI does seem Io descend in a genIle
curve, as Ihough Ihe brighI sky in which Ihe sIars are seI were spread
across Ihe canyon, resIing on eiIher wall, and swayed down by iIs own
weighI. The sIars appear Io be in Ihe canyon. I soon discover IhaI iI is
Ihe brighI sIar Vega.
John \esley Fowell, Thc Lxploraton
oj thc ColoraJo Rvcr anJ ts Canyons
\e know Ihe disIance Io sIars like Sirius and Vega because Iheir posiIion in
Ihe sky, relaIive Io more disIanI background sIars, changes by a microscopic
amounI over Ihe course o six monIhs as Ihe EarIh moves rom one side o Ihe
Sun Io Ihe oIher. This phenomenon is called parallax and iI is Ihe same reason
IhaI i you hold your Ihumb in ronI o your ace and look aI iI Ihrough one eye
and Ihen Ihe oIher, iI moves back and orIh relaIive Io more disIanI objecIs in
your ield o view. The arIher away Ihe Ihumb (or sIar), Ihe smaller Ihe parallax
shiI.
One hundred lighI-years ouI, 10
18
uniIs o you, and Ihe sIars whose lighI we
see IonighI irsI leI Ihem while Fowell conIinued his way down river. Many o
Ihese are well known sIars because o Iheir brighIness in Ihe evening sky. SIars
like winIer's orange Aldebaran in Taurus, or summer's blue Spica in Virgo are as
brighI as Ihey are because Ihey emiI 3S0 and 23,000 Iimes Ihe lighI o Ihe Sun
respecIively. These are big sIars.
One Ihousand lighI-years away, 10
1
m, and we soar amidsI Ihe nebulae. These
are Ihe gas clouds IhaI span Ihe disIances beIween Ihe sIars and ouI o which new
sIars are conIinually born under graviIy's incessanI pull. \e can see Ihe biggesI
10
The closesI sIar like our own is alpha CenIauri aI 4.4 lighI-years, buI iI is only visible rom
souIhern laIiIudes, and hardly ever makes iI above Ihe horizon rom anywhere in Ihe U.S. buI
Ihe island o Hawai'i.
figure 10.18 1he Milky Way ahd brighL sLars seL over Crahd Cahyoh Lowards Lhe wesL as
viewed from Lipah loihL alohg Lhe SouLh kim. 1he bluish sLar vega shihes brighLly aL lower
righL |usL above Lhe dark clouds alohg Lhe horizoh. CiLy lighLs from Crahd Cahyoh village,
Arizoha, Las vegas, Nevada, ahd SL. Ceorge, Lah, are visible over Lhe horizoh reflecLihg off Lhe
uhdersides of Lhe clouds. 1his viewpoihL alohg Lhe easLerh porLioh of Lhe cahyoh, hear DeserL
view, has some of Lhe darkesL skies alohg Lhe SouLh kim of Lhe park (1. Nordgreh).
and closesI ones wiIh our own eyes.
In summer look Io Ihe Lagoon Nebula
as a uzzy cloud o Ihe spouI in
SagiIIarius' IeapoI. In winIer Ihe
Orion Nebula is a uzzy 'sIar' hanging
in Ihe sword rom Orion's BelI. BoIh
clouds glow by Ihe lighI o hydrogen
gas, liI up like neon road signs by Ihe
ulIravioleI energy o hoI young sIars
wiIhin.
Ten Iimes arIher away, aI 10
20
yous, Ien Ihousand lighI-years dis-
IanI, we come Io Ihe Milky \ay IhaI
arcs overhead. In realiIy, Ihe myriad
sIars IhaI orm IhaI luminous band
across Ihe sky aren'I really aI any one
disIance. The Calaxy iIsel is on Ihe order o 100,000 lighI-years across, buI aI Ihe
cenIer o IhaI vasI spinning pinwheel o sIars is a supermassive black hole 2S,000
lighI-years away Iowards Ihe brighI consIellaIion o SagiIIarius.
AI one hundred Ihousand lighI-years, 10
21
meIers disIanI rom our eyes, we
pass Ihrough Ihe ouIer rim o our Calaxy. Eor Ihose under souIhern skies, Ihe
Magellanic Clouds are small saIelliIe galaxies o our own Milky \ay. They and
Ihe Milky \ay all reside inside a greaI spherical cloud o someIhing we cannoI
see and so have come Io call dark maIIer. The naIure o dark maIIer is sIill a
mysIery, one o Ihe many IhaI makes science so exciIing or Ihose who have ever
looked up aI Ihe sIars and wanIed Io know more. II's exacIly why I became an
asIronomer and when as a docIoral candidaIe in asIronomy aI Cornell UniversiIy
figure 10.19 Orioh above Lhe souLherh cliffs
of Lhe ihher cahyoh as viewed from lhahLom
kahch. 8eLelgeuse is Lhe brighL orahge sLar aL
upper lefL. 8eheaLh Lhe Lhree equally brighL
sLars of Orioh's 8elL are four faihLer sLars LhaL
make up his sword. 1he faihL pihkish 'sLar'
(secohd from Lhe boLLom) of Lhe sword is
acLually Lhe Orioh Nebula (also called M42)
ahd is visible as a fuzzy 'sLar' Lo Lhe haked eye
(1. Nordgreh).
figure 10.20 1he Lagooh Nebula (also called
M8) is Lhe brighL red cloud of gas aL boLLom.
WiLhih iL, hew sLars are beihg borh LhaL lighL
up Lhe resL of Lhe cloud. Above iL is Lhe red
ahd blue glow of Lhe 1rifid Nebula, ahoLher
hursery of hew sLars (SLeve Mazlih ahd |im
MisLi).
I was able Io conclude IhaI dark
maIIer halos exIend or hundreds o
Ihousands o lighI-years around
galaxies like our own, I was jusI
answering or mysel Ihe quesIions I
had asked when I had irsI looked aI
Ihe sky as a child.
Beore we look urIher, leI's Iake a
momenI Io pause and Ihink abouI
how ar we've come. \e are now
100,000 lighI-years away aI Ihe edge
o our Calaxy: 10
21
yous. \iIh only
one or Iwo Iiny excepIions, every-
Ihing we see wiIh our own un-aided
eye in Ihe sky (by nighI or day) is
wiIhin Ihis one single soliIary galaxy.
Beyond is Ihe vasI empIiness o
inIergalacIic space, ar empIier Ihan
Ihe space we've seen beIween planeIs
or sIars. \iIhin our Calaxy we see iIs
conIenIs as Ihey looked less Ihan one
hundred Ihousand years ago. \hile
Ihis is long by Ihe measure o Ihe
human race, even Ihe shorIesI lived
sIars lasI or a million years or so. So
while Ihere are cerIainly sIars we can
see in Ihe sky IonighI IhaI have died
and disappeared while Iheir lighI has
been en rouIe Io us, by and large
Ihese are rare and whaI we see is whaI
is really Ihere.
LighI, our Iime machine inIo Ihe
pasI, has so ar ailed Io look ar
enough back inIo Ihe Universe Io
see iI suicienIly dierenI Ihan iI
looks Ioday. Even here on EarIh, a
hundred Ihousand years only Iakes us
back Io Ihe realm o Ihe ice ages. One
hundred Ihousand years is Ioo shorI or changes in mounIains or conIinenIs
(besides Ihe scouring acIion o glaciers and Ihe changes in sea level caused by Ihe
ice ages). II is noI Ioo shorI or people, however, as we are back beore any human
being you ever heard o, beore any hisIory IhaI was ever wriIIen, and beore
homo sapcns even walked ouI o Arica Io evenIually spread around Ihe world.
Ten Iimes arIher away, aI one million lighI-years we begin Io bridge Ihe vasI
empIiness beIween Ihe galaxies. The Andromeda Calaxy is on Ihe order o a
figure 10.21 1he brighL lighLs of Lhe summer
Milky Way rise above Lhe cahyoh rim as seeh
from |usL horLh of Lhe Crahd Cahyoh. 1he
brighLesL porLioh is Lowards Lhe direcLioh of Lhe
Milky Way's galacLic cehLer, LwehLy-five
Lhousahd lighL-years away (1. Nordgreh).
million lighI-years away and or all buI Ihose ew people wiIh Ihe mosI acuIe
vision (and Ihe very darkesI skies), Ihis is Ihe mosI disIanI objecI mosI o us will
ever see wiIh our own eyes. In iIs uzzy oval shape, visible aI some Iime during
Ihe nighI or all seasons buI spring, we see Ihe combined lighI o a hundred
billion sIars in a spiral disk like our own Milky \ay. The ouIer parIs o Ihe
pinwheel (abouI where we are locaIed in our own Calaxy) are Ioo ainI Io be seen
wiIh Ihe naked eye and all we see is Ihe brighIesI parI near iIs galacIic cenIer. I
we could see iIs enIire exIenI, Ihe Andromeda Calaxy would appear in our sky as
big as six ull moons laid side by side. The Andromeda Calaxy (also called M31)
and a second smaller pinwheel called M33 (plus all o Iheir aIIendanI saIelliIe
galaxies), make up our Local Croup o galaxies o which Ihe Milky \ay is a parI.
\e know Ihe disIance Io Ihese galaxies by looking aI Ihe variaIion in lighI
coming rom some o Ihe brighIesI sIars orbiIing wiIhin Ihem. Cepheid variables
are a Iype o sIar IhaI change in brighIness, growing alIernaIely brighI and dim,
over a regular period like Ihe rise and all o a breaIhing chesI. In 112, Ihe
asIronomer HenrieIIa Swan LeaviII discovered IhaI Ihe longer Ihe pulsaIion Iook
Io repeaI, Ihe greaIer Ihe sIar's average luminosiIy. As a resulI o Ihis period-
luminosiIy relaIion, Cepheids have become a sIandard candle IhaI asIronomers
use or surveying Ihe Universe.
SIandard candles - a Iype o objecI wiIh a known luminosiIy - are crucial or
figure 10.22 Our hearesL large galacLic
heighbor is Lhe Ahdromeda Calaxy, a
hear Lwih Lo our owh Milky Way. visible
|usL above ahd Lo Lhe lower lefL of Lhis
spiral mass of a huhdred billioh sLars are
Lwo small saLelliLe galaxies, much like
Lhe Milky Way's saLelliLes: Lhe Large ahd
Small Magellahic Clouds. 1he
Ahdromeda Calaxy (also called M31) is
Lypically Lhe mosL disLahL ob|ecL you cah
see wiLh Lhe haked eye (|im MisLi, MisLi
MouhLaih ObservaLory).
figure 10.23 A sequehce of Hubble
Space 1elescope images showihg Lhe
ouLskirLs of Lhe galaxy M100. AL cehLer is
a Cepheid variable sLar chahgihg ih
brighLhess over Lhe course of several
days (Dr. Wehdy L. lreedmah,
ObservaLories of Lhe Carhegie lhsLiLuLioh
of WashihgLoh, ahd NASA).
Far away and long ago: the unlverse before you 377
asIronomers because Ihey allow us Io accuraIely measure Ihe disIance Io any
such objecI. A 60 waII lighI bulb has a known brighIness, iI's a sIandard candle in
your home. Move iI Iwice as ar away rom you and iI always geIs our Iimes
dimmer. Move iI Ihree Iimes arIher away and iI always geIs nine Iimes dimmer.
I you know Ihe neighbor down Ihe sIreeI uses Ihe same lighI bulb ouIside his
figure 10.24 1he spiral galaxy M81 is
someLimes visible uhder Lhe darkesL of
cohdiLiohs Lo Lhose wiLh parLicularly
acuLe visioh. Like our Milky Way, iL is a
collecLioh of over a huhdred billioh sLars
(NASA, ESA, ahd 1he Hubble HeriLage
1eam (S1Scl}AkA)).
figure 10.25 A Lypical small clusLer of galaxies wiLh a large ellipLical galaxy aL iLs cehLer
(NASA, ESA, ahd 1he Hubble HeriLage 1eam (S1Scl}AkA), |. 8lakeslee (WashihgLoh
SLaLe hiversiLy)).
ronI door, Ihen comparing how brighI Ihe bulb looks rom your house Io how
brighI you know iI should be, reveals how ar away your neighbor lives.
\e do Ihe same Ihing wiIh Cepheids. Eind a Cepheid variable sIar in anoIher
galaxy and you immediaIely know iIs apparenI brighIness. Measure iIs pulsaIion
period and you learn iIs absoluIe brighIness. Since you know boIh how brighI iI
looks and how brighI iI should look, Ihe disIance is simply how ar away iI musI
be Io look as dim as iI does. The asIronomer Edwin Hubble ound Ihe irsI
Cepheid variable sIar in Ihe Andromeda Calaxy in 124 and upon calculaIing iIs
disIance he once and or all deIermined IhaI Ihe spiral 'nebulae' we'd seen in Ihe
sky were islands o sIars like our own Milky \ay Calaxy, buI vasIly arIher away.
Ten million lighI-years ouI, 10
23
m, we pass anoIher galaxy clusIer like Ihe
Local Croup, Ihis one is cenIered around Ihe beauIiul spiral o M81. There are
Ihose who say Ihey've been able Io see Ihis galaxy under unusually dark skies, buI
I'm honesI enough Io admiI IhaI Ihey musI have beIIer eyes Ihan I. NeverIheless,
Ihe lighI rom Ihis galaxy marks Ihe urIhesI sIarlighI you can see wiIh Ihe naked
eye. This lighI comes predominanIly rom Ihe very brighIesI sIars wiIhin Ihe
galaxy which are exacIly Ihose sIars IhaI burn Ihrough Iheir hydrogen uel Ihe
quickesI. In Ihe Iime iI Iakes Iheir lighI Io reach us, many o Ihese sIars will have
already died. \e begin Io see a pasI which no longer exisIs. The lighI you see
rom M81 IonighI (probably Ihrough a Ielescope eyepiece where iI makes a
lovely sighI) leI Ihe sIars o IhaI galaxy when Ihe Colorado FlaIeau was irsI
raised and Ihe river beside me irsI began Io carve iIs way down Io Ihe sea. The
enIire canyon around me was carved while Ihis lighI was en rouIe Io our eyes.
As we sIep Ien Iimes arIher away our gaze passes Ihe Virgo ClusIer o Calaxies,
a collecIion o 2000 galaxies (o which our Local Croup is jusI one small parI),
and which iIsel is Ihe hearI o Ihe Coma-Virgo SuperclusIer o galaxies. Here we
cross Ihe Ihreshold o one hundred million lighI-years where galaxies and
clusIers o galaxies are as plenIiul as Ihe sIars and sIar clusIers were back home
under prisIine skies. Because o Iheir greaI disIance rom us, Ihese galaxies are
uIIerly invisible Io Ihe naked eye, buI Ihrough Ihe eyes o sensiIive cameras and
Ielescopes Ihey become works o arI. These are Ihe mosI disIanI galaxies in which
individual Cepheids have been ound and inding Ihem was Ihe primary
moIivaIor or building a space Ielescope named aIer Hubble. In Ihe Iime iI Iook
Iheir phoIons o lighI Io make Ihe journey here and be capIured by Ihe roboIic
figure 10.2 A phoLograph of parL of Lhe
Coma-virgo superclusLer shows
ihhumerable galaxies. virLually every fuzzy
spoL ih Lhis image is ah ehLire galaxy of sLars
(|im MisLi, MisLi MouhLaih ObservaLory).
Ansel Adams o asIronomy, every single layer o sedimenI and sIone around me
was laid here in place, one grain aI a Iime.
One billion (one Ihousand million) lighI-years away and our visIa poinI spans
Ihe largesI sIrucIures Ihe Universe has ever known. AI Ihe pace we have reached,
we can no longer be boIhered Io pay aIIenIion Io individual sIars, or Iheir
clusIers, galaxies Ihemselves are jusI Ihe baresI biIs o lu. \e are in Ihe realm o
galacIic superclusIers.
\e know Iheir disIance because we know Iheir velociIy. The reason Ihis is Irue
has iIs origin only a couple o hours' drive rom here aI Lowell ObservaIory in
ElagsIa, Arizona. In 112 asIronomer VesIo Slipher ound IhaI nearly every
galaxy he observed Ihrough his Ielescope was moving away rom us.
12
SevenIeen
years laIer, Edwin Hubble puI Ihese velociIies IogeIher wiIh his disIances and
ound a simple relaIion: Ihe arIher away a galaxy is, Ihe asIer iI is moving away
rom us. One o Ihe key missions o Ihe Hubble Space Telescope in Ihe 10s was
Io ind as many Cepheids as possible in nearby galaxies so asIronomer could
precisely measure Ihe value o Hubble's ConsIanI: Ihe raIio beIween velociIy and
disIance or galaxies. The resulI is IhaI or every 1S6 miles per second (2S0,000
meIers per second) IhaI a galaxy's velociIy increases, iI is Ien million lighI-years
arIher away. Now all we need do is measure Ihe recessional velociIy (also called
figure 10.27 Hubble's Law showihg LhaL as galaxies geL more disLahL, Lhe velociLy wiLh
which Lhey are movihg away from us ihcreases. lh Lhis figure, Lhe disLahce Lo galaxies is
fouhd usihg a special Lype of superhova (i.e., sLellar explosioh). lf all 1ype la superhovae
explosiohs are equally brighL ih realiLy, Lheh we cah Lell how far away Lhey ahd Lheir hosL
galaxies musL be by comparihg Lheir
sLahdard brighLhess wiLh how brighL
Lhey look ih our sky. 1he small blue
square aL lower lefL shows Lhe rahge
of disLahces ahd velociLies over which
Edwih Hubble origihally used Cepheid
variable sLars Lo discover Lhe
expahsioh of Lhe hiverse (Modified
from koberL l. Kirshher, 'Hubble's
Diagram ahd Cosmic Expahsioh,'
Iubliccticns cf the Ncticncl Accdemy
cf 5ciences, vol. 101, ho. 1, pp 8~13,
CopyrighL (2004) NaLiohal Academy
of Sciehces, SA).
12
He deIermined Ihis rom passing each galaxy's lighI Ihrough a prism IhaI spliI Ihe lighI inIo
iIs componenI wavelengIhs creaIing a specIrum. ElemenIs wiIhin Ihe sIars IhaI creaIed Ihe
lighI produce well known absorpIion gaps aI speciic wavelengIhs (or colors). Eor galaxies
moving away rom us, Ihese absorpIion bands are shiIed Io longer wavelengIhs (redder
colors) as Ihe lighI waves are spread ouI behind Ihe galaxy: Ihe asIer Ihe galaxy, Ihe greaIer
Ihe redshiI. Only a very ew galaxies (including Ihe Andromeda Calaxy) show a shiI Io blue
wavelengIhs as Ihe galaxy moves Iowards us bunching up Ihe lighI waves in ronI o iI.
figure 10.28 A slice Lhrough a Lhree-dimehsiohal map of Lhe hiverse made by applyihg
Hubble's Law Lo Lhe observed redshifLs of 2,55 ihdividual galaxies (yellow). Oh Lhis scale
greaL walls of galaxies are visible, alohg wiLh humerous loops ahd voids. 1hese are Lhe largesL
sLrucLures ever observed ih Lhe hiverse. 1he backgrouhd image is from Lhe Hubble Deep lield
phoLo of a porLioh of Lhe horLherh sky ((redshifLs) 1he 2dl Calaxy kedshifL Survey,
(backgrouhd) koberL Williams ahd Lhe Hubble Deep lield 1eam (S1Scl) ahd NASA).
figure 10.29 lllusLraLioh of Lhe
sLrucLure of galaxy clusLerihg as
revealed by Lhe 2dl Calaxy kedshifL
Survey. kaLher Lhah beihg uhiformly
spread LhroughouL Lhe uhiverse,
galaxies (Lhe liLLle red ahd greeh
blobs) are orgahized ihLo sLrucLures
ahd voids much like Lhe cheese ahd
holes ih a block of Swiss cheese (1he
2dl Calaxy kedshifL Survey).
figure 10.30 Hubble Space 1elescope image of quasars ahd Lheir faihL hosL galaxies. 8ased oh
Lhese images we how khow LhaL quasars are aL Lhe hearLs of galaxies, ihcludihg mahy hear Lhe
edge of Lhe visible hiverse ahd Lhus far back ih Lime wheh Lhe hiverse was youhger. 1his
image shows relaLively hearby quasars aL abouL 1.5 billioh lighL-years disLahL (|. 8ahcall
(lhsLiLuLe for Advahced SLudy), M. Dishey (hiversiLy of Wales) ahd NASA).
Ihe redshiI) o any galaxy (no maIIer how small or ar away) and wiIh Ihis
relaIion we know iIs disIance and can begin Io map Ihe Universe.
\iIh Ihe Iools o Hubble's Law, we Ioday survey vasI groupings o galaxy
clusIers IhaI Irace ouI gianI gossamer webs, loops, bridges, bubbles and voids.
Here, on Ihe very largesI scale we ind naIure aI work sIringing IogeIher massive
walls o galaxies nearly a billion lighI-years across. In Ihe Iime iI Iakes Ihe lighI
rom Ihe brighIesI sIars in galaxies aI one end Io reach any poIenIial alien
asIronomer on a planeI around a sIar in a galaxy aI Ihe oIher end, Ihe original
sIars have all long ago disappeared. To see Ihese galaxies and Ihe space Ihey
inhabiI is Io see Ihe Universe as iI looked almosI Ien percenI o iIs age back in
Iime. To sense how dierenI Ihese condiIions could be, consider IhaI a billion
years ago on EarIh, ancienI blue-green algae sIromaIoliIes (o which Ihere are
ossils here wiIhin Ihe canyon) were only jusI converIing our planeI's air inIo an
oxygen aImosphere IhaI laIer land animals could breaIhe. \ere we able Io Iravel
back in Iime Io Ihe age o Ihe universal sIrucIures we see in our Ielescopes, we
would need a spacesuiI Io survive on our own planeI.
SIep again Ien Iimes arIher away and we see a Iime beore Ihe EarIh iIsel even
ormed. AI Ien billion lighI-years, 10
26
m away we come Io Ihe realm o Ihe mosI
disIanI observable objecIs in our Universe. Here, aI Ihe cenIers o new-ormed
galaxies, supermassive black holes suck down enormous quanIiIies o inIersIellar
gas. The maIIer IhaI spirals in Iowards Ihe black hole's evenI horizon is heaIed Io
such high IemperaIures IhaI iI releases Ien Irillion Iimes Ihe energy o our Sun,
rendering each ravenous monsIer a hundred Iimes more luminous Ihan an enIire
galaxy. Eor decades, Ihese beacons were only visible across Ihe inIervening lighI-
years as brighI mysIerious sIar-like poinIs unIil Ihe Hubble Space Telescope irsI
deIecIed Ihe ainI uzzy ouIline o Ihe surrounding galaxy. \hen we look aI Ihe
inner workings o Ihese quasars (a named derived rom quasi-sIellar objecI) we
see how our own Calaxy looked soon aIer iIs birIh nearly IhirIeen billion years
ago.
13
Towards Ihese galaxies we aim our newesI, mosI powerul Ielescopes in hopes
o seeing Ihe irsI generaIion o sIars Io ever Iurn on, and in Iime, produce Ihe
chemical elemenIs we see around us Ioday. The silicon in Ihe rocks, Ihe carbon
in my bones, Ihe oxygen in Ihe air I breaIhe and in Ihe waIer IhaI carved Ihis
canyon were all made in Ihe hearIs o sIars long beore Ihe EarIh was even here.
