Micro Forming3 (Present)

Fundamentals of Microforming Processes
Jian Cao
Department of Mechanical Engineering Northwestern University jcao@northwestern.edu www.mech.northwestern.edu/fac/cao
October 31, 2006

Northwestern University
Micro-Manufacturing - What is it?

Manufacture of products with the following features:
about 100 m to about 10 mm in size contain very complex 3-D (free-form) surfaces employ a wide range of engineering materials possess extremely high relative accuracies in the 10-3 to 10-5 range
Micro-milling Fanuc - Japan
Zeiss - Germany Micro-parts
Micro-structures manufactured by micro-SLA Japan
Klocke Nanotechnik Micro-Motor
Micro-EDM NTU - Taiwan
Applications of Metallic Microparts
Micro-Forming
Nexus Market Report for MEMS & Microsystems for 2005-2009
$12 billion market in 2004 $25 billion market in 2009 16% growth rate over the next five years
Parts used in:

Medical industry Consumer electronics Micro motors, pumps, valves Micro fuel cells Micro molds
Micro-Hydroforming
Reference: Tekniker
Reference: WTC-Wicht Technologie Consulting, Munich

Computer Integrated Manufacturing System

Basic Tests
Material Characteristics Friction Models Failure Criteria Computational Methods
Statistical Analysis
Materials
Analysis/ Simulation
Press
Sensors
Part/Tooling Design
Process Parameters
Content
Macro-forming Micro-forming
Part 1: Fundamentals
Material Microstructure Mechanical Properties
Part 2: Challenges
Size effect in material properties Size effect in frictional behavior
Macro-Metal Forming
Forming is a process in which tooling plastically deforms the incoming metal into the desired form.
Basic Types:
Sheet Forming Bulk Forming
Macro-Metal Forming
Sheet Forming
Sheet metal undergoes plastic deformation No significant changes in thickness occur, typically < 40% for steel alloys and < 20% for aluminum alloys
Macro-Metal Forming
Bulk Forming
Workpieces with relatively low surface area to volume ratios are plastically deformed Thickness and cross sectional area are greatly affected
Parts Formed by Bulk Forming

Reference: ASM Handbook 14A
Macro-Metal Forming
Advantages:
Energy and material savings Little to no scrap is produced Parts are created quickly High reliability Better mechanical properties due to strain hardening
Disadvantage:
Tool cost is high
Forming is most useful in large volume production
Macro-Metal Forming Classifications Sheet Forming

Shearing Drawing Bending
Bulk Forming
Rolling Extrusion