Only when Ihose sIars exploded and died, spreading Iheir inIerior consIiIuenIs
IhroughouI Ihe Calaxy could laIer sIars orm rom gasses enriched in Ihese
elemenIs.
Here beyond Ihe realm o Ihe quasars our Iour approaches an end. \e are 10
billion lighI-years rom home, 10
1S
asIronomical uniIs, 10
26
meIers, 10
26
uniIs o
you: only 26 sIeps arIher ouI inIo Ihe Universe Ihan Ihe EarIh aI your eeI.
Beyond Ihe lasI quasar is Ihe blackness o space, and so perhaps we should say
IhaI on a moonless nighI in Ihe Crand Canyon, or wherever you may be, Ihe
darkness iIsel is Ihe mosI disIanI Ihing you can see or yoursel.
This very blackness o space Iells us someIhing abouI our Universe. Imagine
space exIended ininiIely ar in all direcIions and had exisIed in iIs presenI orm
or ininiIe amounIs o Iime wiIh no creaIion, no change, and no end. This is,
more or less, whaI asIronomers IhoughI Ihe Universe Io be beore Ihe early parI
o Ihe IwenIieIh cenIury. This view, however, gives rise Io an inIeresIing paradox
as made amous by Ihe nineIeenIh cenIury asIronomer Heinrich Olbers
(alIhough he was noI Ihe irsI Io pose iI). I Ihe Universe and all Ihe sIars and
galaxies in iI exIend ininiIely ar in every direcIion - and (because lighI Iravels aI
a iniIe speed) i Ihe Universe and all IhaI's in iI have been around or ininiIely
long - Ihen no maIIer whaI direcIion we look in space, sIarlighI should reach our
eyes. In oIher words, every direcIion you look in such a Universe your eyesighI
should evenIually come Io resI on Ihe surace o a sIar, and Ihereore Ihe enIire
sky should appear as brighI as Ihe surace o Ihe Sun.
To see how Ihis is so, consider sIanding inside a oresI. I Ihe oresI exIends ar
enough in every direcIion Ihen everywhere you look around, your line o sighI
evenIually comes Io resI on a Iree. Only i Ihe oresI is small will you be able Io
see Ihe empIy meadow beyond your grove.
13
The supermassive black hole aI Ihe cenIer o our own Calaxy has quieIed down in iIs middle-
age as all Ihe available gas was long ago cleared away.
figure 10.31 1his Hubble Space 1elescope lLra-Deep lield image capLures Lhe lighL
from 10,000 galaxies ahd is Lhe deepesL visible-lighL image ever made of our hiverse.
While a few sLars are visible ih Lhis image (Lhe brighL ob|ecLs possessihg cross-shaped
diffracLioh spikes) hearly every doL ahd fuzzy spoL of lighL is a galaxy, Lhe very faihLesL
seeh as liLLle as 800 millioh years afLer Lhe 8ig 8ahg. 1he ehLire picLure spahs ah area ohe
LehLh LhaL of Lhe full Mooh ahd was made from 800 exposures, over Lhe course of 400
Hubble orbiLs arouhd EarLh, LoLalihg 11.3 days of exposure Lime (NASA, ESA, S. 8eckwiLh
(S1Scl) ahd Lhe HDl 1eam).
figure 10.32 Overlappihg aspeh Lrees
ih a foresL hear Lhe SouLh kim of Lhe
Crahd Cahyoh. lf a foresL is large
ehough, sooh every direcLioh you look
will ehd oh a Lree. lf Lhe hiverse is
ihfihiLely large ahd uhchahgihg wiLh
Lime, Lheh every sighL-lihe ihLo Lhe sky
should similarly ehd oh a sLar. lh such a
hiverse Lhe sky aL highL would be as
brighL as Lhe Suh. 1he facL LhaL iL is hoL
meahs ohe of Lhose Lwo assumpLiohs
musL be wrohg (1. Nordgreh).
How Ihen can Ihe sky be dark aI nighI7 There are only Iwo possibiliIies. One
possibiliIy is IhaI space is ininiIe buI or some reason sIars and galaxies inhabiI
only a small parI o iI. The problem is IhaI since we see equal numbers o galaxies
in every direcIion (on average) Ihis opIion requires IhaI we be locaIed aI Ihe
cenIer o Ihis small collecIion o galaxies in a vasIly larger and empIy Universe.
Such a soluIion sounds ominously similar Io our now long gone convicIion IhaI
Ihe EarIh was Ihe cenIer o Ihe Universe. Ferhaps Ihis is Irue, buI Ihe odds o iI
being so are vanishingly small.
The second soluIion is IhaI Ihe Universe is noI sIaIic or unchanging. The
reason every line o sighI does noI all on Ihe surace o a sIar is IhaI Ihere are
many lines o sighI IhaI exIend Io a disIance (meaning a Iime) when sIars have
noI yeI ormed. In essence, Ihey are direcIions or which sIarlighI has noI yeI
reached our eyes. II is Ihis second soluIion IhaI provides Ihe reason we now
undersIand or why Ihe sky is dark aI nighI. The evidence or Ihis is provided by
whaI Slipher saw, namely IhaI nearly every galaxy is rushing away rom us.
Did Ihe Milky \ay creaIe a celesIial aux pas7 Are we aI Ihe exacI cenIer o a
massive inIergalacIic explosion7 The answer is neiIher, buI raIher IhaI our
Universe is expanding and as iI does so iI carries all Ihe galaxies along wiIh iI.
Imagine our Universe is Ihe rubber abric o a balloon. Every galaxy we know o,
including our own, is a doI placed on Ihe surace o Ihis balloon. As we inlaIe
Ihe balloon every doI is pulled away rom every oIher doI as Ihe surace o Ihe
balloon expands. Eor any inhabiIanI o any one doI, iI appears IhaI every oIher
doI is moving away. The arIher away Ihe Iwo doIs iniIially, Ihe more abric
beIween Ihem Io expand and Ihe asIer Ihe doIs seem Io diverge. The naIural
consequence o Slipher's redshiIs and Hubble's velociIy and disIance relaIion is
IhaI we inhabiI a Universe IhaI musI be expanding. Nor are we aI iIs cenIer,
eiIher, we are simply one amongsI many billions o galaxies IhaI are all being
carried away rom one anoIher as space expands.
14
The naIural consequence o a Universe IhaI's geIIing bigger is IhaI in Ihe pasI
Ihe Universe was smaller. Eor Ihe irsI Iime scienIiic evidence poinIed Io a
momenI o creaIion. By iIs very moIion, Ihe Universe reveals IhaI iI was noI
eIernal, while every nighI iI is veriied when Ihe Sun goes down and we see Ihe
sIars come ouI Io shine in a dark nighI sky.
I we were Io aIIempI Io sIep anoIher acIor o Ien arIher away, we would
come Io a Iime beore Ihere were sIars, gas, galaxies or quasars. In acI iI would
also be a Iime beore Ihe Universe iIsel, including Ihe very idea o space and
Iime. Erom Ihe speed wiIh which Ihe galaxies are speeding away rom us we
14
Eor a universe IhaI only exisIs on Ihe surace o a balloon, imagine an inhabiIanI o one doI
asking where Ihe cenIer o Ihe Universe is ound, or which galacIic doI is closesI Io Ihe cenIer.
The answer is no doI, or alIernaIively every one. The cenIer o Ihe balloon universe is aI Ihe
cenIer o Ihe balloon iIsel and noI on Ihe surace aI all. The same siIuaIion holds Irue or our
universe as well.
figure 10.33 Calaxies oh Lhe surface of
ah expahdihg ballooh. As Lhe ballooh
geLs bigger Lhe disLahce beLweeh every
galaxy geLs larger. 1he farLher aparL Lwo
galaxies, Lhe fasLer Lhey are carried away
from ohe ahoLher. 1his is precisely whaL
we see ih Lhe hiverse (1. Nordgreh).
calculaIe IhaI in order Io be as disIanI as Ihey now are, everyIhing in Ihe
Universe, including Ihe Universe iIsel, began Io expand rom a single poinI in
space and Iime 13.7 billion years ago.
1S
Everywhere we look we see Ihe darkness beore Ihe irsI sIars leI Ihere be lighI.
BuI all is noI invisible. In Ihe irsI momenIs o creaIion, everyIhing in Ihe
Universe IhaI would one day become maIIer and energy illed all available space
wiIh Ihe heaI o iIs creaIion. Eor 13.7 billion years Ihe ires o Ihe Big Bang have
been leI Io cool as Ihe space iI permeaIes expands wiIh Ihe years. Today iIs ainI
glow is everywhere visible beyond Ihe galaxies, and is our window back inIo Ihe
deepesI o Iime.
This cosmic background radiaIion was irsI ound by accidenI, by Iwo
scienIisIs working aI Bell LaboraIories in New Jersey. In 163, Arno Fenzias and
RoberI \ilson were experimenIing wiIh Iechnology IhaI would evenIually
aciliIaIe Ihe world-wide use o cell-phones, buI everywhere Ihey poinIed Iheir
receiver Ihere was a background signal, a microwave hiss, or which Ihey could
ind no known cause. AI Ihe same Iime, RoberI Dicke, an asIrophysicisI aI nearby
FrinceIon UniversiIy, had Iheorized IhaI Ihe sIill conIroversial Big Bang Theory
would produce jusI such a background microwave hiss. He and his Ieam o
physicisI were in Ihe process o building a receiver Io deIecI iI when he received a
phone call rom Ihe scienIisIs aI Bell Labs asking or his advice on whaI Ihey had
ound. AIer sharing his hypoIhesis, he hung up Ihe phone, and Iold his Ieam,
''CenIleman, we've been scooped.'' \iIhouI knowing iI, Arno Fenzias and
RoberI \ilson had discovered Ihe inal conclusive evidence or Ihe Universe's
1S
\hich raises an inIeresIing quesIion: I Ihe space beIween galaxies is consIanIly expanding
Ihen are Ihose quasars whose lighI we see really abouI 10 billion lighI-years away righI now7
The shorI answer is no. The lighI we see has been Iraveling or abouI 10 billion years, buI in
IhaI Iime Ihe quasars have conIinued Io expand away rom us. The mosI disIanI quasar
currenIly known has a redshiI o z = S.8 (z is a number proporIional Io Ihe shiI in wavelengIh
caused by iIs moIion away rom us), implying iIs lighI has been Iraveling Io us or 12.7 billion
years. InsIead o being 12.7 billion lighI-years away, Hubble's Law implies IhaI Ihe universe's
expansion has carried iI Io a currenI disIance o 27 billion lighI-years. Rounded Io Ihe nearesI
power o Ien Ihough, iI is sIill aI our currenI sIep in our order o magniIude walk.
figure 10.34 1his is a map of Lhe microwave (or radio) radiaLioh emiLLed by Lhe hiverse
as a faihL glow lefL over from Lhe explosive evehL of Lhe 8ig 8ahg 13.7 billioh years ago. lf
Lhis map of Lhe hiverse (Lhihk of iL like a flaLLehed map of Lhe sphere of Lhe sky) were
compleLely uhiform, Lheh ho ohe regioh of Lhe uhiverse would be ahy differehL from ahy
oLher ahd asLrophysicisLs would have a hard Lime explaihihg why we live ih a lumpy
uhiverse where Lhere are sLars, galaxies, superclusLers, voids, ahd everyLhihg else you
see arouhd you. However, Lhis map made by Lhe WMAl spacecrafL ih 2003 shows Lihy
LemperaLure flucLuaLiohs oh Lhe order of ohly plus or mihus 200 microKelvih, roughly
ohe Leh LhousahdLh of a degree (NASA}WMAl Sciehce 1eam).
birIh. In 178 Fenzias and \ilson were awarded Ihe Nobel Frize in Fhysics or Ihe
paper Ihey wroIe abouI Iheir serendipiIous discovery, iI was only Iwo pages long.
TwenIy ive years laIer, NASA launched Ihe \ilkinson Microwave AnisoIropy
Frobe (\MAF) Io map Ihe miniscule IemperaIure lucIuaIions wiIhin Ihis
background radiaIion. I Ihere were no IemperaIure lucIuaIions, meaning Ihe
Big Bang was uIIerly uniorm, Ihen Ihere would be no way Io explain Ihe
sIrucIure we see in Ihe Universe Ioday. BuI where IemperaIures lucIuaIed Io jusI
a racIion o a degree cooler in Ihe primordial ireball, maIIer would one day
move a liIIle more slowly and graviIy would Iake hold Io begin Ihe long, slow
process o building Ihe irsI galaxies, clusIers, loops, and walls seen in our large-
scale maps o Ihe Universe. In \MAF's kaleidoscopic sIrucIure is Ihe ainI
shadow o everyIhing Ihe Universe would become and everyIhing we could
subsequenIly see in Ihe sky aI nighI in Ihis grandesI o canyons.
Nearly ourIeen billion years laIer (100 years ago) FresidenI Teddy RoosevelI
dedicaIed Crand Canyon as a naIional monumenI. His acIions seI in moIion a
IradiIion o conservaIion IhaI proIecIs our view o Ihe nighI sky above jusI as
surely as iI proIecIs our views o Ihe canyon below. \hile Ihis possibiliIy almosI
cerIainly never occurred Io him aI Ihe Iime, he would have viewed iI wiIh
pleasure had he known as he had a proound love o naIure and knowledge.
During his lie, RoosevelI and his good riend, Ihe naIuralisI \illiam Beebe, had
a ''saluIary ceremony'' Ihey'd Iake parI in on crysIal-clear evenings like Ihe one I
figure 10.35 lresidehL 1heodore
koosevelL (lower lefL ih dark suiL ahd
haL), 2Lh lresidehL of Lhe hiLed SLaLes,
descehds alohg Lhe 8righL Ahgel 1rail
ihLo Lhe depLhs of Lhe Crahd Cahyoh. lh
108 koosevelL esLablished by
proclamaLioh LhaL Lhe cahyoh be
preserved as a haLiohal mohumehL. lh
11, |usL Lhree years afLer Lhe
formaLioh of Lhe NaLiohal lark Service,
Crahd Cahyoh was declared a haLiohal
park (Crahd Cahyoh NaLiohal lark
Museum CollecLioh, lmage No. 0555).
see IonighI. In his oreword Io RoosevelI's book, Bool-Lovcr's HolJay n thc Opcn,
Beebe wroIe:
AIer an evening o Ialk, perhaps abouI Ihe ringes o knowledge, or
some new possibiliIy o climbing inside Ihe minds and senses o
animals, we would go ouI on Ihe lawn, where we Iook Iurns aI an
amusing liIIle asIronomical riIe. \e searched unIil we ound, wiIh or
wiIhouI glasses |i.e., wiIh or wiIhouI binoculars or Ielescope|, Ihe
ainI, heavenly spoI o lighI-misI beyond Ihe lower leI-hand corner o
Ihe CreaI Square o Fegasus, when one or Ihe oIher o us would Ihen
reciIe:
ThaI is Ihe spiral galaxy in Andromeda.
II is as large as our Milky \ay.
II is one o a hundred million galaxies.
II is 7S0,000 lighI-years away.
16
II consisIs o one hundred billion suns,
each larger Ihan our own sun.
AIer an inIerval Colonel RoosevelI would grin aI me and say: ''Now I Ihink we
are all small enough! LeI's go Io bed.''
16
Since RoosevelI's Iime Ihe Cepheid period-luminosiIy relaIion has beIIer reined Androme-
da's disIance Io Ihe currenIly accepIed 2.S million lighI-years.
Nearly a hundred years laIer, aIer
a Irip o 14 billion lighI-years IhaI
began here in Ihe hearI o Ihe canyon
he did so much Io proIecI, so did we.
The nexI morning as I make my
way back up Ihe long Irail ouI o Ihe
canyon I develop a whole new appre-
ciaIion or Ihe slow progress o
cenIuries. \hile my eeI Iell me Ihere
is no way I can possibly make iI, my
brain knows IhaI as long as I keep
placing one ooI in ronI o Ihe nexI,
I will geI Ihere evenIually. BuI Ihe
eorI is worIh iI or seeing Ihe
magniicence o sunrise rom along
Ihe TonIo FlaIorm aI Ihe rim o
Crand Canyon's inner gorge. I
remember Ihe very irsI Iime I came
Ihis way, nearly a decade ago, aIer-
wards I elI as i I had jusI Iaken Ihe
mosI imporIanI walk o my lie and
IhaI everywhere else I would go
would pale in signiicance. II's Ihen
IhaI I'm reminded o Ihe words o a
proessor o mine in graduaIe school
who said when sIudying Ihe clusIer-
ing o some o Ihe mosI disIanI
galaxies in Ihe Universe, ''HumaniIy
has no higher calling Ihan science.
To seek answers Io such undamenIal quesIions such as '\here do we come
rom7' and 'How did we geI here7' is Ihe mosI imporIanI o pursuiIs.'' Such ends
are always worIh Ihe eorI.
II's Ihen IhaI I am caughI in my reverie on Ihe Irail by a group o ellow hikers
who were in aIIendance aI lasI nighI's Ialk. \e're all o us eager or a reason Io
pause and resI (and perhaps prolong our Iime in Ihis beauIiul place) and so we
sIop and chaI or a momenI. \e Ialk abouI whaI we saw lasI nighI (Ihe Milky
\ay never ails Io asIound) and each has a quesIion, like ''\hy is Ihere maIIer7''
or ''\haI creaIed Ihe Big Bang7''
As a resulI o our conversaIion and my previous IhoughIs, I coness IhaI wiIh
all due respecI Io FresidenI RoosevelI, Ihe sky aI nighI makes me eel ar rom
small. O all Ihose sIars and galaxies spread across 13.7 billion years o Iime (and
even more lighI-years o space) Ihere is noI a single sIar IhaI has Ihe abiliIy Io
appreciaIe iIs place in Ihe cosmos. No spiral galaxy marvels aI Ihe amazing
varieIy o asIrophysical phenomena IhaI produce iI. No cloud o gas is ever leI
speechless by Ihe IhoughI o whaI iI will someday orm. No single aIom o
figure 10.3 1he fuzzy lighL of Lhe Ahdromeda
Calaxy (lower lefL) shihes dowh ihLo Lhe Crahd
Cahyoh oh a beauLifully sLarry sky. 1he lighL we
see Look 2.5 millioh years Lo reach us (1.
Nordgreh).
figure 10.37 A celesLial lahdscape is capLured ih Hubble's cameras as powerful
ulLravioleL lighL from hoL sLars above slowly erodes away Lhe dark clouds of cool gas ahd
dusL below. WiLhih Lhe proLecLive dark layers, hew sLars ahd Lheir poLehLial plaheLary
sysLems are borh over slow spahs of Lime. Will Lhere someday be oLher forms of life here,
able Lo look up aL Lhe sLars ahd wohder abouL Lheir owh place ih ah ever expahdihg
hiverse? (NASA, ESA, ahd 1he Hubble HeriLage 1eam (S1Scl}AkA), N. SmiLh
(hiversiLy of Califorhia, 8erkeley)).
hydrogen has Ihe capaciIy Io appreciaIe IhaI given noIhing buI Ihe laws o
physics and nearly 14 billion years o Iime iI will someday ind iIs way inIo Ihe
brain o a being able Io conIemplaIe Ihe precious beauIy o iIs own exisIence.
SIars creaIe no arI, nebulae are driven by no curiosiIy. In Ihe words o Ihe Hopi
creaIion Iale: we alone have Ihe abiliIy Io seek Ihe meaning o lie. AsIrophysics
Iells us how iI is IhaI we have come Io be here, buI iI is only everyIhing else IhaI
makes us more precious Ihan sIars IhaI leIs us draw meaning behind why we are.
See for yourseIf: powers of 10 through the Universe
SIarIing wiIh Ihe planeI aI your eeI, Ihere is an asIronomical objecI visible aI
nearly every sIep o a ''Fower o 10'' Iour Ihrough Ihe Universe. Rounding o Io
Ihe nearesI whole power o 10 (e.g., 1, 10, 100, eIc) we will use Ihe meIer as our
uniI o measure (which has Ihe beneiI o being person-sized Io Ihe nearesI power
o 10). Many o Ihese objecIs are locaIed on Ihe ollowing monIhly sIar maps.
However, since many o Ihese objecIs have already been described in earlier
chapIers, where appropriaIe, I've direcIed you Io read Ihe 'See or yoursel' (SY)
secIion o Ihe speciic chapIer.
ji
i
= 1m (you): See Ihe EarIh aI your eeI, iI's Ihe Ihird planeI rom our Sun
(no sIar map provided). AcIual average heighI o person: 6S inches (1.6 m).
ji
j
= 10 m: The FhanIom Ranch amphiIheaIer, or Ihe widIh o a scenic
overlook or Ihose on Ihe canyon rim, (or Ihe widIh o your own back yard).
ji
k
= 100 m: The widIh o Ihe Colorado River, Ihe Ihickness o Ihe Kaibab
ormaIion, (or Ihe lengIh o your own sIreeI back home).
ji
l
= 1,000 m: The heighI o Ihe Crand Canyon (or Ihe lengIh o your
neighborhood or Iown). Average canyon heighI: S,000 eeI (1,S00 m).
ji
m
= 10,000 m: The widIh o Ihe Crand Canyon (or Ihe widIh o your ciIy).
Typical canyon widIh: 4 - 18 miles (7 - 30 km).
ji
n
= 100,000 m: The alIiIude o meIeors and Ihe inIernaIionally deined edge
o space: 60 miles (100 km).
ji
o
= 1,000,000 m: SaIelliIes in EarIh orbiI, Ihe InIernaIional Space SIaIion,
Space ShuIIle or Hubble Space Telescope. ConsulI Heavens-Above.com or
locaIions and Iimes Io see Ihem pass overhead. Average alIiIude o Ihe Hubble
Space Telescope: 360 miles (S70 km).
ji
p
= 10,000,000 m: Ceosynchronous saIelliIes. \hile you can'I see Ihese
direcIly, you can see Ihe saIelliIe dishes IhaI some homes have poinIed aI Ihese
saIelliIes IhaI always sIay over one spoI on EarIh. AcIual disIance: 22,S00 miles
(36,000 km).
ji
q
= 100,000,000 m: The EarIh's naIural saIelliIe: Ihe Moon. See Ihe SY
secIion o ChapIer 7 or idenIiying eaIures on Ihe Moon. DisIance: 22S,000
miles (360,000 km).
ji
r
= 1 billion meIers: NoIhing.
ji
ji
= 10 billion meIers: NoIhing, alIhough i you were Io make a Iower o
every person on EarIh sIanding on Ihe shoulders o every oIher, Ihis is as ar as iI
would reach: 7 million miles (12 million kilomeIers).
ji
jj
= 1 AsIronomical UniI (AU): The nearesI sIar: our Sun. Also, Ihe inner
solar sysIem planeIs: Mercury, Venus, Mars. See SY ChapIer S or Iimes and
locaIions Io see Mars aI iIs closesI. DisIance Io Ihe Sun (and Ihus disIance o 1
AU): 3 million miles (1S0 million kilomeIers).
ji
jk
= 10 AU: The ouIer Solar SysIem gianI planeIs such as JupiIer and SaIurn.
SaIurn is Ihe mosI disIanI objecI you can see in our Solar SysIem wiIh Ihe naked
eye. See SY ChapIers 3 and 4 or sky maps showing JupiIer and SaIurn's posiIion
relaIive Io Ihe background sIars each year unIil 2030. SaIurn's acIual disIance aI
closesI approach: AU.
ji
jl
= 100AU: FluIo and Ihe Kuiper BelI: \hile FluIo is only ainIly visible
Ihrough amaIeur Ielescopes in dark locaIions, we can see remnanIs o Ihe icy
worlds IhaI orbiI wiIhin Ihe Kuiper BelI every year during meIeor showers.
MeIeor showers occur when Ihe EarIh passes Ihrough Ihe dusIy remains o
comeIs. Many o Ihese comeIs (Halley's ComeI mosI amously) have orbiIs IhaI
Iake Ihem ouI inIo Ihe Kuiper BelI. See SY ChapIer 7 or a Iable o brighI annual
meIeor showers. In arriving aI 100 AU we pass ully Ihrough Ihe Kuiper BelI IhaI
exIends beIween 30 and S0 AU rom Ihe Sun.
ji
jm
= 1000 AU: Sedna is an ice world noI visible Io Ihe naked eye or amaIeur
Hold Lhe sLar map above your head wiLh Lhe Lop of Lhe page poihLihg horLh. lor Lhose aL
mid-laLiLudes wiLhih Lhe cohLihehLal hiLed SLaLes, Lhe cehLer of Lhe map marked wiLh a
+ will show Lhe view direcLly overhead (Lhe zehiLh) aL Lhe ihdicaLed Limes.
Ielescopes because o how ainI Ihe Sun is ouI aI Ihese disIances. IIs orbiI carries
iI beIween 76 and 1000 AU.
ji
jn
= 10,000 AU: The inner edge o Ihe OorI Cloud. Again we cannoI see Ihe
icy snowballs IhaI orbiI in Ihe OorI Cloud, buI every so oIen when one o Ihese
rozen nuclei comes plunging inIo Ihe inner solar sysIem iI creaIes a specIacular
comeI. Unlike Halley's ComeI IhaI comes around every 76 years, OorI Cloud
comeIs are long period comeIs IhaI are seen only once Ihen never again over a
human lieIime. ComeI Hale Bopp in 17 was such a visiIor.
ji
jo
= 100,000 AU: This is Ihe ouIer edge o Ihe OorI Cloud and Ihe boundary
Io our Solar SysIem. II is also approximaIely Ihe disIance lighI Iravels in a year.
One lighI-year (1 LY) = 63,000 AU.
ji
jp
= 10 LY: Sirius and Vega are Iwo o Ihe nearesI brighI sIars easily visible in
Ihe norIhern hemisphere sky. In winIer, Sirius is Ihe brighIesI sIar in Ihe sky (noI
including any planeIs IhaI may be ouI) and is ound by Iracing Ihe Ihree sIars o
Orion's BelI down and Io Ihe easI. In summer and all, Vega is one o Ihe Ihree
sIars o Ihe prominenI Summer Triangle IhaI will be high overhead. AcIual
disIance Io Sirius is 8.6 LY, acIual disIance Io Vega is 2S LY.
ji
jq
= 100 LY: Aldebaran and Spica are Iwo very brighI and massive sIars.
Aldebaran is a red gianI, noIiceably orange in color and visible as one eye o
Taurus Ihe Bull in winIer. Spica is a hoI blue sIar much more massive Ihan Ihe
Sun. To ind iI in summer, ollow Ihe handle o Ihe Big Dipper and 'arc Io
ArcIurus.' Erom ArcIurus, conIinue on in Ihe same direcIion and ''spike Io
Spica.'' Aldeberan is acIually 6S LY away, while Spica is 260 LY away.
ji
jr
= 1,000 LY: Caseous nebulae like Ihe Orion Nebula (also called M42) in
winIer (see SY ChapIer 8) or Ihe Lagoon Nebula (called M8) in summer (see SY
ChapIer 1). M42 is 1,300 LY away, M8 is 4,300 L\ away.
ji
ki
= 10,000 LY: The band o Ihe Milky \ay. In summer we see Ihe cenIer o
our Calaxy Iowards Ihe consIellaIion o SagiIIarius (SY ChapIer 1). The
supermassive black hole aI Ihe cenIer o Ihe Calaxy is 2S,000 LY away.
ji
kj
= 100,000 LY: The Magellanic Clouds are saIelliIe galaxies o our own
Calaxy, Ihe Milky \ay. They appear as Iwo clouds cuI o rom Ihe band o Ihe
Milky \ay, buI Ihey are individual galaxies in orbiI around our own.
UnorIunaIely Ihey are only visible rom Ihe souIhern hemisphere. They are
abouI 160,000 LY away.
ji
kk
= 1,000,000 LY = 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 you: The Andromeda
Calaxy is a spiral galaxy IhaI is a near Iwin Io our own Milky \ay. II is Iypically
Ihe mosI disIanI objecI in Ihe Universe IhaI you can see wiIh your own eyes. II is
visible all year long excepI or spring. Eor a phoIograph showing Ihe posiIion o
Ihis ainI uzzy oval in Ihe sky see Eigure .21 in ChapIer . The Andromeda
Calaxy is 2.S million lighI-years away.
further reading
Thc lourth WorlJ oj thc Hop by Harold Courlander (171)
UniversiIy o New Mexico Fress, ISBN 0826310117
RoaJsJc Gcology oj Arzona by Halka Chronic (183)
MounIain Fress, ISBN 087842147S
RcaJng thc Rocls. Thc Autohography oj thc Larth by Marcia Bjornerud (200S)
\esIview Fress, ISBN 08133424X
Thc Lxtravagant Unvcrsc. LxploJng Stars, Darl Lncrgy, AnJ thc Accclcratng Cosmos
by RoberI F. Kershner (200S)
FrinceIon UniversiIy Fress, ISBN 0610S8628
Thc Starry Room. NalcJ Lyc Astronomy n thc lnjntc Unvcrsc by Ered Schaa (18)
Dover FublicaIions, ISBN 048642SS33
Hubble HeriIage SiIe: The Hubble Space Telescope's phoIographic legacy
hIIp:}}heriIage.sIsci.edu}
Slaiiy sLy nalional aiL (T. oiogien)
11
5tarry sky natlonal park
Thc nght sly s thc worlJ's largcst natonal parl wth ts hcauty avalahlc to
anyonc who stcps outsJc anJ lools up.
Ceo ChesIer, U.S. Naval ObservaIory
\here did we come rom7 How did we geI here7 \haI is ouI Ihere7 Are we alone
in Ihe Universe7 These are Ihe quesIions asIronomy has soughI Io answer since
Ihe irsI person looked ouI inIo Ihe nighI sky and wondered abouI Ihe heavens.
Eor mosI o human hisIory Ihe poinIs o lighI in Ihe sky, were jusI IhaI: poinIs o
lighI. The only Ihing Ihey had Io Iell us was conIained enIirely wiIhin Iheir
moIions across Ihe celesIial sphere, asIrology lourished.
Eour hundred years ago, Ihe Ielescope inally revealed IhaI Ihe planeIs, Ihose
special sIars IhaI wandered among Ihe 'ixed' sIars, were worlds poIenIially like
our own. \iIh Calileo's Ielescope we broughI Ihe heavens down Io EarIh. In Ihe
lasI iIy years we've achieved anoIher milesIone in our search or Ihese cosmic
answers by Iaking Ihe EarIh Io Ihe heavens in Ihe orm o human and roboIic
exploraIion o Ihe moons and planeIs o our Solar SysIem.
YeI wiIh all o Ihese advances, Ihe
answer Io one o Ihose undamenIal
quesIions is IhaI everywhere we have
figure 11.1 Here Lhe Hubble Space
1elescope peers ihLo Lhe hearL of Lhe
Whirlpool Calaxy. Every dark dusL lahe
alohg a spiral arm is where hew sLars are
formihg. Every red sploLch is a glowihg
hebula like we see ih Orioh where baby
sLars are |usL Lurhihg oh. Every blue cloud is
a hosL of Lhousahds of hoL youhg sLars
poLehLially warmihg plaheLary sysLems of
Lheir owh. lh Lhis ohe picLure, how mahy
milliohs of plaheLs mighL righL how be
Leemihg wiLh life lookihg back aL us uhder a
sLar filled sky? (NASA ahd 1he Hubble
HeriLage 1eam (S1Scl}AkA), N. Scoville
(CalLech) ahd 1. kecLor (NOAO)).
looked we have ound no sign o
anyone else. BuI Io paraphrase Sha-
kespeare, is Ihis a ailure o Ihe sIars
or o ourselves7
In December 10 NASA's Calileo
spacecraI lew by Ihe EarIh en rouIe
Io explore Ihe largesI planeI in our
Solar SysIem. The spacecraI had
been launched rom EarIh a liIIle
over a year beore, buI wiIhouI Ihe
power Io reach JupiIer direcIly iI had
been senI Io pick up addiIional speed
by slingshoIIing irsI around Venus
and Ihen pasI Ihe EarIh. AI JupiIer iI
would begin an ambiIious program
Io learn abouI Ihe king o planeIs
and iIs hosI o sIrange, exoIic moons.
\hile previous spacecraI had
merely lown by Ihe planeI on Iheir
way ouI o Ihe Solar SysIem (learning whaI Ihey could in Ihe ew days iI Iook Io
pass by) Calileo was a mission designed Io inally answer quesIions abouI Ihe
Jovian sysIem IhaI earlier missions had only begun Io ask.
One such quesIion was Ihe presence o lie, i noI in JupiIer's clouds, Ihen
perhaps on one o iIs moons. And while hardly any asIronomers acIually
expecIed Io ind lie loaIing amongsI Ihe Jovian clouds (alIhough Carl Sagan
and my old advisor, Ed SalpeIer, had published a paper in 176 describing whaI
such lie could be like) iI was imporIanI Io know i any ailure Io ind iI in Ihe
Jovian sysIem, was due Io JupiIer, or Io our spacecraI. EorIunaIely, Ihe EarIh was
one planeI where Sagan was preIIy sure lie was plenIiul. I Calileo ailed Io ind
lie here, he reasoned, any ailure Io ind iI aI JupiIer would be jusI as
meaningless. So, as Ihe Calileo spacecraI lew by Ihe EarIh, mission planners
Iurned on Calileo's insIrumenIs, poinIed Ihem home, and asked Ihe quesIion,
''Is Ihere lie on EarIh7''
Erom 600 miles (60 km) above Ihe day-liI EarIh, Calileo showed our
Iechnology is all buI invisible. Calileo's cameras saw no highways or ciIies.
EveryIhing we've ever builI, every change we've made Io our landscape, is uIIerly
invisible rom space. The rumor IhaI Ihe CreaI \all o China is Ihe only human
engineering eeI visible rom Ihe Moon is noIhing buI myIh. \haI Sagan ound
was IhaI Io a passing planeIary probe, we - as in all lie on EarIh - are revealed
noI by our engineering, buI by our chemisIry.
The EarIh's inrared lighI was irsI aimed Ihrough a specIromeIer IhaI spread iI
aparI inIo iIs componenI wavelengIhs. II showed Ihe specIral signaIure o waIer,
in one orm or anoIher, over nearly Ihe enIire planeI's surace. SpecIra o an
apparenIly cloudless, eaIureless region o Ihis waIer showed absorpIion o
speciic wavelengIhs o lighI due Io exIremely high amounIs o oxygen and
figure 11.2 1he Calileo spacecrafL capLures a
glimpse of SouLh America ahd ice-covered
AhLarcLica as iL swihgs pasL Lhe EarLh oh iLs way
ouL Lo |upiLer (NASA}|lL).
meIhane. Organic chemisIry says IhaI leI alone, Ihese Iwo molecules will
quickly reacI wiIh one anoIher Io Iurn inIo waIer and carbon dioxide. The
presence o meIhane in amounIs 140 orders o magniIude greaIer Ihan whaI
chemisIry says is possible means IhaI some process musI be occurring on EarIh Io
conIinually replenish iI. In acI, some process musI also be replenishing Ihe
planeI's oxygen, since nearly all o iI should be removed rom Ihe aImosphere
Ihrough reacIion wiIh Ihe surace (or example, oxygen will reacI wiIh iron in
rocks Io orm rusI). In shorI: Calileo scienIisIs ound Ihe EarIh has an aImosphere
IhaI shouldn'I exisI by Ihe laws o inorganic chemisIry.
NexI, Calileo's camera capIured images o EarIh's day-liI side showing a range
o lighI and dark regions noI covered by waIer. ScienIisIs called Ihese regions
'land.' The brighI regions o land relecI lighI all across Ihe specIrum and so
appear brown or reddish-Ian. The dark regions, however, absorb relaIively large
amounIs o red lighI and so would appear predominanIly green. \hile many
Iypes o minerals are known IhaI maIch Ihe range o colors revealed in Ihe brighI
regions, Ihere are no known minerals IhaI produce Ihe range o colors seen in Ihe
green areas.
In Iheir 13 paper published in Ihe presIigious journal Naturc, Sagan and his
collaboraIors concluded:
The idenIiicaIion o molecules prooundly ouI o Ihermodynamic
equilibrium, unexplained by any non-biological process, widespread
pigmenIs IhaI cannoI be undersIood by geochemical processes are
IogeIher evidence o lie on EarIh wiIhouI any a pror assumpIions
abouI iIs chemisIry |i.e., wiIhouI regards Io ''lie as we know iI''|.
Calileo had ound lie on EarIh, yeI no such chemisIry ouI o balance was ound
upon reaching JupiIer or any o iIs moons. Once again, we seemed Io be alone,
Ihe discovery o any lie Ihere would evidenIly have Io waiI or a closer look,
perhaps beneaIh Ihe rozen oceans o one o iIs moons.
SevenIeen years laIer anoIher spacecraI passed by EarIh, Ihis Iime on iIs way
Io a comeI. In 2014, Ihe European Space Agency's RoseIIa spacecraI will be Ihe
irsI Io orbiI a comeI's nucleus and genIly place a lander on iIs surace. I all goes
as planned, scienIisIs will be able Io look closely aI whaI is IhoughI Io be an
example o Ihe leIover remains o our Solar SysIem's ormaIion.
1
And jusI as Calileo had done in 10, RoseIIa Ioo Iurned on iIs insIrumenIs as
iI passed by Ihe EarIh and Ihis Iime anyone asking i Ihere was lie here had a
much easier Iime inding an answer. Eor RoseIIa lew Ihrough Ihe shadow o Ihe
EarIh, and phoIographed our world aI nighI.
1
Eour and a hal billion years ago, comeIs were Ihe building blocks o planeIs and possibly Ihe
origin o organic molecules (even nucleic acids) on EarIh. JusI as Ihe RoseIIa sIone in EgypI
allowed archeologisIs Io piece IogeIher Ihe language o a long vanished ancienI civilizaIion,
Ihe RoseIIa spacecraI will allow asIronomers Io piece IogeIher Ihe long vanished pasI o our
own world and perhaps Ihe ancienI origin o lie Ihereon.
5tarry sky natlonal park 3
figure 11.3 lh 2007 Lhe Europeah Space
Agehcy's koseLLa spacecrafL passed by Lhe
EarLh oh iLs way Lo rehdezvous wiLh a
comeL. visible ih Lhis phoLograph are Lhe
lighLs of our ciLies ahd civilizaLioh from
posL-suhseL Europe ih Lhe upper lefL all Lhe
way Lo pre-dawh Chiha ahd |apah ih Lhe
upper righL. lh Lhe very cehLer, Lhe lighLs of
lhdia ouLlihe Lhe shape of Lhe subcohLihehL
while Lowards Lhe wesL, Lhe brighL sihuous
lighL of Lhe Nile kiver shakes souLhward
from Lhe MediLerraheah Sea (ESA 2005
MlS for OSlklS 1eam MlS}lD}LAM}lAA}
kSSD}lN1A}lM}DASl}lDA).
There in iIs cameras aI a disIance o S0,000 miles (80,000 km) above Ihe
Indian Ocean iI caughI sparkling lighIs rom Europe Io Arica and India Io Asia.
In RoseIIa's phoIo o EarIh, we see early evening's sIreeI lighIs Iurn on in
England and along IIaly's AdriaIic coasI. Along Ihe lie-giving waIers o Ihe Nile,
nighI brings Ihe lighIs o civilizaIion huddled againsI Ihe deserI. To Ihe easI,
midnighI comes Io Ihe lighIs o Delhi and Ihe ouIlines o Ihe Indian
subconIinenI. EarIher easI, RoseIIa's camera capIures Ihe early morning lighIs
o Tokyo and Taiwan, sIill shining amid Ihe oncoming glow o dawn.
The world aI nighI shows Ihe unmisIakable sign o inIelligenI lie on every
hemisphere on EarIh. No oresI ire burns nighI aIer nighI wiIh such regulariIy.
No volcanic acIiviIy glows wiIh such a consIanI lighI, never lowing or cooling.
Erom coasI Io coasI on every conIinenI, Ihe signs o our habiIaIion announce
Ihemselves Io Ihe sIars every nighI once Ihe Sun goes down. Erom above, ours is
a world o lighI where darkness is more Ihe excepIion Ihan Ihe rule.
II's no wonder Ihen IhaI visiIors rom all over Ihe world marvel aI whaI can be
seen in Ihe nighI sky o America's naIional parks, oases o darkness, ar rom Ihe
brighI lighIs o home. Those qualiIies IhaI draw us Io Ihe parks by day - Iheir
unspoiled scenic visIas and backcounIry wilderness - also make Ihem especially
beauIiul aI nighI. And while iI may be Ihe sIrange beauIy o arches, canyons,
and waIeralls IhaI cause visiIors Io gaze in wonder by day, Ihe brighI shining
sIars and specIacular majesIy o Ihe Milky \ay are equally sIrange and wonderul
sighIs IhaI capIivaIe aI nighI. To see all Ihese sighIs IogeIher - Ihe red rock arches
illuminaIed by Ihe pale milky glow o our Calaxy - places our planeI and
ourselves inIo Ihe rich conIexI o our Universe, and iI is a sighI no longer
possible rom much o our developed world.
Many parks, where Ielevisions and movie IheaIers are rare, oer evening
programs Io educaIe us abouI Ihese sIrange oIher-worldly sighIs. Over Ihe lasI
several years, Fark Rangers have come Io realize IhaI Iheir nighI sky programs are
some o Ihe mosI heavily aIIended o all Ihe programs Ihe park oers. AI Crand
Canyon NaIional Fark hundreds o
visiIors show up or each evening's
ranger-led nighI sky walk along Ihe
canyon rim. To meeI Ihis demand,
every ranger aI Crand Canyon is now
expecIed Io be able Io give an
evening asIronomy Ialk in addiIion
Io a more Iypical Ialk on Ihe geolo-
gical wonders o Ihe canyon.
A number o Ihese parks now
parIner wiIh local asIronomy clubs
Io seI up Ielescopes on moonless
summer nighIs when Ihe sky is dark
and Ihe Milky \ay sIreIches rom
horizon Io horizon. In Joshua Tree
NaIional Fark ouIside Los Angeles,
you can ind Ihe local Andromeda
SocieIy wiIh Ielescopes seI up aI Ihe
Hidden Valley picnic area one SaIur-
day a monIh when Ihere is no Moon
in Ihe sky Io compeIe wiIh Ihe
ainIer lighI o our Calaxy. In Rocky
MounIain NaIional Fark, Ihe EsIes
Valley AsIronomical SocieIy mounIs
Ielescopes amid Ihe park's aspens
and elk o Upper Beaver Meadows
on moonless Eriday and SaIurday
nighIs during summer. YosemiIe
NaIional Fark in NorIhern Caliornia
has so many asIronomy clubs eager
Io seI up Ielescopes on Ihe dark
heighIs o Clacier FoinI IhaI local clubs rom all over San Erancisco and Ihe
CenIral Valley Iake Iurns poinIing ouI Ihe celesIial sighIs Io visiIors on summer
weekends.
Bryce Canyon NaIional Fark siIs in Ihe hearI o souIhern UIah's sIarry sky and
geologic wonderland and hosIs Ihe mosI organized nighI sky inIerpreIaIion
program o any naIional park. FermanenI and seasonal rangers give mulIiple
asIronomy Ialks, oIen Iwo a nighI on Iopics ranging rom Ihe beauIy o a dark
sIarry sky Io black holes and general relaIiviIy. \hen Ihe Ialks are done, and Ihe
sky is aI iIs darkesI, Ihe audience is led over Io a 'Ielescope ield' behind Ihe
visiIor cenIer where volunIeers operaIe mulIiple Ielescopes unIil Ihe lasI amily
goes back Io Iheir campsiIe or Ihe nighI.
Richard Blake is a musIachioed, grey-haired genIleman rom Texarkana,
Texas, who now Iravels Ihe counIry rom park Io park volunIeering his Iime and
Ielescopes Io show crowds Ihe beauIy o Ihe nighI sky. Blake's deep bass, radio
figure 11.4 1he Milky Way rises over Mesa
Arch ih Cahyohlahds NaLiohal lark. 1he
lahdscape is illumihaLed by hoLhihg buL
sLarlighL. lh Lhe disLahce Lhe glow of several
small ciLies are visible over Lhe horizoh (1.
Nordgreh).
figure 11.5 NaLiohal lark Service
voluhLeer Amy Sayle reveals a close
up view of our hearesL sLar, Lhe
Suh, Lo visiLors Lo 8ryce Cahyoh
NaLiohal lark (1. Nordgreh).
figure 11. A field of Lelescopes seL up by Lhe SalL Lake AsLrohomical SocieLy provides
ah uhparalleled view of Lhe cosmos Lo Lhose aLLehdihg 8ryce Cahyoh's 8Lh Ahhual
AsLrohomy lesLival (1. Nordgreh).
announcer's voice carries a hinI o his Texas pasI as he describes sIar clusIers and
nebulae Io every young child, European couple, or reIiree on vacaIion. His
knowledge o Ielescopes is encyclopedic and iI is amazing how many
conversaIions we have IhaI evenIually Iurn wiIhouI noIice Io Ihe wonders o
Ihis opIical sysIem or IhaI expensive eyepiece. BuI while his Iechnical knowledge
is dizzying, his is a calm deep voice IhaI has opened many a junior Fark Ranger's
eyes Io Ihe delighIs o SaIurn and iIs rings.
This year I join Blake and Jim Closson, anoIher old-Iime asIronomy volunIeer,
in bringing our experIise Io Ihe public aI Bryce. TogeIher we Ialk abouI our
avoriIe parks and nighI skies as we Iell sIories o Ihe places we've been and Ihe
people we've known, marveling aI how many places and riends we have in
common as our paIhs have criss-crossed and barely missed one anoIher over Ihe
years. This year we are all broughI IogeIher Io help Ihe rangers wiIh Ihe 8Ih
Annual Bryce Canyon AsIronomy EesIival.
\haI began in 2001 as a 'sIar parIy,' primarily or amaIeur asIronomers
looking Io explore Bryce Canyon's dark skies wiIh Iheir Ielescopes, has over Ihe
lasI hal dozen years been Iransormed inIo a our-day asIronomy esIival or Ihe
general public IhaI draws visiIors rom all over Ihe world. HoIel rooms in Ihe
neighboring Iowns now book up well in advance o Ihe celebraIion in Ihe park.
CuesI speakers range rom NASA asIronauI SIory Musgrave, who was responsible
or Ihe irsI Space ShuIIle mission Io service Ihe Hubble Space Telescope, Io John
Dobson, Ihe masIer o 'sidewalk asIronomy' whose cheap and simple Dobsonian
Ielescope design has broughI views o Ihe Moon and planeIs Io millions o
people around Ihe world.
During Ihe day, we lead visiIors on scale model Solar SysIem walks and hold
model rockeI building workshops IhaI complemenI Ihe evening consIellaIion
shows and a vasI ield o Ielescopes arrayed aIer dark. RaIher Ihan being an evenI
figure 11.7 A lohe hiker descehds by dim flashlighL ihLo 8ryce Cahyoh's maze of bizarre
rock formaLiohs. Overhead Lhe Milky Way ahd |upiLer (Lhe brighL ''sLar'' |usL breakihg
Lhrough Lhe clouds) produce a view above |usL as sLrahge ahd specLacular as LhaL below
(1. Nordgreh).
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inIended or jusI amaIeur asIronomers, Ihe esIival's primary audience is now Ihe
public eager Io learn more abouI Ihis sIrange beauIiul sky Ihey see overhead.
Only by revealing Ihe pleasures o Ihe nighI sky Io everyone, young and old,
asIronomy enIhusiasI or casual sIargazer, are we able Io demonsIraIe IhaI Ihe
wonders o Bryce Canyon NaIional Fark, and indeed, o Ihe enIire park sysIem,
don'I end aI sunseI and IhaI Ihe beauIy Ihe park service is sworn Io proIecI isn'I
ound exclusively below Ihe horizon.
This proIecIion is key Io Ihe park service's mission. In iIs ounding charIer Ihe
NaIional Fark Service is mandaIed by Ihe U.S. Congress ''Io conserve Ihe scenery,
Ihe naIural and hisIoric objecIs and Ihe wild lie Iherein and Io provide or Ihe
enjoymenI o Ihe same in such manner and by such means as will leave Ihem
unimpaired or Ihe enjoymenI o uIure generaIions.. . .'' \hile mosI people may
Ihink IhaI preserving scenery is only a maIIer o proIecIing Ihe physical presence
o a oresI, mounIain, or waIerall, grassrooIs eorIs are being made Io expand
figure 11.9 Map of Lhe arLificial
highL sky brighLhess seeh aL Lhe
zehiLh for locaLiohs ih NorLh
America ahd Europe. Compare
how much brighLer skies are ih
Lhe easLerh half of NorLh America
compared Lo Lhe wesL. NoLice,
Lhere is ho parL of Europe as dark
as Lhe darkesL parLs of wesLerh
NorLh America where Lhe ma|oriLy
of .S. haLiohal parks are locaLed
(see Lhe ''See for yourself''
secLioh aL Lhe ehd of Lhe chapLer).
lrahce, however, does mahage Lo
be darker Lhah heighborihg
couhLries (l. Cihzaho, l. lalchi
(hiversiLy of ladova), C. D.
Elvidge (NOAA NaLiohal
Ceophysical DaLa CehLer,
8oulder). CopyrighL koyal
AsLrohomical SocieLy.
keproduced from Lhe Mcnthly
Nctices cf the kcycl Astrcncmiccl
5cciety by permissioh of 8lackwell
Sciehce).
Ihis IradiIional resource deiniIion Io also include Ihose qualiIies IhaI aecI how
we experience Ihe landscape.
These qualiIies include vcwscapcs, where aImospheric haze rom indusIrial
polluIion renders disIanI mounIains and canyon walls invisible on an oIherwise
clear day, naIural sounJscapcs, which are Ihe simple abiliIy Io hear Ihe wind in
Ihe grass and birds in Ihe Irees as opposed Io Ihe Ihrobbing roar o commercial
airplanes or helicopIer Iours hovering overhead, and naIural lghtscapcs, deined
by Ihe park service as, ''a place or environmenI characIerized by Ihe naIural
rhyIhm o Ihe Sun and Moon cycles, clean air, and o dark nighIs unperIurbed by
arIiicial lighI. NaIural lighIscapes, including dark nighI skies, are noI only a
resource unIo Ihemselves, buI are an inIegral componenI o counIless park
experiences.''
The man-made arIiicial lighI wiIhin Ihis deiniIion has come Io be called
lighI polluIion. \hile six ouI o every Ien Americans no longer live somewhere
we can see Ihe Milky \ay, we are aI leasI more orIunaIe Ihan residenIs o oIher
indusIrialized naIions in IhaI we have relaIively nearby places where we sIill can.
\e have our naIional parks.
Look again aI a picIure o Ihe planeI aI nighI. The lighI you see, Ihe lighI IhaI
is aI IhaI momenI illuminaIing Ihe camera on Ihe underside o a saIelliIe in EarIh
orbiI, is by and large Ihe lighIs o businesses, homes, sIreeIs, and ciIy squares. II's
us. Every nighI when Ihe Sun goes down and you Iurn on your porch lighI, and
auIomaIic Iimers Iurn on sIreeI lighIs, billboards, and lashing adverIisemenIs,
roughly S0% o IhaI lighI shines up above Ihe horizon Io lighI up birds, baIs,
airplanes, and spacecraI (and evenIually Ihe Moon, planeIs and someday disIanI
sIars).
I Ihe EarIh had no aImosphere, IhaI would be Ihe end o Ihe sIory. Sadly
(depending on how you look aI iI), Ihe EarIh does have an aImosphere. An
aImosphere illed wiIh Ihe air we breaIhe, waIer dropleIs in Ihe orm o humidiIy
and clouds, and parIicles o Ihe dusI, dirI and noxious compounds we call smog.
All o Ihese serve Io creaIe an obsIacle course Ihrough which our upward
sIreaming lighI reacIs. \iIh every encounIer beIween a lighI ray and 'sIu' Ihe
lighI is relecIed or scaIIered along a new IrajecIory. \iIh enough sIu in Ihe air,
Ihe lighI IhaI leaves our simple sIreeI lamp is repeaIedly scaIIered Ihrough Ihe
sky overhead unIil some o iI is evenIually relecIed back down Io us. The neI
resulI is IhaI near urban areas scaIIered lighI reaches our eyes rom every parI o
Ihe sky. II is as i Ihe sky iIsel is ainIly glowing, and in realiIy iI is. \e have
creaIed an arIiicial day. This is lighI polluIion.
2
The more lighI IhaI shines upwards, Ihe brighIer Ihe glow becomes unIil
2
LighI polluIion comes in Ihree main orms, all deIrimenIal. The Iype described above is called
sly glow. A second orm is glarc, Ihe lighI rom a bulb IhaI enIers your eyes aI nighI, ruining
your dark adapIaIion, and your abiliIy Io see oIherwise visible sIars. The lasI orm is lght
trcspass, when oIher's lighIs shine onIo land or properIy beyond Iheir border. Each o Ihese
reduces Ihe number o sIars visible in Ihe sky rom even prisIine, wilderness locaIions.
figure 11.10 CiLy lighLs from Moab, Lah (populaLioh 5,000) lighL up Lhe sky, bloLLihg
ouL Lhe Milky Way, ahd permahehLly lighLihg up Lhe rock feaLures wiLhih Arches
NaLiohal lark. Here Lhe red sahdsLohe of lark Avehue shihes wiLh reflecLed ciLy lighLs
Lhrough all hours of Lhe highL. lull darkhess ho lohger comes Lo ahy of Lhe plahL ahd
ahimal species LhaL make Lhis area Lheir home (1. Nordgreh).
evenIually iI is as brighI as Ihe ainIesI sIars we can see and we lose Ihe abiliIy Io
disIinguish Ihem rom Ihe surrounding sky. AIer a Ihousand years' Iravel, Ihe
lighI rom Ihose disIanI sIars, irsI generaIed in Ihe nuclear ires deep wiIhin, is
overwhelmed and losI in Ihe lasI Ihird o a millisecond amid Ihe lighI o Ihe ar
closer shopping mall IhaI has probably already closed or Ihe nighI.
The insidious aspecI o lighI polluIion is IhaI Ihe shopping mall need noI be
nearby, or even visible rom your locaIion, Io render Ihe nighI sky invisible. The
lighI polluIion o every grocery sIore, gas sIaIion and house lighI in Iown
conIribuIes Io a lighI dome IhaI expands ouIward rom developed areas. The
larger Ihe communiIy, or Ihe more wasIeul iIs ouIdoor lighIing, Ihe Ialler and
wider Ihe dome becomes unIil once dark locaIions hundreds o miles away begin
Io lose views o sIars back in IhaI direcIion. SIand ouIside Lowell ObservaIory on
Mars Hill in ElagsIa, Arizona, and you can see Ihe lighI dome o Fhoenix, 12S
miles (200 km) away compeIing wiIh Ihe glow o Ihe galacIic cenIer in
SagiIIarius, IwenIy ive Ihousand lighI-years disIanI.
The NaIional Fark Service NighI Sky Team is a small group o Fark Rangers and
associaIed asIronomers and researchers who or Ihe irsI Iime are sysIemaIically
looking Io measure Ihe amounI o arIiicial lighI inIruding inIo Ihe nighI sky
above Ihe naIion's parks. Based aI Colorado SIaIe UniversiIy, in EorI Collins,
Colorado, Ihey work wiIh personnel aI over 70 parks, measuring lighI polluIion
levels, helping reduce uninIended lighI wiIhin Ihe parks, and helping Irain Fark
Rangers in asIronomy inIerpreIaIion programs. \hile Ihey now work wiIh parks
naIionwide and have received glowing press rom ouIleIs as varied as Ihe Ncw
Yorl Tmcs and Ihe Puhlcatons oj thc Astronomcal Soccty oj thc Pacjc, Ihe NighI
Sky Team had iIs origins in Ihe eorIs o a ew individuals, working in Iheir spare
Iime, who were curious abouI whaI Ihey saw happening overhead.
In 17 Chad Moore was a Fark Ranger and physical scienIisI sIaIioned aI
Finnacles NaIional MonumenI in Ihe mounIains souIheasI o Ihe San Erancisco
Bay. He'd loved asIronomy as a kid, buI like many people iI had never been more
Ihan a casual hobby. His inIeresI was renewed when early IhaI spring he caughI
sighI o ComeI HyakuIake high in Ihe cold dark skies o Bozeman, MonIana.
Seeing a comeI's Iail exIend over a Ihird o Ihe way across Ihe sky he wondered,
''\hy did I ever leI Ihis go7''
Because o Ihis renewed inIeresI in Ihe sky, he was able Io Iell IhaI over Ihe
nexI Iwo years (during a Iime IhaI included a massive building boom in nearby
Silicon Valley) Ihe nighI sky above Finnacles had goIIen noIiceably brighIer. ''As
a scienIisI I realized IhaI i I can see Ihe dierence, surely Ihere musI be some way
Io measure Ihe change IhaI was happening.'' Moore began searching around on
Ihe inIerneI or any experIs who could Iell him whaI he could do. ''\haI I heard
back were variaIions on, 'CreaI quesIion! I you ind a way, leI me know.' AIer
abouI a dozen o Ihese responses I IhoughI, OK, I guess IhaI's going Io have Io be
me.''
Three sIaIes away, Angie Richman was a ranger aI Chaco CulIure NaIional
HisIorical Fark in norIhwesIern New Mexico. Richman was inishing a degree in
archeoasIronomy aI Ihe UniversiIy o New Mexico and was puIIing IhaI Iraining
Io use in a park where asIronomy has been a parI o Ihe local culIure or well over
a Ihousand years. One nighI, she and her colleagues wiInessed a rare display o
Ihe norIhern lighIs jusI visible over Ihe norIhern rim o Ihe canyon. ''The
aurorae were absoluIely beauIiul,'' she recalls, ''buI Ihen we began Io noIice all
Ihe lighI domes around Ihe horizon rom disIanI Iowns. AI irsI we even
wondered i Ihe aurorae were jusI lighIs rom Ihe ciIy o EarmingIon. \e were
shocked aI jusI how much sIray lighI you could see wiIhin Chaco and we
wondered i Ihere mighI be some way Io measure how much Ihey were aecIing
Ihe nighI sky above Ihe park.''
Over Ihe nexI couple years Moore would connecI and collaboraIe wiIh
Richman and oIher Fark Rangers, proessional asIronomers, and dedicaIed nighI
figure 11.11 LighL from Lhe disLahL ciLies of CrowhpoihL ahd Callup, New Mexico,
illumihaLe clouds alohg Lhe horizoh beside la|ada 8uLLe ih Chaco CulLure NaLiohal
HisLorical lark. 1he ihhabiLahLs of Lhis parL of Lhe Colorado llaLeau have beeh observihg
Lhe sky for Lhousahds of years, buL ohly ih Lhe lasL 100 has arLificial illumihaLioh beguh Lo
alLer LhaL view (1. Nordgreh).
figure 11.12 Dah Duriscoe seLs up Lhe NighL Sky 1eam's auLomaLed camera sysLem oh
Hillmah leak wiLhih CraLer Lake NaLiohal lark durihg Lhe summer of 200. 1he camera is
aLLached Lo a CelesLroh Lelescope mouhL ahd Lripod ahd wheh commahded by a lapLop
compuLer auLomaLically phoLographs Lhe ehLire sky ih a series of 45 exposures (D.
Duriscoe).
sky enIhusiasIs all looking or Ihe same answers. Ferhaps Ihe Fark Ranger wiIh
Ihe mosI asIronomical experience was Dan Duriscoe, aI DeaIh Valley NaIional
Fark. He'd waIched Ihe disIanI casinos in Las Vegas slowly lighI up Ihe nighI in
one o Ihe mosI remoIe parIs o Ihe conIinenIal UniIed SIaIes. Since Ihe early
10s he'd been looking inIo dierenI ways Io phoIograph Ihe nighI sky Io
quanIiy Ihe eecIs o all IhaI lighI. AIer he and Moore joined orces in early
2000 Duriscoe came up wiIh a compuIer conIrolled digiIal camera IhaI could
phoIograph Ihe enIire nighI sky in a series o quick exposures. Moore was
impressed, ''He's really an asIronomical MacCyver when iI comes Io equip-
menI.''
TogeIher, Duriscoe and Moore perecIed Iheir auIomaIed sysIem or phoIo-
graphing Ihe ull hemisphere o sky over a parIicular locaIion. The Iwo
developed soIware rouIines IhaI rom Iheir daIa sysIemaIically calculaIe Ihe
dierenI amounIs and sources o lighI, boIh naIural and arIiicial. \iIh Ihe help
o asIronomer Chris Luginbuhl aI Ihe U.S. Naval ObservaIory in ElagsIa,
Arizona, Ihey calibraIed Iheir daIa so IhaI Ihe resulIs can be used by proessional
asIronomers, while also allowing Ihe general public Io ind ouI whaI can acIually
be seen overhead.
Today, members o Ihe NighI Sky Team Iravel Ihe counIry making
measuremenIs above Ihe naIion's parks and monumenIs. The equipmenI Ihey
use consisIs o a digiIal charge-coupled device (CCD) camera used by many
amaIeur asIronomers which is similar Io, buI ar more sensiIive Ihan, Ihe digiIal
cameras wielded by mosI park visiIors. The CCD camera body is mounIed Io a
regular Nikon S0mm }1.8 camera lens and Ihe enIire uniI is aIIached Io a
compuIer driven CelesIron Ielescope mounI. Using a lapIop compuIer, Ihe
rangers run a compuIer rouIine IhaI commands Ihe mounI Io poinI Ihe camera
and phoIograph Ihe enIire nighI sky in a series o 4S separaIe 26,26 degree
ields o view. Each exposure lasIs 12 seconds, and in less Ihan IwenIy ive
minuIes Ihey record Ihe enIire visible celesIial hemisphere. Moore and Duriscoe
figure 11.13 Chad Moore beside Lhe
NighL Sky 1eam's camera oh Lop of
MouhL WashihgLoh aL CreaL 8asih
NaLiohal lark ih easLerh Nevada (KaLe
Magargal).
Ihen sIiIch IogeIher Ihe 4S rames Io produce a single 'ish-eye' mosaic o Ihe
enIire sky showing whaI a Iypical park visiIor would see on a clear nighI.
Unlike commercial digiIal cameras IhaI make a ull color image by recording
lighI in Ihree colors (red, green and blue), Ihe sensiIive CCD camera records only
Ihe combined inIensiIy o all lighI alling on iI, Ihus producing a black and whiIe
image (acIually a grayscale) o Ihe nighI sky. By resIricIing whaI lighI reaches Ihe
CCD using whaI asIronomers call a Johnson V ilIer (a ilIer IhaI only leIs
Ihrough lighI in Ihe middle o Ihe visible parI o Ihe specIrum beIween
wavelengIhs o abouI S00 and 600 nm) Ihe NighI Sky Team resIricIs Iheir
measuremenIs Io only Ihe lighI mosI visible Io a person's dark-adapIed eye while
also insuring IhaI Ihe quanIiIies exIracIed rom Iheir daIa are in a sysIem in
widespread use by proessional asIronomers.
The brighIness o Ihe sky's dierenI eaIures are ound by irsI inding Ihe
average inIensiIy o lighI in small regions one degree on a side and spaced
regularly across Ihe sky. This meIhod produces S06 individual measures o Ihe
sky's brighIness in uniIs o magniIudes per square arcsecond.
3
To beIIer see
variaIions in Ihis sky brighIness, Ihey color code Ihese brighIness levels using a
rainbow color-map where black and purple represenI Ihe darkesI parIs o Ihe sky
while red and whiIe are Ihe brighIesI. The resulIing array o colors in each ull-
sky mosaic shows aI a single glance how brighI or dark Ihe view would be or an
average person and quickly allows comparison across Ihe range o naIional parks
and monumenIs.
To idenIiy Ihe brighIness and exIenI o arIiicial lighI domes, Iheir compuIer
rouIines look or regions where Ihe sky brighIness along Ihe horizon begins Io
exceed Iwice Ihe average sky brighIness levels in darker, unaecIed parIs o Ihe
mosaic. Erom repeaIed observaIions Ihey can precisely measure and moniIor
Ihese sources o arIiicial lighI noIing changes over days, monIhs and years.
3
AsIronomers use Ihe magniIude scale Io quanIiy Ihe brighIness o objecIs in space wiIh
increasing numbers counIer-inIuiIively meaning increasing dimness. Arcseconds, on Ihe
oIher hand, are a measure o disIance across Ihe sky IhaI is 1}3600Ih o a degree (or
comparison, Ihe ull Moon is hal a degree in diameIer).
figure 11.14 Nihe all-sky brighLhess mosaics made by Lhe NlS NighL Sky 1eam (for
each, NorLh is up ahd EasL is lefL Lo maLch Lhe view you have wheh lookihg up aL Lhe
sky). 1he cehLral image is of Lhe sky over Lhe SahLa Mohica MouhLaihs NaLiohal
kecreaLioh Area beLweeh Los Ahgeles ahd Malibu. 1his is a fairly Lypical represehLaLioh of
a suburbah sky. 1he sky above eighL oLher haLiohal parks ahd mohumehLs are showh for
comparisoh. NoLice LhaL while each is much darker, for all buL NaLural 8ridges NaLiohal
MohumehL, arLificial lighL domes from ciLies ahd Lowhs are visible alohg Lhe horizoh.
Movihg clockwise from upper lefL, Lhe mosL promihehL sources of ciLy lighLs ih each are:
8ar Harbor, ME, Lo horLh horLhwesL (Acadia Nl), Moab, 1, Lo souLh (Arches Nl), Los
Ahgeles, CA, alohg Lhe wesLerh horizoh (|oshua 1ree Nl), Old laiLhful visiLor area
Lowards horLh (ellowsLohe Nl), SacramehLo ahd Sah lrahcisco, CA, Lo wesL (osemiLe
Nl), hoLhihg buL haLural air-glow (NaLural 8ridges), SL. Ceorge, 1, Lo souLhwesL (8ryce
Cahyoh Nl), Las vegas, Nv, Lo easL ahd Los Ahgeles, CA, Lo souLh (DeaLh valley Nl) (D.
Duriscoe, C. Moore, NlS).
figure 11.15 1he Milky Way illumihaLes kaceLrack llaya ih DeaLh valley NaLiohal lark.
1he sky ahd foregrouhd were mosaicked usihg Lhe NlS NighL Sky 1eam camera (D.
Duriscoe ahd C. Duriscoe).
Duriscoe and his wie, Cindy, have even Iaken some o Ihe original ull-sky
mosaic phoIographs (beore brighInesses are averaged and colors are added) Io
consIrucI specIacular panoramic phoIographs o Ihe Milky \ay over Ihe naIion's
parks. They are absoluIely gorgeous works o arI and dramaIically illusIraIe Ihe
beauIy IhaI is Ihere or anyone Io see. In a single picIure Ihey capIure Ihe reason
Ihey have worked so hard Io preserve our sky aI nighI.
In addiIion Io making sky measuremenIs, members o Ihe NighI Sky Team
Iravel Ihe counIry working wiIh rangers aI local naIional parks and monumenIs
Io help reduce Ihe sources o lighI polluIion wiIhin Ihe park. As a member o Ihe
Ieam I have wiInessed Ihe build-up o anIicipaIion as rangers aI one park see Ihe
resulIs rom oIher parks and look wiIh anIicipaIion and some IrepidaIion or
when Moore and Duriscoe will be visiIing Ihem and measuring Ihe qualiIy o
Iheir skies.
O Ihe irsI several dozen parks Ihe Ieam visiIed, NaIural Bridges NaIional
MonumenI showed Ihe darkesI, mosI remarkable skies. According Io Duriscoe,
NaIural Bridges displayed Ihe only 'BorIle Class 2' sky o any park he had yeI
seen.
The BorIle classiicaIion scheme is a meIhod o raIing how dark a locaIion is
or naked-eye and Ielescopic sIargazing. TradiIionally, mosI asIronomers have
spoken o a locaIion's limiIing magniIude: Ihe ainIesI magniIude sIar IhaI a
person can see wiIh Ihe naked-eye. BuI Ihis is a highly diiculI quanIiIy Io
deIermine as iI depends on Ihe viewer's visual acuiIy, and how much Iime and
eorI is expended Io jusI barely Iease ouI IhaI very ainIesI sIar rom Ihe
background sky. In addiIion, or Ihose o us who do noI normally carry around a
Iable lisIing Ihe magniIudes o ainI sIars, we have no way o communicaIing Io
oIhers, or Io ourselves days, weeks or monIhs laIer jusI whaI Ihe magniIude was
o IhaI ainI no-name sIar we Ihink we barely made ouI while we were camping.
Eor Ihis reason and oIhers, John E. BorIle aI Sly anJ Tclcscopc Magazine used
his over S0 years o observing experience Io devise a scale IhaI was easier, more
pracIical, and o wider uIiliIy Io asIronomer and novices alike. This is Ihe scale as
he described iI in Sly anJ Tclcscopc (Eebruary 2001). Eor deiniIions o speciic
Ierms, see Ihe 'See or yoursel' secIion aI Ihe end o Ihis chapIer.
CIaxx 1: ExccIIcnt darR-xRy xtc. The zodiacal lighI, gegenschein,
and zodiacal band (S&T: OcIober 2000, page 116) are all visible - Ihe
zodiacal lighI Io a sIriking degree, and Ihe zodiacal band spanning Ihe
enIire sky. Even wiIh direcI vision, Ihe galaxy M33 is an obvious
naked-eye objecI. The Scorpius and SagiIIarius region o Ihe Milky
\ay casIs obvious diuse shadows on Ihe ground. To Ihe unaided eye
Ihe limiIing magniIude is 7.6 Io 8.0 (wiIh eorI), Ihe presence o
JupiIer or Venus in Ihe sky seems Io degrade dark adapIaIion. Airglow
(a very ainI, naIurally occurring glow mosI evidenI wiIhin abouI 1S.
o Ihe horizon) is readily apparenI. \iIh a 12.S-inch (32-cenIimeIer)
scope, sIars Io magniIude 17.S can be deIecIed wiIh eorI, while a 20-
inch (S0-cm) insIrumenI used wiIh moderaIe magniicaIion will reach
1Ih magniIude. I you are observing on a grass-covered ield bordered
by Irees, your Ielescope, companions, and vehicle are almosI IoIally
invisible. This is an observer's Nirvana!
CIaxx 2: TygcaI truIy darR xtc. Airglow may be weakly apparenI
along Ihe horizon. M33 is raIher easily seen wiIh direcI vision. The
summer Milky \ay is highly sIrucIured Io Ihe unaided eye, and iIs
brighIesI parIs look like veined marble when viewed wiIh ordinary
binoculars. The zodiacal lighI is sIill brighI enough Io casI weak
shadows jusI beore dawn and aIer dusk, and iIs color can be seen as
disIincIly yellowish when compared wiIh Ihe blue-whiIe o Ihe Milky
\ay. Any clouds in Ihe sky are visible only as dark holes or voids in
Ihe sIarry background. You can see your Ielescope and surroundings
only vaguely, excepI where Ihey projecI againsI Ihe sky. Many o Ihe
Messier globular clusIers are disIincI naked-eye objecIs. The limiIing
naked-eye magniIude is as ainI as 7.1 Io 7.S, while a 12.S-inch
Ielescope reaches Io magniIude 16 or 17.
CIaxx 3: RuraI xRy. Some indicaIion o lighI polluIion is evidenI
along Ihe horizon. Clouds may appear ainIly illuminaIed in Ihe
brighIesI parIs o Ihe sky near Ihe horizon buI are dark overhead. The
Milky \ay sIill appears complex, and globular clusIers such as M4,
MS, M1S, and M22 are all disIincI naked-eye objecIs. M33 is easy Io
see wiIh averIed vision. The zodiacal lighI is sIriking in spring and
auIumn (when iI exIends 60. above Ihe horizon aIer dusk and beore
dawn) and iIs color is aI leasI weakly indicaIed. Your Ielescope is
vaguely apparenI aI a disIance o 20 or 30 eeI (10 meIers). The naked-
eye limiIing magniIude is 6.6 Io 7.0, and a 12.S-inch relecIor will
reach Io 16Ih magniIude.
CIaxx 4: RuraI/xuburban tranxton. Eairly obvious lighI-pollu-
Iion domes are apparenI over populaIion cenIers in several direcIions.
figure 11.1 1he zodiacal lighL is visible
beheaLh Lhe glow of Lhe Milky Way |usL
Lo Lhe righL of 8alahced kock ih Arches
NaLiohal lark. 1he lleiades is Lhe small
brighL paLch wiLhih Lhe yellowish
Lriahgular bahd of ihLerplaheLary dusL
scaLLerihg suhlighL. lf aL firsL you doh'L
see iL, hold Lhe picLure aL arm's lehgLh
ahd iL will sLahd ouL more (1.
Nordgreh).
The zodiacal lighI is clearly evidenI buI doesn'I even exIend halway
Io Ihe zeniIh aI Ihe beginning or end o IwilighI. The Milky \ay well
above Ihe horizon is sIill impressive buI lacks all buI Ihe mosI obvious
sIrucIure. M33 is a diiculI averIed-vision objecI and is deIecIable
only when aI an alIiIude higher Ihan S0.. Clouds in Ihe direcIion o
lighI-polluIion sources are illuminaIed buI only slighIly so, and are
sIill dark overhead. You can make ouI your Ielescope raIher clearly aI a
disIance. The maximum naked-eye limiIing magniIude is 6.1 Io 6.S,
and a 12.S-inch relecIor used wiIh moderaIe magniicaIion will reveal
sIars o magniIude 1S.S.
CIaxx 5: Suburban xRy. Only hinIs o Ihe zodiacal lighI are seen on
Ihe besI spring and auIumn nighIs. The Milky \ay is very weak or
invisible near Ihe horizon and looks raIher washed ouI overhead.
LighI sources are evidenI in mosI i noI all direcIions. Over mosI or all
o Ihe sky, clouds are quiIe noIiceably brighIer Ihan Ihe sky iIsel. The
naked-eye limiI is around S.6 Io 6.0, and a 12.S-inch relecIor will
reach abouI magniIude 14.S Io 1S.
CIaxx : Brght xuburban xRy. No Irace o Ihe zodiacal lighI can be
seen, even on Ihe besI nighIs. Any indicaIions o Ihe Milky \ay are
apparenI only Ioward Ihe zeniIh. The sky wiIhin 3S. o Ihe horizon
glows grayish whiIe. Clouds anywhere in Ihe sky appear airly brighI.
You have no Irouble seeing eyepieces and Ielescope accessories on an
observing Iable. M33 is impossible Io see wiIhouI binoculars, and M31
is only modesIly apparenI Io Ihe unaided eye. The naked-eye limiI is
abouI S.S, and a 12.S-inch Ielescope used aI moderaIe powers will
show sIars aI magniIude 14.0 Io 14.S.
CIaxx 7: Suburban/urban tranxton. The enIire sky background
has a vague, grayish whiIe hue. SIrong lighI sources are evidenI in all
direcIions. The Milky \ay is IoIally invisible or nearly so. M44 or M31
may be glimpsed wiIh Ihe unaided eye buI are very indisIincI. Clouds
are brillianIly liI. Even in moderaIe-size Ielescopes, Ihe brighIesI
Messier objecIs are pale ghosIs o Iheir Irue selves. The naked-eye
limiIing magniIude is S.0 i you really Iry, and a 12.S-inch relecIor
will barely reach 14Ih magniIude.
CIaxx 8: Cty xRy. The sky glows whiIish gray or orangish, and you can
read newspaper headlines wiIhouI diiculIy. M31 and M44 may be
barely glimpsed by an experienced observer on good nighIs, and only
Ihe brighI Messier objecIs are deIecIable wiIh a modesI-size Ielescope.
Some o Ihe sIars making up Ihe amiliar consIellaIion paIIerns are
diiculI Io see or are absenI enIirely. The naked eye can pick ouI sIars
down Io magniIude 4.S aI besI, i you know jusI where Io look, and Ihe
sIellar limiI or a 12.S-inch relecIor is liIIle beIIer Ihan magniIude 13.
CIaxx 9: 1nncr-cty xRy. The enIire sky is brighIly liI, even aI Ihe
zeniIh. Many sIars making up amiliar consIellaIion igures are
invisible, and dim consIellaIions such as Cancer and Fisces are noI
seen aI all. Aside rom perhaps Ihe Fleiades, no Messier objecIs are
visible Io Ihe unaided eye. The only celesIial objecIs IhaI really
provide pleasing Ielescopic views are Ihe Moon, Ihe planeIs, and a ew
o Ihe brighIesI sIar clusIers (i you can ind Ihem). The naked-eye
limiIing magniIude is 4.0 or less.
Back home in Redlands, Caliornia, 60 miles (100 km) easI o Los Angeles, I live
under skies IhaI are BorIle Class 8 aI besI. JusI Ihink abouI Ihe magniIude o
wasIed lighI IhaI implies. CiIy lighIs rom SouIhern Caliornia's suburban sprawl
are so pervasive IhaI Io reach even BorIle class 4 or S requires me Io drive an
addiIional 0 miles (1S0 km) away rom L.A.
Now consider Ihe map o UIah's lighI polluIion. Erom even a narrowly
conined urban cenIer like SalI Lake CiIy (populaIion 180,000), iI's aI leasI 100
miles (160 km) souIhwesI as Ihe crow lies across sparsely inhabiIed deserI and
salI laIs beore one has a hope o reaching unspoiled skies o even BorIle class 2.
BuI Io geI Io such a place requires leaving Ihe inIersIaIes. So pervasive is our
Iechnology IhaI our lighI ixIures have ollowed along behind us on Ihese
IransporIaIion arIeries, billboards adverIising asI ood and gas sIaIions now lighI
up Ihe nighI wherever we go. To geI away rom Ihis glow alIogeIher and see
BorIle's ''observer's Nirvana'' I would need Io ind Ihe road less Iraveled, and one
way or anoIher I was deIermined Io do iI.
NaIural Bridges siIs in Ihe cenIer o souIhern UIah's greaIesI dark, sIarry
expanse.
4
Here, red rock blus conIrasI wiIh pinyon's green, while boIh rise above
meandering sandsIone canyons o yellow, bu, and peach sandsIone. \iIhin Ihe
4
According Io Duriscoe, Ihe only reason NaIural Bridges was BorIle class 2 insIead o 1, was
because o Ihe presence o a Ihin, smoky haze rom disIanI ires. This raises an imporIanI
poinI I am all Ioo amiliar wiIh in my smoggy souIhern Caliornia home: Ihe qualiIy o Ihe
nighI sky depends on boIh Ihe darkness o your locaIion and Ihe clariIy o your air. The more
'sIu' is in your air, Ihe more iI will scaIIer any upward poinIing illuminaIion: air polluIion
only makes lighI polluIion worse.
canyon's overhanging walls, layers
ormed rom alIernaIing ossil sand
dunes creaIe cool alcoves and spec-
Iacular visIas. Fine Irees grow Iall
wiIhin Ihe canyon's shade and Ihe
meandering channel's loor is illed
wiIh Ihe brighI green o coIIon-
woods. RelecIed in pools o early
summer waIer, Ihe sandsIone
bridges IhaI give Ihe monumenI
iIs name sIand brighI againsI Ihe
pure blue sky.
In April 2007 NaIural Bridges
NaIional MonumenI was declared
Ihe world's irsI InIernaIional
Dark-Sky Fark based in parI on
Ihe sIunning nighI sky measure-
menIs IhaI Moore, Duriscoe, and
Richman had made during Iheir
survey o parks. InIersIaIe reeways
are absenI here in Red Rock coun-
Iry and Iowns are inrequenI.
Much o Ihe building boom IhaI
swepI Ihe resI o Ihe U.S. leI Ihis
sIunningly beauIiul area rela-
Iively unaecIed. Erom overlooks
along Ihe monumenI's single loop
road, a sIargazer aI nighI can look
ouI and see hardly any sign o
modern civilizaIion. In Ihe all-sky mosaic Duriscoe made rom beside Ihe road,
Ihe brighIesI objecI anywhere is noI Ihe lighI dome o a Iown along Ihe horizon,
buI Ihe cenIer o our Milky \ay Calaxy overhead.
Eor Iwo nighIs I explored Ihe monumenI's canyons and bridges by Ihe lighI o
a Ihin crescenI Moon. My irsI nighI Ihere clouds covered Ihe sky jusI as Ihe
Moon was seIIing and Ihe sky had begun Io geI dark. BuI on Ihe second nighI, I
was rewarded wiIh a sighI o my galaxy IhaI I will never orgeI, as I saw wiIh my
own eyes all Ihe dark dusI lanes and eaIures IhaI unIil Ihen I had seen only in
phoIographs. I had never seen a sky so breaIhIaking and I was jealous o Ihose
who lived under such sighIs every nighI.
The park sIa who call Ihis visual wonderland home live in a small
communiIy o pre-abricaIed buildings arranged ouI back o Ihe visiIor cenIer.
Here, kiIchen windows look ouI onIo Ierra-coIIa hills and cool blue-green
woodlands o pinyon and juniper. As I walk up Io Ihe superinIendenI's house Io
Ialk abouI her park's dark sky sIaIus, I cannoI help buI marvel aI Ihis cool,
peaceul oasis compared wiIh my home ouIside Los Angeles.
figure 11.17 Map of Lah's lighL polluLioh
showihg haLiohal parks ahd mohumehL
bouhdaries. Several are locaLed ih Lhe large dark
regioh ih souLh-cehLral Lah (1. Nordgreh, D.
Duriscoe, NlS, afLer l. Cihzaho, l. lalchi ahd C. D.
Elvidge (2000) World ALlas of ArLificial Sky
8righLhess, Mcnthly Nctices cf the kcycl
Astrcncmiccl 5cciety, 318, 41-57).
figure 11.18 1he cehLer of our Calaxy rises beheaLh Owachomo 8ridge ih NaLural
8ridges NaLiohal MohumehL. All of Lhis deLail ih Lhe Milky Way was visible Lo Lhe haked
eye afLer ah hour's dark adapLaLioh (1. Nordgreh).
SiIIing aI her kiIchen Iable wiIh her dog \ookie, SuperinIendenI Corky Hayes
Iells me IhaI being designaIed Ihe irsI InIernaIional Dark-Sky Fark is a relecIion
o more Ihan whaI Ihe park happens Io have by virIue o iIs geography, iI is also
an acknowledgmenI o whaI Ihey have chosen Io do wiIh iI. AI nighI Fark
Rangers oer asIronomy programs Io explain whaI is special abouI Iheir dark sky
and by day Ihey demonsIraIe a commiImenI Io preserving Ihose skies by
replacing old lighI ixIures wiIh Ihose IhaI shine only downwards. ''\e also
sIarIed Io swiIch over Io phoIovolIaic cells, solar panels, or elecIriciIy. These
cells are so much quieIer Ihan whaI we had beore IhaI aI nighI under Ihe sIars
Ihe silence is deaening. \iIh Ihe combinaIion o naIural nighIIime viewscapes
and soundscapes you can almosI imagine yoursel back in Iime when Ihe irsI
humans seIIled here nearly Ien Ihousand years ago.''
\hile aI Ihe Iime we spoke iI was Ioo early Io Iell i Ihe new designaIion had
had any appreciable eecI on Ihe level o visiIaIion, Hayes did say Ihere had been
noIiceable changes. ''I receive phone calls rom people inIeresIed abouI Ihe dark
sky designaIion and we geI people now who have decided Io sIay longer Ihan
Ihey would have. Those who mighI have jusI driven in and spenI only an
aIernoon insIead sIop now and spend Ihe nighI. The nighI sky is a eaIure Ihey
have added Io Iheir plans, I'm hearing a loI more enIhusiasm.''
The nighI sky has Ihis eecI on people. Two hundred miles (320 km) Io Ihe
souIhwesI, Ihe Iown o ElagsIa, Arizona (populaIion 60,000) was declared Ihe
irsI InIernaIional Dark-Sky CiIy as a resulI o local eorIs Io reduce upward
shining lighIs IhaI go back all Ihe way Io 1S8. \iIh boIh Lowell ObservaIory
and Ihe U.S. Naval ObservaIory wiIhin and jusI ouIside Ihe ciIy limiIs (as well as
figure 11.19 1he effecLivehess of llagsLaff, AZ lighLihg is revealed ih Lhese park service
measuremehLs. Oh Lhe righL is a highL sky measuremehL made ih WalhuL Cahyoh
NaLiohal MohumehL immediaLely ouLside Lhe llagsLaff ciLy limiLs (populaLioh 0,000).
Oh Lhe lefL is a highL sky measuremehL made ih Colorado NaLiohal MohumehL,
immediaLely ouLside Lhe similar sized ciLy of Crahd |uhcLioh, CO. llagsLaff has a vigorous
lighLihg ordihahce, Crahd |uhcLioh does hoL. lrom Dah Duriscoe's observihg hoLes for
WalhuL Cahyoh: ''Sky Lo zehiLh ahd easL quiLe dark, loLs of deLail ih Milky Way, faihL sLars
easy Lo see. LighL domes of lhoehix [125 miles Lo souLhj ahd llagsLaff [10 miles Lo wesL,
righLj separaLed from here, llagsLaff brighLer buL hoL much. . .. Cohsiderihg Lhe
proximiLy Lo Lowh, ah excellehL sky'' (C. Moore, D. Duriscoe).
Ihe U.S. Ceological Survey AsIrogeology Branch and NorIhern Arizona
UniversiIy) Ihere are probably more asIronomers per capiIa here Ihan any oIher
ciIy in Ihe world. Thanks Io ElagsIa's ciIy ordinance requiring ully-shielded
lighIing and limiIs on Ihe overall luminosiIy o remaining lighIs (Ihe irsI such
ordinance in Ihe counIry) Ihe ciIy produces 23% less lighI visible in saIelliIe
images Ihan IhaI produced by oIher comparably sized ciIies. As a resulI, Lowell
ObservaIory's evening programs IhaI allow visiIors Io look aI Ihe sky Ihrough Ihe
Ielescope Fercival Lowell irsI used Io map Ihe 'canals' o Mars are a major IourisI
aIIracIion or Ihe ciIy. And even i you never make iI up Io Ihe observaIory,
anyone sIanding on a downIown sIreeI corner o ElagsIa's neon-liI RouIe 66 can
sIill look up and see Ihe Milky \ay arching overhead.
OIher communiIies around Ihe counIry, looking Io preserve Iheir view o Ihe
sky or proessionals and Ihe public, have ollowed ElagsIa's lead. Tucson,
Arizona, home Io Ihe KiII Feak NaIional ObservaIory, has had sIricI lighIing
ordinances in place since 172. In 2008 Ihe Iown o Bar Harbor, Maine (on
MounI DeserI Island where Acadia NaIional Fark is locaIed) passed a lighIing
ordinance Io proIecI Iheir rare dark skies along Ihe brighIly liI easIern seaboard.
A year laIer, communiIies all over MounI DeserI Island hosIed Iheir irsI annual
Acadia NighI Sky EesIival Io demonsIraIe Io local businesses IhaI Ihe sky can be
an eecIive IourisI draw in addiIion Io Ihe more IradiIional sea and lobsIers.
Ferhaps mosI sweeping o all, Ihe New Mexico HeriIage FreservaIion Alliance
(NMHFA) declared Ihe New Mexico
NighI Sky one o Ihe sIaIe's mosI
endangered culIural resources,
prompIing sIaIe legislaIors Io pass a
law proIecIing Ihis resource or uIure
generaIions. FeIer Lipscomb in SanIa
Ee, New Mexico, is DirecIor o Ihe
NighI Sky Frogram or Ihe NMHFA.
He works wiIh businesses and local
communiIies helping educaIe Ihem
on whaI Ihey can do Io meeI Ihe
requiremenIs o New Mexico's law
reducing wasIed lighI and preserving
Ihe sky. In addiIion, he and Angie
Richman worked on a sIaIe-wide
iniIiaIive Io inIroduce simple amaIeur
observaIories inIo sIaIe parks or Ihe
beneiI o Ihe local communiIies.
Lipscomb explains, ''Our hope is IhaI
in addiIion Io Ihe simple enjoymenI Ihese observaIories bring, local commu-
niIies will see Ihem as an engine o economic growIh by giving visiIors Io Ihese
parks a reason Io sIop and spend Ihe nighI.'' As a predominanIly rural sIaIe wiIh
aI leasI a millennium-long IradiIion o asIronomy among Ihe local pueblo
communiIies, Lipscomb says IhaI ''preserving Ihe dark sky is abouI more Ihan
jusI asIronomy, iI's abouI preserving our hisIorical, culIural, arIisIic, and spiriIual
idenIiIy.''
BuI while no sIaIe, ciIy, or Iown wiIh dark-sky lighIing ordinances in place has
ever reporIed an increase in crime or vandalism as a resulI, Lipscomb Iells me
IhaI business owners wiIh which he works oIen voice concern and relucIance,
''As a resulI we risk losing our heriIage overhead because Ihe amusemenI park,
Ihe warehouse, or Ihe car dealership IhaI has already closed or Ihe nighI has leI
iIs lighIs on or adverIising and 'saeIy.''' And IhaI is Ihe Irade-o we have been
Iold we musI make by elecIric companies, urban planners and archiIecIs: saeIy
or Ihe sIars. An archiIecI wiIh whom I once worked, designed an asIronomy deck
or my universiIy, and Ihen surrounded iI wiIh IhirIy high-powered, poorly
shielded lamps IhaI made iI Ihe brighIesI spoI on campus and bloIIed ouI hal
Ihe sIars IhaI once were visible. \hen I poinIed ouI Ihe problem he asked,
''Don'I you wanI your sIudenIs Io be sae7 Besides whaI do asIronomers need Io
see Ihe sIars or any more, isn'I IhaI why you have Ihe Hubble Space Telescope7''
\e all wanI Io be sae. Erom beore Ihe dawn o human hisIory Ihe dark nighI
has been a scary place ull o animals ar bigger and nasIier Ihan we. Any small
Iribe o early humans who did noI have a healIhy ear o Ihe dark, and did whaI
Ihey could Io lighI up Ihe darkness wiIh Iorches and camp ires (Ihe only orm o
urban lighIing or Ihe vasI majoriIy o human hisIory) did noI lasI long enough
Io creaIe uIure generaIions o sIargazers. Today, in addiIion Io warding o wild
figure 11.20 NighL oh lsle Au HauL, parL of
Acadia NaLiohal lark ih Maihe. 1hese are
perhaps Lhe darkesL skies ahywhere oh Lhe easL
coasL, disLahL ciLy lighLs reflecL off Lhe
uhdersides of clouds (1. Nordgreh).
Ihings in Ihe nighI, urban lighIing helps us ind Ihe door wiIh our keys, iI Iells us
where curbs and pedesIrians are when we are driving, and iI helps us ind IhaI
lasI moIel IhaI's open or Ihe nighI. Eor all o Ihese siIuaIions, however, Ihe place
we need illuminaIion is on Ihe ground. FedesIrians are walking by on Ihe sIreeI,
Ihey are noI swooping in rom Ihe sky. FoIenIial villains are lurking behind
bushes and down alleyways, Ihey are noI dropping in rom roo Iops and Ihird
sIory windows. And cusIomers or businesses are, wiIh very ew excepIions,
walking or driving by on Ihe sIreeI, noI lying overhead in personal airplanes. \e
need lighI aI nighI, buI we need iI on Ihe ground.
Consider a bare lighI bulb poinIing upward on a lamp posI. Turn iI on and
abouI 40% o Ihe bulb's lighI shines downwards where iI illuminaIes sIreeI
corners and crosswalks. An addiIional 10% shines horizonIally in all direcIions
and inIo our eyes Io creaIe IhaI oIher orm o lighI polluIion called glare. This
lighI is IoIally counIerproducIive as iI renders us parIly blind Io whaI may exisI
behind iI or in shadows as our eyes are compleIely overwhelmed.
S
The remaining
S0% o Ihe bare lighI bulb shines upwards above Ihe horizon. This is Ihe lighI
IhaI does noIhing buI creaIe sky glow and lighI up spacecraI. BuI you pay or
every kilowaII o elecIriciIy needed Io produce iI, and Ihe climaIe pays or every
Ion o coal burned Io run Ihe power planI needed Io generaIe IhaI elecIriciIy.
EsIimaIes are IhaI a single 100 waII incandescenI bulb can consume 7S0
pounds o coal and emiI 2000 pounds o carbon dioxide in one year. Imagine i
hal Ihe lighI and hal Ihe energy could be
redirecIed Iowards where iI is needed Ihus
requiring only hal as many bulbs. Conserva-
Iive calculaIions show Ihe U.S. could save $2
billion a year by reducing Ihis wasIed lighI-
ing.
BuI even i energy were cheap Ihere would
sIill be reasons Io improve how we use
lighIing. Sure, as an asIronomer I'll always
figure 11.21 Ohly 40% of Lhe lighL from a Lypical
decoraLive sLreeL lamp goes Lo illumihaLihg Lhe
sidewalk ahd sLreeL where Lhe public heeds lighL for
safeLy. lL is esLimaLed Lhe .S. wasLes $2~5 billioh a
year Lhrough Lhis Lype of uhhecessary lighL ahd
elecLriciLy (1. Nordgreh).
S
Driving aI nighI Ihrough Crand TeIon NaIional Fark, Ihe only Iime I ever hiI an elk was when
a Iruck driving Iowards me wiIh iIs high-beam lighIs on hid Ihe silhoueIIe o a small elk herd
in iIs overwhelming glare. AbsenI Ihe Iruck's overwhelming lighIs, my eyes would have easily
picked ouI Iheir shapes.
wanI darker skies, buI i all IhaI was aecIed were asIronomers and asIronomy
enIhusiasIs, Ihis would be a non-issue, Ihere jusI aren'I IhaI many o us in a
world wiIh oIher problems. BuI lighI polluIion aecIs more Ihan jusI us. As jusI
one example, consider how our lighIing aecIs Ihe non-human inhabiIanIs
around us. Many animals on Ihis planeI have evolved Io Iake advanIage o Ihe
darkness Io migraIe, breed, or orage. In Ihe lasI ew decades our ciIy lighIs have
creaIed a sky as brighI as Ihe ull Moon over much o Ihe indusIrial world.
NocIurnal birds have Iheir daily lie cycles disrupIed, become visually disIracIed,
and disorienIed when migraIing. The non-proiI EaIal LighI Awareness Frogram
(ELAF) in ToronIo, Canada esIimaIes IhaI o Ihe 100 million birds killed over
NorIh America each year as a resulI o collisions wiIh man-made sIrucIures,
arIiicial lighIing aI nighI IhaI blinds and disorienIs birds is a leading cause.
OuIside Falm Beach, on Elorida's AIlanIic coasI, sea IurIles who haIch on
sandy beaches by Ihe lighI o a ull Moon rising ouI Io sea, possess herediIary
Iraining IhaI says go Io Ihe lighI Io reach Ihe ocean's saeIy. Sadly, many are now
inding IhaI Ihe brighIesI lighI is acIually Ihe local resorI complex on Ihe oIher
side o Ihe busy inIersIaIe. So or Ihose o us who wouldn'I dream o bulldozing a
oresI or draining a weIland we are desIroying wildlie habiIaI jusI as surely as i
we were paving iI over wiIh asphalI.
Look again aI Ihe map o Ihe world aI nighI. Each and every one o Ihose
lighIs burns or virIually every hour o every nighI o every year. And each year
new lighIs are added so Ihe maps are already ouI o daIe. Every single phoIon o
lighI you see is wasIed lighI, wasIed elecIriciIy, wasIed money, wasIed power
generaIion, wasIed resources, and ulIimaIely a wasIed planeI.
The InIernaIional Dark-Sky AssociaIion (www.darksky.org) is a non-proiI
organizaIion dedicaIed Io increasing awareness o Ihis problem and providing
soluIions or everyone rom individual homeowners Io enIire communiIies
looking or ways Io address Ihis wasIe. As iI Iurns ouI, Ihe soluIion is Irivial: a
simple lighI ixIure, or a new shade on an exisIing lighI ixIure IhaI hangs jusI ar
enough below Ihe lighI source (or any oIher relecIing surace wiIhin Ihe lighI).
The neI resulI is IhaI when looking down rom above no parI o Ihe lighI source
can be seen. Such a shade is called 'ully shielded,' or a 'ull-cuIo' shade, and
eliminaIes Ihe source o lighI polluIion in all o iIs orms.
In addiIion, you save more Ihan jusI Ihe nighI i you use a shade IhaI's
relecIive or painIed whiIe inside. Eor Ihis Iype o shade, nearly all Ihe lighI IhaI
used Io go Io wasIe shining upwards, is insIead relecIed downward where iI's
acIually needed. I, however, you don'I need double Ihe inIensiIy downward,
Ihen you can replace Ihe old lighI bulb wiIh one IhaI is hal Ihe waIIage, saving
energy and money. \haI's more, i you've been using a normal incandescenI
bulb IhaI produces jusI as much heaI as lighI, you can replace IhaI bulb wiIh an
even lower waIIage compacI luorescenI bulb IhaI produces almosI no wasIed
heaI and so is much more energy eicienI Io begin wiIh.
Replacing a lighI bulb is also Ihe perecI opporIuniIy Io ask yoursel, ''How
brighI do I really need Ihis lighI Io be7'' The human eye doesn'I work Ihe same
way in darkness as iI does in lighI. Our eyes adjusI Io Ihe brighIesI lighI source
around. AI nighI when our eyes adapI Io a super-brighI loodlighI, everyIhing
ouIside iIs reach becomes even darker. Our eorIs Io creaIe more lighI acIually
produce even inkier darkness. Conversely, lower waIIage lighIs produce less
glare, less conIrasI wiIh Ihe darkness, and allow our eyes Io beIIer adapI Io Ihe
nighI and, counIer-inIuiIively, acIually see more.
LasIly, Iaking Ihe Iime Io insIall a new bulb or shade is also Ihe Iime Io ask
yoursel, ''\hen do I need Ihis lighI7'' I saeIy is your concern, consider puIIing
Ihe lighI on a moIion sensor so IhaI lighI only appears when you, or a sIranger,
approach. A lighI IhaI comes on aI a prowler's movemenI, be iI a Ihie on Iwo
legs or an animal on our, is ar more eecIive Ihan a single consIanI lighI casIing
dark shadows all nighI.
Through Ihe use o ully shielded lighIs, a lower waIIage lighI bulb, and a
moIion sensor Irigger, you puI exacIly as much lighI as you need or saeIy,
exacIly where you wanI iI, exacIly when you need iI, while also saving elecIriciIy,
money, energy resources, and Ihe nighI sky. \iIh a simple ix, you achieve a
win, win, win, win, win siIuaIion.
Such a soluIion, while simple is noI always easy. Co inIo mosI big-chain
home-sIores and you are hard pressed Io ind any lighI ixIures IhaI meeI Ihis
sIandard (a simple on-line search o one reIailer Iurns up 300 sIyles o ouIdoor
wall lighIs, buI only our IhaI are ully shielded). BuI as energy prices conIinue Io
climb and people become more 'green' conscious in Iheir purchases, Ihis will
likely change. Eor Ihe Iime being Ihe InIernaIional Dark-Sky AssociaIion oers a
buying guide and lisI o companies who manuacIure Ihese ixIures on Iheir
websiIe.
BuI even i saving a ew dollars while saving Ihe environmenI sIill isn'I reason
enough, I am broughI back Io Ihe archiIecI I worked wiIh who is ouI Ihere as you
figure 11.22 Examples of good ahd bad
sLreeL lighLihg. Oh Lhe lefL, a lighL bulb is
ehcased ih a Lypical globe lamp LhaL Lhrows
lighL ih all direcLiohs excepL sLraighL dowh.
SLars above are drowhed ouL while sLrahgers
beheaLh are kepL ih dark shadows. Oh Lhe
righL, Lhe same lighL bulb (dashed circle) is
surrouhded by a full cuL-off shade LhaL allows
lighL ohly ouL Lhe boLLom. 1he sLars are
revealed above, while friehds are revealed
below (1. Nordgreh).
figure 11.23 8ad ahd good house lamps
illusLraLe Lhe differehces ih lighLihg. Oh Lhe
lefL, we see harsh glare ahd upward-shihihg
wasLed lighL. Oh Lhe righL, lighL is placed
exacLly where iL is heeded (Chris Lugihbuhl).
read Ihis sIill designing more buildings and ouIdoor lighIing. \hy should he
care i we can'I see Ihe sIars7 As iI Iurns ouI, all lie on EarIh could depend on iI.
SixIy-ive million years ago Ihe dinosaurs and Ihree quarIers o all planI and
animal species on EarIh were wiped ouI when an asIeroid hiI Ihe YucaIan
Feninsula. Today mosI new asIeroids and comeIs are ound by amaIeurs and
proessional asIronomers using small Ielescopes here on EarIh. Many o Ihese
objecIs cross paIhs wiIh Ihe EarIh's orbiI, and wiIh every year more are ound
IhaI come dangerously close. \hile some o Ihe known objecIs are worrisome,
iI's Ihe currenIly unknown ones IhaI are Iroubling.
\hen Ihe day comes IhaI one is ound on a collision course, whaI we do abouI
iI depends on how ar ouI Ihe asIeroid or comeI is. Eind iI when iI is ar enough
away Io appear as noIhing more Ihan a ainI doI or smudge againsI a dark sIarry
sky, and Ihe opIions are many. In Ihis case, Iime and orbiIal dynamics work Io
our advanIage: deliver a small nudge when Ihere is plenIy o Iime or IrajecIories
Io diverge and Ihe crisis is averIed. However, i we are unable Io see a IhreaIening
asIeroid unIil iI's close enough Io be unmisIakable againsI a brighI, lighI-illed
sky, Ihen Ihe opIions may be none.
This may sound like a ar-eIched worry, buI Ihe EarIh has been hiI many
Iimes in iIs pasI - jusI look aI our nexI-door neighbor Ihe Moon and Ihe resI o
our neighboring planeIs. In 14 JupiIer was sIruck by a chain o small comeIs,
Ihe broken pieces o a comeIary near-miss on a previous orbiI. Over Ihe course o
a week, every Ielescope on EarIh waIched as one piece aIer anoIher plunged inIo
iIs aImosphere wiIh such orce IhaI garganIuan ireballs blasIed Ihe cloud Iops
figure 11.24 LighL shihes upward Lo
illumihaLe Lhe uhdersides of a roof oh a
Lypical college campus. hless sLudehLs are
worried abouL aLLacks from large baLs, Lhis
lighL ahd Lhe elecLriciLy iL uses is uLLer wasLe
(1. Nordgreh).
figure 11.25 1he NaLiohal lark Service has
beguh reLrofiLLihg iLs lighL fixLures Lo be more
highL sky friehdly ahd ehergy efficiehL. AL Clacier
NaLiohal lark (lefL) Lhis lamp shade ouLside Lake
McDohald Lodge comes dowh below Lhe level
of Lhe lighL bulb. 1he ohly lighL LhaL escapes
shihes below Lhe horizoh. AL Lake ellowsLohe
HoLel (righL), park sLaff desighed lamps LhaL
mimic hisLorical feaLures, buL have Lhe bulb
placed aL Lhe Lop of Lhe fixLure so Lhe ohly lighL
Lhey emiL shihes dowhward (1. Nordgreh).
wiIh greaI gaseous sIains IhaI lin-
gered in Ihe Jovian skies or monIhs.
Each impacI's scar was larger Ihan
our enIire planeI. So Ihe quesIion is
noI a maIIer o i, buI when.
6
And yes, Ihe Hubble Space Tele-
scope is noI aecIed by lighI pollu-
Iion, buI Ihere are maybe a hundred
proessional Ielescopes on EarIh, and
many hundreds i noI Ihousands o
amaIeurs wiIh Ielescopes as well. BuI
Ihere's only one Hubble, and IhaI's
because space Ielescopes are expen-
sive. Erom design, Ihrough consIruc-
Iion, Io launch and all iIs servicing
missions, Ihe Hubble Space Tele-
scope has cosI abouI $10 billion as
o 200. This is S0 Iimes more
expensive Ihan Ihe Iwin Keck Iele-
scopes in Hawaii, Ihe largesI Iele-
scopes in Ihe world. Space Ielescopes
are an exIraordinarily expensive
underIaking, one IhaI we asIrono-
mers cannoI expecI Ihe public Io und wiIh Iheir Iax dollars orever.
YeI we have been lucky. \hen a previous NASA adminisIraIor was willing
Io leI Hubble die in space because he had decided iI was Ioo risky Io service
wiIh new power packs and beIIer cameras, Ihe public spoke ouI in unison Io
Ihe conIrary. Because o iIs awe-inspiring images o everyIhing rom nearby
Mars Io galaxies on Ihe edge o Ihe Universe, Hubble has become Ihe Feople's
Space Telescope. Hubble has conIribuIed someIhing posiIive Io Ihe naIional
psyche.
BuI how long will IhaI enIhusiasm conIinue, noI jusI or Ihis Ielescope buI or
all uIure asIronomical exploraIion, when Ihe lasI sIar winks ouI in Ihe urban
glow and Ihe public no longer has even a passing personal connecIion Io Ihese
heavenly wonders7 Ferhaps Ihe images rom space probes and space Ielescopes
will become all Ihe more precious Io people as Ihey recognize IhaI only Ihrough
6
A second comeI appears Io have hiI JupiIer in Ihe summer o 200. This Iime Ihere was no
warning and no one saw Ihe impacI. BuI a lone amaIeur wiIh a backyard Ielescope in
AusIralia did happen Io phoIograph Ihe aIermaIh as a dark sIain o gasses spread ouI across
Ihe planeI's cloud-Iops. Only once news o his discovery spread Ihrough Ihe asIronomical
communiIy could Ihe world's big observaIories Iurn Iheir Ielescopes Iowards JupiIer Io
discover whaI had happened. The harder we make iI or backyard asIronomers like Ihis one,
Ihe greaIer Ihe risk Io ourselves.
figure 11.2 AfLer AusLraliah amaLeur
asLrohomer AhLhohy Wesley discovered a dark
spoL oh |upiLer's cloud Lops, Lhe Hubble Space
1elescope was able Lo follow up wiLh Lhese
high-resoluLioh images of dark gasses
sLreamihg away from ah uhseeh comeL impacL
siLe. lor comparisoh, Lhe EarLh is ohly 8,000
miles (12,800 km) ih diameLer (NASA, ESA, H.
Hammel (Space Sciehce lhsLiLuLe, 8oulder,
Co.), ahd Lhe |upiLer lmpacL 1eam).
figure 11.27 1he Hubble Space 1elescope
is deployed from Lhe cargo bay of Lhe Space
ShuLLle Discovery oh April 25, 10. AfLer
hearly 20 years of operaLioh Hubble has
become Lhe mosL famous Lelescope ever
builL ahd earhed Lhe hame '1he leople's
1elescope.' (NASA}SmiLhsohiah lhsLiLuLioh}
Lockheed CorporaLioh).
figure 11.28 1he Sombrero Calaxy, as revealed by Hubble, is a flaL disk of gas ahd dusL
illumihaLed by Lhe ihLehse glow of sLarlighL. Of all Lhe couhLless Hubble images, Lhis ohe is my
favoriLe as l cah acLually imagihe fallihg ihLo Lhis image ahd glidihg across Lhis galacLic disk
(NASA ahd 1he Hubble HeriLage 1eam (S1Scl}AkA)).
Ihese can Ihey any longer see beyond Ihe EarIh's aImosphere. In IhaI uIure, we
asIronomers will be Iheir only window Io Ihe Universe beyond Ihe Moon and
Sun and Ihe resulIs o our research will be all Ihe more precious.
Erankly, I doubI iI. The reason is obvious Io me every Iime someone looks aI
SaIurn Ihrough my Ielescope. Everyone rom grandchildren Io grandparenIs
gasps, shouIs, and exclaims in delighI when Ihey see SaIurn. II never ails, even
Ihrough a small Ielescope or pair o binoculars. Every nighI when people see iIs
rings and moons wiIh Iheir own eyes I hear Ihe hal-joking quesIion, ''Are you
sure you aren'I jusI holding a slide up Ihere7'' I know IhaI every one o Ihem has
seen a picIure o SaIurn in ar more deIail and glory rom spacecraI lying by or
in orbiI, buI IhaI in Iheir hearIs Ihey recognize Ihere is sIill someIhing
unspeakably special abouI seeing iI wiIh Iheir own eyes. The very acI IhaI
people sIill go Io see naIional parks in person when Ihere are specIacularly
beauIiul phoIos available on Ihe inIerneI is how I know IhaI when Ihe lasI sIar is
figure 11.29 1he rihgs of SaLurh are
Lhere for everyohe Lo see Lhrough a
simple Lelescope. l made Lhis picLure
Lhrough my owh 8-ihch (20-cm)
diameLer Lelescope. No maLLer how
mahy spacecrafL may visiL Lhis
specLacular plaheL ahd sehd back eye-
poppihg picLures, Lhere is ho ohe who
ish'L Lhrilled by seeihg Lhis view wiLh
Lheir very owh eyes (1. Nordgreh).
hidden behind a brighI and eaIureless nighI sky, people will never be saIisied
wiIh a simple image on a compuIer screen.
7
So insIead, when Ihe lasI sIar ades away behind Ihe ugly orange glow o our
own creaIion, I suspecI IhaI public inIeresI in asIronomy will simply ade away
wiIh iI. AIer all, how do you convince someone Io care abouI a oresI wilderness
who has never wandered in a meadow, climbed a mounIain, or even seen a Iree7
\hen IhaI day comes, when Ihe public's inIeresI dies, we Iake Ihe irsI sIep on
Iurning inward as a species. Our exploraIion o Ihe Universe beyond our
aImosphere sIalls as we lose Ihe will o Ihose who pay our bills and or whom we
Ihereore work. AsIronomy is Ihe single greaIesI gaIeway experience or new
generaIions o scienIisIs. Nearly every asIronomer I know, can poinI Io a
IransormaIive momenI as a child, be iI a irsI look Ihrough a Ielescope, a meIeor
shower, or Ihe sighI o Ihe Milky \ay on a nighI spenI camping under Ihe sIars.
\iIh no nighI sky Io ire Ihe imaginaIion o poIenIial young EinsIeins or Sagans,
where do Ihe new scienIisIs come rom7 Science sIalls. The creaIive engine IhaI
has moIivaIed our undersIanding o Ihe naIural world rom Ihe Iime when our
disIanI ancesIors irsI developed agriculIure and ulIimaIely lenI iIs energy Io arI,
liIeraIure and music (everyIhing, in acI, IhaI we call Ihe humaniIies) all o IhaI
energy over Ihe lasI Ien Ihousand years jusI spuIIers and sIops.
There is a sIory I heard in graduaIe school abouI an asIronomer IesIiying
beore Congress. \ho Ihe asIronomer was, or whaI Ihe occasion I have never
learned. Suice iI Io say, Ihe congressman was curious why his consIiIuenIs (you,
me, all o us) should have Io conIinue unding some orm o asIronomical
research wiIh our Iax dollars. The asIronomer answered, ''AsIronomy is like arI,
you can easily imagine a world wiIhouI iI, buI would you really wanI Io live
Ihere7''
\iIh every ainI galaxy losI Io billboard lighIs our Universe geIs smaller. The
greaI Falomar 200-inch (S-meIer) Ielescope was designed in Ihe 130s Io look Io
7
I asked SIory Musgrave, Ihe quesIion Ihe archiIecI asked me, why should we sIill care abouI
seeing Ihe sIars when we have Hubble overhead7 He replied, ''\hy should anyone care abouI
going Io Bryce Canyon when we can see iI on TV7''
figure 11.30 lh 2008, Lhe lighL from
my 10 millioh heighbors illumihaLes
Lhe sky beheaLh ML. Wilsoh
ObservaLory ih SouLherh Califorhia. lor
mosL evehihgs, Lhe sky is a perpeLual
orahge wiLh liLLle visible beyohd our
aLmosphere save Lhe Mooh, ahd Lhe
brighLer plaheLs (ih Lhis case, vehus oh
Lhe lefL ahd |upiLer oh Lhe righL). A
huhdred years ago, ML. Wilsoh was Lhe
siLe of Lhe world's mosL powerful
observaLory above a Lihy souLherh
Califorhia hamleL called Los Ahgeles
(Dave |urasevich).
figure 11.31 1he lighLs of SouLherh
Califorhia as phoLographed from Lhe
ML. Wilsoh ObservaLory ih 108, a
huhdred years before Lhe phoLograph
ih Lhe previous figure. 1he brighL khoL
of lighLs ih Lhe disLahce is dowhLowh
Los Ahgeles correspohdihg Lo Lhe
high-rise Lowers hear Lhe lefL edge of
Lhe 2008 phoLo. Edwih Hubble
discovered Lhe expahsioh of Lhe
hiverse wiLh Lhe ML. Wilsoh Lelescope
(1he HuhLihgLoh Library).
Ihe very edge o Ihe visible universe. NesIled beIween Ihe now brillianI ciIies o
Los Angeles and San Diego (mere hamleIs in Ihe '30s) iI can no longer do so. In
Ihe nearly 20 years since I irsI observed Ihere, I wiInessed a Isunami o
commercial lighIs sweep pasI Ihe mounIain leaving iI an island awash in a sea o
illuminaIion. Civen Ihe iniIe speed o lighI (and Ihus Ihe arIher away we look
in space Ihe longer ago we see iI in Iime) a shrinking visible universe means we
lose liIeral sighI o where we all came rom, Ihe more lighI we shed, Ihe less we
see.
BuI lighI polluIion is Ihe one orm o polluIion IhaI is 100% recoverable. Once
Ihe lighI's cuI o, iI leaves Ihe sky aI Ihe speed o lighI. In relaIively rural areas a
single lighI can aecI Ihe view or a dozen miles around so IhaI Ihe acIions o a
single individual may be all IhaI's necessary Io hold Ihe lighI aI bay. Change a
shade, change a bulb, change Ihe way we use lighI and we preserve Ihe sIars in
Ihe naIional parks and Ihe lasI remaining dark-sky oases. I oIher communiIies
do Ihe same, Ihen we begin Io push back Ihe lighI Io Ihe ciIies where iI belongs.
The more we do, Ihe more likely we are Io geI back Ihe nighI sky o our moIhers,
and aIhers and Iheir parenIs beore Ihem.
BuI i we do noIhing, Ihen when Ihe Milky \ay disappears in even remoIe
figure 11.32 MoohlighL illumihaLes Lhe high Sierras from Clacier loihL ih osemiLe
NaLiohal lark. Eveh as l sLop Lo waLch Lhe seLLihg Mooh's lighL slowly rise up Lhe face of
Half Dome Lowards Lhe lefL, l cah see Lhe summer Milky Way rise above me Lo Lhe easL.
1owards my righL Lhe brighL glow of SagiLLarius marks Lhe cehLer of our Calaxy while Lhe
highesL poihL of Lhe milky bahd poihLs dowh Lhe local spiral arm ahd is Lhe direcLioh our
Suh is headihg as iL orbiLs Lhe galacLic cehLer ohce every 240 millioh years. p uhLil ohly
a couple huhdred years ago Lhis is Lhe view everyohe had aL highL for all of humah
hisLory. Compare Lhis view wiLh LhaL from over Los Ahgeles Lo see exacLly whaL we have
robbed from ourselves ahd our childreh (1. Nordgreh).
areas, and we are no longer able Io see beyond our own aImosphere, we lose Ihe
abiliIy Io see IhaI greaI sign in Ihe sky IhaI we are parI o a larger Universe. \e
lose Ihe glorious lighI o Ihe galacIic cenIer and Ihe cold pale lighI o Ihe Ihin
Ienuous ouIskirIs o our Calaxy, we lose our place in Ihe Universe. As Ihe ainIer
sIars one by one wink ouI Io shopping malls and parking loIs we lose Ihe
consIellaIions IhaI every culIure creaIed Io make sense o Iheir world and Ihe
orces beyond Iheir conIrol. Up Ihere in Ihe sIars are Ihe moraliIy plays IhaI seI
civilizaIion on iIs paIh back beore Ihere was wriIing. \hen we lose Ihem we lose
a direcI visible connecIion Io our ancesIors and Iheir hopes, dreams, anIasies,
and ears. In shorI, we lose a Iangible link Io ourselves IhaI gives lie meaning
beyond Ihe here and now. And we pay or every kilowaII hour IhaI we leI iI all
jusI slowly slip away.
Are Ihe sIars worIh saving7 Come see or yoursel. Come Io Ihe parks, bring
your children. Come on a nighI when Ihere is no Moon and Ihe sky is clear and
you can see Ihe Universe as every generaIion o human beings rom Ihe earliesI
hominids nearly Ihree million years ago Io your greaI-grandaIher's grandmoIher
saw iI jusI a ew dozen decades ago. Come see whaI Ihey saw, come see whaI
figure 11.33 losLer by Lhe auLhor for Lhe lhLerhaLiohal ear of AsLrohomy 200
adverLisihg Lhe wohderful views of Lhe Milky Way LhaL may be eh|oyed ih America's
NaLiohal larks (1. Nordgreh).
you've losI and your children are losing buI could have back again exacIly as iI
used Io be. Come see Ihe wonder o Ihe cosmos wiIh your own eyes. Come see
Ihe clues Io who we are and where we come rom. Come see Ihe evidence or
where we are and where we could go. Come see your home in Ihe Calaxy. Come
see Ihe Milky \ay.
See for yourseIf: Iight poIIution
Sky QuaIity Meter: http://unihedron.com/projects/darksky/
Unihedron is a company IhaI markeIs a small hand-held device or measuring
Ihe average brighIness o Ihe nighI sky (eiIher direcIly overhead or in a speciic
direcIion). II is abouI Ihe same size as a pack o cards and in only a ew seconds
will provide a reading o Ihe average brighIness overhead in uniIs o magniIude
per square arcseconds, jusI like Ihe NFS NighI Sky Team's sky brighIness mosaics.
Unihedron's SQM can be ordered online or abouI $100 and Ihey mainIain an
online daIabase o user's measuremenIs rom all over Ihe world. See how your
backyard or avoriIe naIional park compares.
The United States at night
The ollowing images o Ihe UniIed SIaIes are close-up versions o Ihose in Eigure
11.. They show Ihe average sky brighIness o Ihe zeniIh (Ihe poinI sIraighI
overhead) or locaIions around Ihe U.S. and are made using saIelliIe images o
Ihe world aI nighI. They show lighI inIensiIy levels as dierenI colors. Black and
purple represenI Ihe darkesI locaIions wiIh red and whiIe Ihe brighIesI. Eor ease
o idenIiicaIion, inIersIaIe reeways are shown by dark blue lines, while naIional
parks, monumenIs, and recreaIion areas shown in red. Eind your Iown. How dark
are Ihe skies where you live7 How ar ouI inIo Ihe surrounding counIryside does
your Iown's lighI dome exIend7 How ar away rom home do you have Io go Io
geI Io a Iruly dark locaIion7 I Ihe summer Milky \ay can dimly be seen
overhead in regions o lighI green or yellow, how ar away are you rom Ihe
nearesI view o your own Calaxy7 How dark is your nearesI naIional park and
whaI Iowns are aecIing Ihe nighI sky Ihere7
Numbered on Ihe maps and lisIed here are many o Ihe naIional parks and
monumenIs I visiIed or Ihis book and Ihe average SQM measuremenI I recorded
(in uniIs o magniIudes per square arcsecond). These numbers relecI whaI I
happened Io see on Ihose nighIs I happen Io be Ihere. They are, by no means
deiniIive. I have ordered Ihem rom Ihe brighIesI Io Ihe darkesI:
1. CreaI Smoky MounIains NaIional Fark: 20.60 magniIudes}square arcsecond
2. YellowsIone NF (MammoIh HoI Springs): 20.84
3. Joshua Tree NF (Jumbo Rocks): 20.0
4. YosemiIe NF (YosemiIe Valley): 21.32
S. Rocky MounIain NF (Bear Lake): 21.36
6. Acadia NF (OIIer FoinI): 21.36
7. Arches NF (CourIhouse BuIIe) : 21.44
8. Clacier NF (Many Clacier HoIel): 21.S0
. Chaco CulIure NaIional HisIorical Fark: 21.S
10. Crand Canyon NF (FhanIom Ranch): 21.8S
11. NaIural Bridges NaIional MonumenI (Owachomo Bridge): 21.8S
12. Bryce Canyon NF (Bryce FoinI): 21.87
13. Big Bend NF (Robbers RoosI campsiIe): 21.0
AstronomicaI phenomena: zodiacaI Iight
Zodiacal lighI is sunlighI relecIed o o Iiny dusI grains orbiIing beIween Ihe
planeIs. Because Ihe dusI is conined Io Ihe plane o Ihe Solar SysIem we see iI as
a band aIer sunseI and beore sunrise exIending upwards rom where Ihe Sun seI
(or will rise) along Ihe eclipIic (Ihe paIh Ihe Sun Moon, and planeIs ollow across
Ihe background consIellaIions). The zodiac appears aI iIs highesI righI aIer
sunseI and beore sunrise during spring and all. These are Ihereore Ihe besI Iime
Io see Ihe zodiacal lighI as a Iriangular shaped glow, wiIh a ainI yellow, whiIe, or
bluish casI IhaI dierenIiaIes iI rom ciIy lighIs IhaI appears as rounded orange-
colored lighI domes along Ihe horizon.II's normally only seen in BorIle Class S
siIes or beIIer (see chapIer or ull discussion o Ihe BorIle classiicaIion sysIem).
Gegenschein
The gegenschein (or 'counIerglow'), like zodiacal lighI, is sunlighI relecIed o o
inIerplaneIary dusI. The gegenschein is dierenI, however, by being a relecIion
rom dusI grains 180. away rom Ihe Sun as viewed rom Ihe EarIh. This is
incredibly diiculI Io see unless you are under a Iruly dark sky (BorIle class 1 or 2)
wiIh no Moon, haze or clouds. II is besI seen in SepIember-OcIober or Eebruary-
March when Ihe plane o Ihe eclipIic is high above Ihe dimming eecIs o Ihe
horizon and Ihe poinI opposiIe Ihe Sun is ree o Ihe glow o Ihe Milky \ay.
ObservaIions are besI around midnighI (when Ihe Sun is aI iIs lowesI) and Ihe
anIi-solar poinI will be along Ihe parI o Ihe eclipIic IhaI is due souIh. The
zodiacal band is Ihe narrow glow IhaI connecIs Ihe more or less oval spoI o Ihe
gegenschein Io Ihe Iriangular zodiacal lighI along Ihe horizon.
M33
M33 is a ainI spiral galaxy visible Io Ihe naked eye only under dark condiIions
(BorIle class 4 or beIIer, very diiculI by class S). II is mosI visible in winIer and is
ound near Ihe Andromeda Calaxy (M31). Eigure .21 in ChapIer shows a
phoIograph o Ihe Andromeda consIellaIion. M33 is Ihe ainI uzzy glow IhaI
appears jusI below Ihe sIar beIa (P) Andromedae. I insIead o ollowing Ihe
dashed line rom P And Io M31, you insIead wenI Ihe same disIance in Ihe
opposiIe direcIion, you would land precisely on M33.
Maps of Lhe arLificial highL sky brighLhess seeh aL Lhe zehiLh for locaLiohs ih Lhe hiLed
SLaLes. NaLiohal larks, MohumehLs, kecreaLioh Areas ahd oLher park uhiLs are showh ih
red. lhLersLaLe highways are showh ih blue. 1he humbers correspohd Lo parks wiLh Sky
QualiLy MeasuremehLs lisLed here (D. Duriscoe (NlS) afLer l. Cihzaho, l. lalchi
(hiversiLy of ladova), C. D. Elvidge (NOAA NaLiohal Ceophysical DaLa CehLer, 8oulder).
CopyrighL koyal AsLrohomical SocieLy. keproduced from Lhe Mcnthly Nctices cf the
kcycl Astrcncmiccl 5cciety by permissioh of 8lackwell Sciehce).
The GIobe at Night: http://www.gIobe.gov/gIobeatnight/
The Clobe aI NighI is an online opporIuniIy or Ihe public Io moniIor lighI
polluIion levels world-wide. Each year during moonless nighIs aI Ihe end o
March, Ihe Clobe aI NighI asks people Io go ouIside an hour aIer sunseI and ind
Ihe consIellaIion o Orion. By comparing whaI you see wiIh one o seven
dierenI charIs (each showing Orion wiIh a dierenI number o sIars visible) you
can quickly idenIiy Ihe degree o lighI polluIion in your area. By reporIing your
resulI online, you help build a world-wide daIabase o currenI lighI polluIion
levels all made wiIhin Ihe same period o several days.
Do for yourseIf
I you have enjoyed any o Ihe 'See or yoursel' acIiviIies under dark skies, Ihen
consider helping us proIecI Ihose skies in some or all o Ihe ollowing ways:
njoy the night
I you are aI a park, ask aI Ihe visiIor cenIer i Ihey have an evening asIronomy
program. I so, go and Iake parI and leI Ihe ranger know iI is someIhing you
consider an imporIanI parI o your visiI Io Ihe park. I you are aI home, go ouI
IonighI. AI eiIher place, leI your eyes adjusI Io Ihe dark and see whaI's visible.
Try one o Ihe 'See or yoursel' acIiviIies in Ihis book, perhaps one you haven'I
done beore, or one you haven'I done rom your currenI locaIion. Is iI easier or
harder Io see some o Ihe Ihings compared Io whaI you remember aI a park, your
home, or when you were younger7 UlIimaIely we will only proIecI whaI we love
and cherish.
Cover a fIashIight
By covering your lashlighI wiIh red cellophane or a red ilIer, you can prevenI iI
rom disrupIing your nighI vision when exploring Ihe world aIer dark. \iIh a
brighI lashlighI all you see is whaI's illuminaIed by Ihe lighI. \iIh a dim red
lighI, and ull dark-adapIed eyes, you will see everyIhing else. Small lashlighIs
work beIIer Ihan large ones. LeI your eyes adjusI Io Ihe dark and Ihey'll work
beIIer Ihan you Ihink.
ShieId your Iights
Look around your house aI Ihe Iype o lighIing you already have. Consider a new
ixIure wiIh a ull cuI-o shield or insIall a shield on a pre-exisIing lighI. Some
lighIs need only be IilIed down. A simple plasIic lower poI wiIh a hole in Ihe
boIIom works on an exisIing loodlighI where looks aren'I imporIanI. The
InIernaIional Dark-Sky AssociaIion (IDA) has links on Iheir websiIe or
manuacIurers IhaI produce ull cuI-o shields and shielded lighIs. Look aI Ihe
lighIs in your neighborhood and Iown, whaI ixIures do Ihey use7 How could
Ihey be improved7
Use Iight onIy when needed
Use moIion sensors Io Iurn ouIside lighIs on and o when needed. This cosIs less
money, improves securiIy, and reduces lighI polluIion. Use Iimers or lighIs IhaI
are only needed in Ihe evening or early morning.
Use Iess Iight
An eicienI, shielded lighI ixIure can use a smaller waIIage lighI bulb and sIill be
eecIive. Even a 2S or 40 waII incandescenI bulb, or a waII compacI
luorescenI, is enough Io lighI a porch or driveway.
TaIk to your neighbors
Share your appreciaIion o Ihe nighI sky wiIh your amily, riends, neighbors,
and communiIy. Share someIhing you've seen Ihanks Io Ihis book. Encourage
Ihem Io make Ihe nighI a beIIer place or Iheir communiIies and nearby parks.
Those living near sIaIe and naIional parks are Ihe ones who have Ihe power Io
decide how much longer parks will be oases o sIarry-skies amid Ihe growing
deserI o man-made lighI.
uiId support for a community Iight ordinance
The IDA has examples on Iheir websiIe o ordinances IhaI have proven eecIive
in oIher communiIies like yours. TogeIher we can proIecI our sIarry-sky heriIage.
further reading
NaIional Fark Service NighI Sky Team
hIIp:}}www.naIure.nps.gov}air}lighIscapes}
InIernaIional Dark-Sky AssociaIion
hIIp:}}www.darksky.org}
AIlas o \orld LighI FolluIion
hIIp:}}www.lighIpolluIion.iI}dmsp}
The EaIal LighI Awareness Frogram (ELAF) or proIecIing birds aI nighI
hIIp:}}www.lap.org}
The Clobe aI NighI
hIIp:}}www.globe.gov}globeaInighI}
ElagsIa Dark Skies CoaliIion
hIIp:}}www.lagsIadarkskies.org}idsc.hIm
Sky QualiIy MeIer
hIIp:}}unihedron.com}projecIs}darksky}
Bryce Canyon NaIional Fark AsIronomy Frogram
hIIp:}}www.nps.gov}brca}planyourvisiI}asIronomyprograms.hIm
Island AsIronomy InsIiIuIe o Down EasI Maine (including Acadia NaIional Fark)
hIIp:}}www.islandasIro.org}
AsIronomy FicIure o Ihe Day (AFOD): 36S reasons a year or proIecIing our
nighI sky
hIIp:}}apod.nasa.gov}apod}
Index
Abenaki, 71, 230, 233 (Eig.)
Abenaki, CreaI Bear song, 233 (Eig.)
Acadia NaIional Fark, 6 (Eig.), 70-3, 88
(Eig.), 8 (Eig.), 8, 230 (Eig.)
Cadillac MounIain, 8
map, 77 (Eig.)
OIIer Clis, 8 (Eig.)
Fark Loop Road, 88 (Eig.)
Sand Beach, 8
sky brighIness, 411 (Eig.)
Airglow, 413
Akins, \aIie, 233 (Eig.)
Alcor, 232, 233 (Eig.)
Aldebaran, 303, 314, 373
Alluvial ans, 171, 172 (Eig.)
Alpha CenIuari, 8
AlIair, 10-12, 1S, 16, 2, 301 (Eig.)
Anasazi, scc Chacoans
Andromeda Calaxy (M31), 341 (Eig), 376,
377, 37, 388, 38 (Eig.)
AnIares, S, 28, 301, 314, 31S
Apollo 16, 240, 241, 2S4 (Eig.), 266, 267
(Eig.)
Appalachian MounIains, 22-31, 240, 264,
26S, 323
Aquila, Ihe Eagle, 10, 2
Arches NaIional Fark, 161, 164-6, 168
Balanced Rock, 16S, 166 (Eig.)
CourIhouse BuIIe, 162 (Eig.)
DelicaIe Arch, 16S (Eig.), 168
Devils Carden, 166, 167 (Eig.), 171
Eiery Eurnace, 166, 167 (Eig.)
map, 167 (Eig.)
Fark Avenue, 161, 407 (Eig.)
SalI Valley, 166, 167 (Eig.)
ArcIurus, 314
AssociaIion o AmaIeur Variable SIar
Observers (AAVSO), 0 (Eig.), 102, 104
AsIerism, S
AsIeroid, 242, 244
belI, 242, 244, 2S6, 260
Chicxulub CraIer, 260
dinosaur exIincIion, 2S-61
impacI, 2S2-
Iridium, 2S
Near-EarIh (NEAs), 244, 260
AsIrology, 21
AsIromeIry, 333
AsIronomical UniI (AU), 333
AsIronomy clubs, 401
AImospheres, 17
AIomic specIra, 2S
AIomic sIrucIure o elemenIs, 23 (Eig.), 24
AIoms, 23 (Eig.), 24
AverIed-vision, 8
AzIec Ruins NaIional MonumenI, 281
Bar Harbor, Maine, 72, 73 (Eig.), 7S-7 (Eig.),
88, 8 (Eig.)
Barringer CraIer, 2SS-8 (Eig.)
Bay o Eundy NaIional Fark, Canada, 7S
Beehive ClusIer (M44), 61 (Eig.), 3S6
BelI o Venus, 2
BeIelgeuse, 301, 303, 304 (Eig.), 314
Big Bang, 386, 387 (Eig.)
Big Bend NaIional Fark, 23, 24
map, 24 (Eig.)
Big Dipper, S, 32, 6, 230, 232, 233 (Eig.)
Binary sIars, 1, 3
Binoculars, 28, , 102, 144, 14S, 184, 222,
266, 267 (Eig.)
Black hole SS, S6, 62
evenI horizon, 61
supermassive, SS, S6, 37S, 383
Black smokers, 86 (Eig.), 87
BlackeeI, 10, 11 (Eig.)
BorIle ClassiicaIion, scc LighI FolluIion
Bryce Canyon NaIional Fark, 401-3 (Eig.),
40S
Bryce Canyon NaIional Fark cont.
AsIronomy EesIival, 401 (Eig.), 403, 436
CallisIo, 80, , 122 (Eig.), 124
Cancer, Ihe Crab, 3S6
Canyonlands NaIional Fark, 16 (Eig.), 401
(Eig.)
Canyons oj thc ColoraJo by Fowell, J. \.,
1S6, 186, 373
CapiIol Ree NaIional Fark, 17
Carbon cycle, 20-11, 218
Carbon dioxide IhermosIaI, 20, 210, 218
Carbon dioxide, 166, 17-200, 202-4, 20-
11, 212 (Eig.), 213 (Eig.), 217
CarbonaIe rocks, 204, 20S, 217
Cassini radar, 132, 134 (Eig.)
Cassini spacecraI, 132, 133, 136, 137
Cassiopeia, , 1S, 32
CelesIial equaIor, 278
CelesIial navigaIion, 32S, 326
Cepheid variables, 377, 37, 380
CeIus, Ihe \hale, 0, 102
Chaco CulIure NaIional HisIorical Fark, S1,
271, 272, 286, 408
asIronomy programs, 306, 307 (Eig.)
Casa Rinconada, 280-2, 286, 301 (Eig.)
diagonal doors, 27, 280 (Eig.)
Eajada BuIIe, 272 (Eig.), 273, 287, 288,
20
CreaI Houses, 272, 273, 27S, 281
map, 273 (Eig.)
Fenasco Blanco, 21, 308, 311 (Eig.)
observaIory, 306, 307 (Eig.)
Fiedra del Sol peIroglyph, S1 (Eig.), S2
Fueblo BoniIo, 272 (Eig.), 274 (Eig.), 276
(Eig.), 27, 280, 287
Sun Dagger peIroglyph, 287
Supernova picIograph, 21-3, 306
Chacoans, 271, 273, 274, 28
Chan, Marjorie, 178, 17
Cherokee, 230, 237
Cherokee, Moon Iale, 236
Chimney Rock, 28S, 286
Chumash Indians, 13-16
Chumash Milk \ay sIory, 14-17,
ClimaIe change models, 218
ClimaIe change, 188, 10, 16, 202, 203,
208, 213, 21S, 217, 218
Cold EaiIhul, 137 (Eig.), 13
Colorado FlaIeau, 1S6, 273
Colorado River, 1S6, 171, 17, 360, 362
(Eig.), 363
Coma Berenices, 23, 26, 32
Coma SIar ClusIer (MeloIIe 111), 26, 32
ComeI, 242, 244, 248, 338, 372, 3
coma, 24
Hale Bopp, 248 (Eig.), 24 (Eig.)
Halley, 24 (Eig.), 2S1, 22
nucleus, 24
Shoemaker-Levy , 263 (Eig.)
Iail, 24
Tempel-TuIIle, 24
Corona Borealis, 32, 231, 232
Cosmic microwave background radiaIion,
386
Cosmic rays, 30S, 307, 30
Crab Nebula (M1), 306, 307 (Eig.), 31S
CraIer Lake NaIional Fark, 23 (Eig.), 40
(Eig.)
CraIers, 23, 240, 2S4-6, 2S8
Cygnus Void, 12, 1S, 16, 2
Cygnus, 10, 16, 26 (Eig.), 27, 2, 32
Dark maIIer, 28, 62, 63, (Eig.), 37S
Dead Horse SIaIe Fark, UT, 16 (Eig.)
DeaIh Valley NaIional Fark, 163 (Eig.), 172
(Eig.), 173, 40, 412 (Eig.)
Eureka Dunes, 173
DeclinaIion, 278
Deep Iime, 3S, 360, 363
Deneb, 10-12, 26 (Eig.), 2
DeuIerium, 20S, 206
DierenIiaIion, 17, 262
Doppler EecI, 334 (Eig.)
Doppler ShiI, 334-6, 380
Drake EquaIion, 34, 3S0
Duriscoe, Dan, 40, 412
DusI clouds, inIersIellar, 12, 13, 18, 1
EarIh, 111 (Eig.), 134, 204, 208, 220, 221
(Eig.)
age 243, 244
aImosphere, 210, 211, 220, 382, 3
axial IilI, 208, 228, 22 (Eig.), 232, 234,
263, 277
climaIe, 234
mlq 5tars Above, Earth Below
EarIh, cont.
lie, 38, 3
map o lighIs, 404 (Eig.)
superconIinenIs, 264, 26S
IemperaIure variaIions, 212 (Eig.), 217-
1
Eclipse, lunar, 38, 40-4 (Eig.), 63 (Eig.), 67
(Table), 68 (Table), 326, 327 (Eig.)
Fenumbra and umbra, 40, 42
Eclipse, solar, 3S, 38, S1, S2, S7, 64, 6S
(Eig.), 66 (Eig.), 346
annular, S1, 64-6 (Eig.)
o 11, S, 60 (Eig.)
o 2017, 3S, 37- (Eig.), 42, S1, 62
Fiedra del Sol peIroglyph, S1 (Eig.), S2
EinsIein, AlberI S8, 60, 62
Enceladus, 132 (Eig.), 134-
geysers, 136 (Eig.), 137, 13
Tiger SIripes, 13S-8 (Eig.)
EnIrada sandsIone, 164-6 (Eig.)
Epicycles, 47
Equinox, spring and all, 277, 287, 288, 311
Eris, 371
Erosion, 164, 173, 2SS, 361, 362, 363
Escape velociIy, S4, SS
Europa, 80-6 (Eig.), 88, 121, 122 (Eig.), 124
cycloidal cracks, 82 (Eig.), 83
double ridge cracks, 84, 8S (Eig.)
ice crusI, 82-4
European EnlighIenmenI, 113, 11, 322
Evening sIar, 222, 223 (Eig.)
ExIrasolar planeIs (ExoplaneIs), 337
S1 Fegasi, 338, 33 (Eig.), 341 (Eig.), 3S3
SS Cancri, 343, 344 (Eig.), 3S3, 3S4
aImospheres, 346, 347 (Eig.)
Cochran and HaIzes search, 33, 341, 343
Doppler search meIhod, 33S-8
Epsilon Eridani, 343, 3S3
EomalhauI, 344, 34S (Eig.), 3S2
Camma Cephei, 3S2
hoI JupiIers, 340-2 (Eig.)
Marcy and BuIler search, 337, 340
Mayor and Queloz search, 338, 33, 340
Follux, 343, 3S2
Rho Coronae Borealis, 342, 343 (Eig.),
3S3
IransiIs, 346
Upsilon Andromedae, 341 (Eig.), 344, 3S3
ExIraIerresIrial lie, 348-S0
Eagre, Daniel, 213-17
Eall oliage, 227- (Eig.), 231 (Eig.), 232
ElagsIa, Arizona, 148, 14 (Eig.), 1S1, 1S2,
1S6 (Eig.)
InIernaIional Dark-Sky CiIy, 417, 418
(Eig.)
Eour Corners Region, 160, 168
CalacIic cenIer, 26 (Eig.), 27, SS, S6 (Eig.),
62
Calaxies, S, 6 (Eig.)
Calilean saIelliIes, 7 (Eig.), 80, , 113,
120, 144, 14S
Calileo (Ihe asIronomer), 8, 46, S0, S4, 71,
72, 7, 80, 102, 112, 237, 238 (Eig.),
266, 322
Calileo (Ihe spacecraI), 82-6 (Eig.), 126
(Eig.), 127, 12, 263 (Eig.), 38
Canymede, 80, 122 (Eig.), 234
Cegenschein, 413, 431
Cemini, Ihe Twins, 7, 3S2
Ceneral RelaIiviIy, S8, S, 60, 61
Ceysers, 106, 108, 10, 118
Clacier NaIional Fark, 188, 18 (Eig.), 10,
13, 1 (Eig.), 208, 212, 213, 216, 217,
22S
Coing-Io-Ihe-Sun Road, 11 (Eig.), 14
Crinnell EormaIion, 10
Crinnell Clacier Trail, 10-2 (Eig.), 210,
213, 21S (Eig.), 22S, 226 (Eig.)
Crinnell Clacier, 188, 11-3, 211 (Eig.),
213-21S (Eig.), 22S, 226 (Eig.)
Helena EormaIion, 204, 210
Jackson Clacier, 203 (Eig.)
map, 11 (Eig.)
Salamander Clacier, 21S (Eig.), 22S, 226
(Eig.)
Claciers, 187-0, 14 (Eig.), 208, 213, 217
areIe, 188, 18 (Eig.), 10, 1S (Eig.)
cirque, 188-0, 13, 1S (Eig.)
esker, 1S (Eig.)
horn, 188, 10
moraine, 187, 18 (Eig.), 14, 1S, 214,
21S
reIreaI, 212-14, 216, 217, 21
rock glacier, 1S, 16 (Eig.)
U-shaped valley, 187- (Eig.), 11 (Eig.),
13 (Eig.), 1S
Clobular clusIers, 1
Index mlr
Crand Canyon NaIional Fark, 1S6, 2S3, 2S8
(Eig.), 3S8, 3S, 362 (Eig.), 367, 387
asIronomy programs, 401
cell phone audio Iour, 367
evening sky programs, 370 (Eig.)
Lipan FoinI, 374 (Eig.)
map, 364
FhanIom Ranch, 363, 366 (Eig.)
SouIh Kaibab Trail, 362 (Eig.), 363, 36S
Crand SIaircase EscalanIe NaIional
MonumenI, 180
Crand TeIon NaIional Fark, 3S, 38, 62, 63
(Eig.), 114
map, 3 (Eig.)
CraviIaIional lens, S (Eig.), 62, 63 (Eig.)
CraviIy, S2, S4, SS, S8, 60, 61, 72, 24, 2S,
302
CreaI Smoky MounIains NaIional Fark,
227, 22, 234 (Eig.), 240, 2S2, 2S8, 264,
26S
Abrams Ealls, 243
Cades Cove, 241, 243, 26S
map, 230 (Eig.)
Creenberg, Rick, 83, 84, 87, 104
Creenhouse eecI, 11, 18, 200, 202, 20S
Creenhouse gasses, 163, 1, 200, 20S, 210,
213 (Eig.), 220
Hamelin Fool Marine NaIure Reserve,
\esIern AusIralia, 211 (Eig.)
HarrioI, Thomas, 237, 270
Hawai'i Volcanoes NaIional Fark, 107 (Eig.),
12, 130 (Eig.), 207
Hayden YellowsIone ExpediIion, 114-17
(Eig.), 12S, 141
HemaIiIe, 173, 177-, 180 (Eig.), 10
Hercules, consIellaIion, 1, 32
Herschel, \illiam, 17, 18 (Eig.), 1, 21, S7,
182
Hopi creaIion sIory, 3S7, 3S8
Hopi, 13, 273, 27, 28
Horoscopes, 4
Hubble Space Telescope, 344, 37, 380, 383,
384 (Eig.), 3S, 424
Hubble's ConsIanI, 380
Hubble's Law, 380-2, 386
Hydrogen, 24, 2S
Ice-ages, 13, 208, 211, 234
InIernal heaI, 107, 110
InIernaIional Dark-Sky AssociaIion, 421,
422, 434, 43S
InIernaIional Year o AsIronomy (IYA), 237,
42 (Eig.)
InIersIellar dusI, 2S (Eig.)
InIersIellar gas, 24-6, 373
InIersIellar medium, 18, 20, 21, SS
Io, 80, 81 (Eig.), 120-2, 124, 12S, 12
Loki FaIera, 12S, 126 (Eig.), 127, 128
(Eig.), 12, 130 (Eig.), 131
volcanoes, 121 (Eig.), 122, 124 (Eig.),
12S-8
Iron-oxide, 163, 17
Island AsIronomy InsIiIuIe, 8 (Eig.)
Jackson, \illiam Henry, 116-18, 141
Jeerson, Thomas, 318-20, 322
Joshua Tree NaIional Fark, 401
JupiIer, 12 (Eig.), 7, 81 (Eig.), , 100 (Eig.),
101 (Eig.), 111-13, 120, 121, 144, 14S
Kargel, Je, 170, 14-6, 226
Kelvin IemperaIure scale, 2S
Kepler mission, 320, 346, 347 (Eig.)
Kepler, Johannes, 4S-S0, 322
Kepler's Laws, 4, S0 (Eig.), S1, S3-S, S7, 62,
80, 3, 131, 336
Krupp, E. C., 6, 33
Kuiper BelI, 113, 242, 244, 371
La Tonadora (Scorpion \oman), 14, 16
(Eig.)
Lagoon Nebula (M8), S (Eig.), 8, 10 (Eig.),
2, 28, 301 (Eig.), 31S, 37S (Eig.)
LaIiIude, 326
Lava, 10S, 107 (Eig.), 12, 240
Lewis and Clark, Corps o Discovery, 31-
22, 324, 326, 327
LibraIion, 80
LighI polluIion, 2, 32, 8 (Eig.), 32, 404-7,
411 (Eig.), 41S, 416 (Eig.), 427 (Eig.),
433-S
BorIle ClassiicaIion, 412-1S
ecological impacIs, 407 (Eig.), 421
eecIive lighIing, 422 (Eig.), 423 (Eig.)
Clobe aI NighI, 434, 436
lighI ordinances, 417-1, 43S
mmi 5tars Above, Earth Below
lighI polluIion, cont.
saeIy or sIars, 41, 420
sky glow, 406, 420 (Eig.)
soluIions, 420-2, 427, 434, 43S
LighI-year, 8, 372
LiIIle Ice-Age, 217
Local Croup, 377
LongiIude, 326, 327
Louisiana Furchase, 31, 323 (Eig.)
Lowell ObservaIory, 128, 148, 14 (Eig.),
1S3 (Eig.), 1SS, 1S, 160, 380
Lowell, Fercival, 147, 148, 1S1, 1S2, 1S4,
182
Luiseno, 6
Luiseno Milky \ay sIory, 6
LuminosiIy, 12
Luna, 234
LunaIic, 234, 23S
LunaIion, 77
Lyra, Ihe Harp, 10, 16, 2, 3, 102
M33, 377, 413, 431
M81, 378 (Eig.), 37
Magellanic Clouds, 37S
MagneIic declinaIion (or variaIion), 276, 277
MagneIic ields, 83, 84, 202
MagniIude scale, 3, 2
Malville, Kim, S2, 287, 316
Maple Irees, 231 (Eig.), 232
Mariner 10, 11
Mars ExploraIion Rovers, 160, 161 (Eig.),
173, 180
OpporIuniIy, S4 (Eig.), 173-7, 17, 180
(Eig.), 181
SpiriI, S4 (Eig.), 163 (Eig.), 173, 174 (Eig.),
17S (Eig.)
Mars, 111 (Eig.), 112, 120, 147-S4, 1S7,
16-7S, 180-4, 188, 10 (Eig.), 16, 220
Argyre Basin, 14, 1S (Eig.), 1
aImosphere, 148, 1S2, 162, 163, 182,
1S-7, 200, 202, 232
axial IilI, 232
blueberries, 177 (Eig.), 178, 180 (Eig.),
181
canals, 148, 1S1, 1S2 (Eig.), 1S3 (Eig.),
1S7, 182
Candor Chasma, 16 (Eig.)
civilizaIion, 148, 1S6, 182
climaIe, 188, 232
Columbia Hills, 176 (Eig.)
core, 202
Eagle CraIer, 177 (Eig.)
glaciers, 188, 18 (Eig.), 1S (Eig.), 16
(Eig.), 1, 201, 202
Cusev CraIer, 173, 174 (Eig.), 176 (Eig.)
Hellas basin, 184, 18S (Eig.), 200 (Eig.),
201 (Eig.)
hoax, 1S1
iron-oxide, 202
map, 1S8 (Eig.), 18S (Eig.), 200 (Eig.)
Mariner 4, 1S (Eig.), 160 (Eig.)
Mariner , 1S, 160 (Eig.), 168
Marsdials, 161, 163 (Eig.), 17S (Eig.), 176
(Eig.), 183
Meridiani Flanum, 173, 174 (Eig.), 178
(Eig.), 180 (Eig.), 181
Olympus Mons, 17, 18 (Eig.), 1, 200
(Eig.)
opposiIion, 14, 1S0 (Eig.), 160, 183, 184
(Table)
polar ice cap, 147, 184, 18S (Eig.)
seasons, 232
Solis Lacus,
Lake o Ihe Sun, 1S2 (Eig.),

1S3 (Eig.)
subsurace ice, 1S, 16, 17 (Eig.), 201
(Eig.)
SyrIis Major, 184, 18S (Eig.)
Tharsis Bulge, 160 (Eig.), 18S (Eig.), 200
(Eig.)
Valles Marineris, 160 (Eig.), 16 (Eig.),
18 (Eig.), 1, 200 (Eig.)
volcanoes, 17
waIer, 163, 168, 170-3, 18-2, 188, 10
(Eig.), 1
Mauna Loa, 107 (Eig.)
Mercury, S7, 61 (Eig.), 111 (Eig.), 112, 11
(ig.)
Mercury's orbiIal precession, S7, S8
Mesa Verde NaIional Fark, 287
MESSENCER spacecraI, 11 (Eig.)
M13, 1, 32
MS1, 6, 103
MeIeor CraIer, 2SS, 2S6-8 (Eig.)
MeIeor shower, 24S-S0, 2S2 (Table), 266
Cemininds, 2S0, 2S1 (Eig.)
CreaI Flains Indians, 246
Leonids, 24S (Eig.), 246, 247 (Eig.), 248,
24, 2S1
Index mmj
MeIeor shower, cont.
Orionids, 2S1
Ferseids, 247, 2S0
quilI, 246, 247 (Eig.), 270
radianI, 2S0, 2S1 (Eig.), 268 (Eig.), 26
(Eig.)
MeIeor, 244-6, 247 (Eig.), 248, 2S0, 36
MeIeoroid, 244
MeIeroriIe, 244, 2S6, 2S8 (Eig.), 2S
Micmac CreaI Bear sIar Iale, 231, 232
Micmac, 230, 231
MilankoviIch cycles, 208, 234
Milky \ay, 1, 4-13, 16-20 (Eig.), 21-23, 26
(Eig.), 28, 32, 40, 41, SS, 6, 37S, 376,
413
Miwok, 17
Mizar, 232, 233 (Eig.)
Moab, UIah, 161, 164, 182 (Eig.), 407
(Eig.)
Moersch, Je, 171
MonumenI Valley Navajo Tribal Fark, 161
(Eig.), 162, 168
Moon, 3S-8, 72, 78, 102, 110, 111 (Eig.),
234-, 241, 2S2-4, 261, 36
18.6 year cycle, 283, 284 (Eig.), 287, 288
craIers, 240, 241, 2S2, 2S3
ormaIion, 261-S
ull moon hikes, 23S
major and minor sIandsIill, 284-6, 288
Man in Ihe Moon, 23S, 236 (Eig.), 2S3
map, 267 (Eig.)
maria (orseas), 102, 23, 240, 241, 2S3,
2S4 (Eig.), 266, 267 (Eig.)
markings, 23S, 236 (Eig.), 23, 266
mounIains, 237- (Eig.), 240, 266
orbiI, 38, 77, 283, 286, 326
phases, 36, 38, 23S, 266
recession, 264
rise and seI posiIions, 283-6
Smoky MounIains, 240 (Eig.), 241 (Eig.)
volcanoes, 240, 241
Moore, Chad, 407, 408, 40
Moqui marbles, 178-80
Moran, Thomas, 116, 117 (Eig.), 118, 123
(Eig.), 124, 141
Morning sIar, 222, 223 (Eig.)
MI. SainI Helens, 10S, 106 (Eig.), 210
MI. \ilson ObservaIory, 1, S (Eig.), 427
(Eig.)
NaIional Fark Service NighI Sky Team, 3,
33, 407, 40 (Eig.), 410, 412, 43S
NaIional parks (scc nJvJual parl cntrcs),
348, 400, 40S, 406
asIronomy programs, 400, 401, 434
darkesI skies, 411 (Eig.), 430
NaIural Bridges NaIional MonumenI, 412,
41S-17 (Eig.)
InIernaIional Dark-Sky Fark, 416, 417
Navajo greeIing, 310
Navajo sandsIone, 164-6, 178-80
NepIune, S7, 111-13
NewIon, Sir Isaac, S2, S3 (Eig.), S4, 60, 72,
8, 318
NorIh CalacIic Fole, 23, 26, 32
NorIh SIar, 228, 230, 32S, 326
NorIhern Coal Sack Nebula, 13
NorIhwesI Fassage, 321, 328
Nuclear usion, 26-8, 304, 30S
Olbers' Faradox, 383, 384
OorI Cloud, 242, 372
Ophiuchus, 4
OrbiIal resonances, 121, 136
Orion Nebula (M42), 2, 27 (Eig.), 28,
314, 37S (Eig.)
Orion, Ihe HunIer, 2, 32, 2S1, 26 (Eig.),
302 (Eig.), 311, 314, 434
OuIgassing, 204
Fangaea, 264, 26S
Fappalardo, Bob, 83-S
Ferihelion, 1S0
Feriod o Heavy BombardmenI, 2S3, 341
Feriodic Iable o elemenIs, 23 (Eig.)
Ferseus, consIellaIion, 0, 2 (Eig.), , 2S0
FeIriied EoresI NaIional Fark, 1S3, 1S4
Fhobos, S4 (Eig.)
Fhoenix Mars Lander, 16, 17 (Eig.)
FlaneIary nebula, 303, 304 (Eig.)
FlaneIary SocieIy, 348, 3S6
FlaneIesimals, 331
Fleiades, 28, 302 (Eig.), 314
FluIo, S7, 371, 372 (Eig.)
Folaris (scc also NorIh SIar), 23, 228, 230,
2S0, 276 (Eig.), 277, 32S, 326
ForIage Clacier, Alaska, 212
mmk 5tars Above, Earth Below
Fowell ExpediIion o Ihe Colorado, 1SS
(Eig.), 1S6, 360 (Eig.), 373
Fowell, John \esley, 147, 1SS, 1S6, 160,
17, 360
Fulsar planeIs, 337
Quasars, 382 (Eig.), 383, 386
RadioacIive elemenIs, 107, 110, 120, 1,
201
RaIhbun, Julie, 128, 12, 131
Raven, 70
ReIrograde moIion, 47
Richman, Angie, 408
Rigel, 301, 314
Rocky MounIain NaIional Fark, 320, 324
(Eig.), 327, 328, 330 (Eig.)
Alpine VisiIor CenIer, 328
asIronomy programs, 32, 401
map, 321 (Eig.)
Trail Ridge Road, 32S (Eig.), 328 (Eig.)
Rocky MounIains, 323, 324, 327, 328
RoosevelI, Theodore, 360, 387, 388 (Eig.)
RoseIIa SpacecraI, 3, 400 (Eig.)
RouIe 66, 2SS, 2S7, 2S (Eig.)
Sagan, Carl 6, 24, 370, 38, 3
SagiIIarius A* (Sgr A*), SS, S6 (Eig.)
SagiIIarius, 4, S, 7, 8, 1S, 1, 26 (Eig.), 27,
2, 32, SS, 301 (Eig.)
SalpeIer, Ed, 38
Sapping, 16S (Eig.), 170 (Eig.), 171
SaIelliIes, arIiicial, 64
SaIurn, 111 (Eig.), 113, 131, 136, 137, 13,
14S, 370
Science, 36, 46, 62, 82, 83, 87, 218, 21,
363, 38
ScienIiic meIhod, S0, S3, S8, 1S, 232, 322
Scorpius, 4, S (Eig.), 28, 301 (Eig.)
Seasons, 227, 228, 22 (Eig.), 232, 261, 263,
277
Sedna, 371
Seeing, 14, 1S1, 1S3 (Eig.), 184
Seiching, 7S
Shimilaqsha, 14, 1S, 16
Shoemaker, Cene, 2S7
ShooIing sIar, 244, 24S
Sirius, 18, 314, 373
Sky QualiIy MeIers (SQM), 430
Soaer, Anna, 287, 288
Solar corona, 3S, 37 (Eig.), 61 (Eig.)
Solar SysIem, 111, 141, 144, 241, 244, 332
ormaIion, 241, 242, 243, 331
SolsIice markers (alignmenIs), 27, 280
(Eig.), 281, 282 (Eig.), 287-1, 311
SolsIice, summer and winIer, 278 (Eig.),
27, 287, 288, 21, 311
Space-Iime, S8, 61, 62
Speed o lighI, SS
Spica, 373
SpiIzer Space Telescope, 20 (Eig.), 21, 33
Squyres, SIeve, 160, 161, 174, 181, 186
SIandard candle, 377, 378
SIars, 27, 28, 2
age, 2
brighIness (or luminosiIy), 2, 300 (Eig.)
color, 301, 311, 314
disIance beIween, 22
ormaIion, 2S-7
mass, 2, 302, 303
parallax, 373
red gianI, 303
red supergianI, 303
size, 300 (Eig.)
specIrum, 33S (Eig.), 336
IemperaIure, 300 (Eig.), 301
whiIe dwar, 303
SIellar evoluIion, 314, 31S
SIellar wobble, 333, 33S (Eig.)
SIromaIoliIes, 210, 211 (Eig.), 382
Summer Triangle, 10, 11 (Eig.), 12, 16 (Eig.),
2, 3, 346, 347 (Eig.)
Sun, 277, 278, 370
Sunrise and seI posiIions, 277, 278, 27
SunwaIching shrine, 27
SuperclusIers o Calaxies, 380
Supernova, 22, 30S, 306, 30, 380 (Eig.)
Supervolcano, 11S
SuIclie, Ron, 28S, 286, 287, 316
SymmeIrical geography, 323, 324, 328
Taurus, Ihe Bull, 26 (Eig.), 28, 32, 302 (Eig.),
314
TecIonics, 164, 166, 207, 210
Terraorming, 220, 221
Tidal orces, 72, 7, 80, 84, 1 (Eig.), 4-6,
8, 121, 136, 137, 234, 263, 264
Tidal heaIing, 82, 83, 87, 121, 122, 138 (Eig.)
Index mml
Tidal locking, 78 (Eig.), 7, 2 (ig.), 263
Tides, 70-7, 234
neap, 77
perigean (asIronomical), 77
pools, 71 (Eig.), 8
spring, 77
TiIan, 132, 133 (Eig.), 134 (Eig.), 14S
lakes, 134, 13S (Eig.)
Tsimshian, 70
Tsimshian Iide Iale, 70, 71
Twain, Mark, 10S, 12, 2S1
Tycho CraIer, 236 (Eig.), 2S2, 2S3 (Eig.), 2S7
(Eig.), 260, 267 (Eig.)
Universe expansion, 38S, 386 (Eig.)
Uranus, S7, 111 (Eig.), 113
Ursa Major, Ihe CreaI Bear, 230, 231, 233
(Eig.)
Variable sIars,
Algol, 0, 2 (Eig.),
BeIa Lyrae, 3-S (Eig.), 102
Cepheids, scc Cepheid Variables
Mira (Omicron CeIi), 8, 0 (Eig.), 1
(Eig.), 102, 103 (Table)
Vega, 10, 11 (Eig.), 2, 3, 102, 373, 374
(Eig.)
Venus, 111 (Eig.), 112, 11, 203, 204 (Eig.),
20S (Eig.), 218, 222
aImosphere, 203, 206, 208
phases, 112, 222, 223 (Eig.)
surace, 20S (Eig.), 206
IransiI o 2012, 224 (Eig.), 22S (Table)
volcanism, 206 (Eig.), 207 (Eig.)
Vikings 1 and 2, 120, 160 (Eig.)
Virgo ClusIer o Calaxies, 37
Volcano, 10S, 106, 114, 12S, 23, 240
caldera, 23 (Eig.)
shield, 106, 120, 17
sIraIovolcano, 10S
volcanism, 87, 107, 17, 210
Voyager spacecraI, S3, 81 (Eig.), 82
Voyager 1, 120, 121 (Eig.), 124, 128, 131
Voyager 2, 131, 13S
Vulcan, S7
\alnuI Canyon NaIional MonumenI, 1S6
\ar o Ihe \orlds, 1S7
\hirlpool Calaxy (MS1), 6, 103
\upaIki NaIional MonumenI, 1S6 (Eig.)
YellowsIone hoIspoI, 108 (Eig.), 11S, 12S
YellowsIone NaIional Fark, 106-8 (Eig.),
114, 11S, 11, 12S, 127, 137, 141
caldera, 114-16 (Eig.), 12S, 127, 136
CasIle Ceyser, 107, 117 (Eig.)
Crand Canyon o Ihe YellowsIone, 118,
123 (Eig.), 124
map, 116 (Eig.)
MI. \ashburn, 11S, 12S
Old EaiIhul Ceyser, 108, 10 (Eig.), 110,
11S, 13S, 137, 13 (Eig.)
Upper Ceyser Basin, 11S, 117 (Eig.), 134
YosemiIe NaIional Fark, 1, 4, 11 (Eig.),
1S(Eig.), 17
Clacier FoinI, 3, 4 (Eig.), 7 (Eig.), 428
(Eig.)
map, 4 (Eig.)
Zodiacal band, 413
Zodiacal lighI, 413, 414 (Eig.), 431
mmm 5tars Above, Earth Below
Printing: Mercedes-Druck, Berlin
Binding: Stein + Lehmann, Berlin

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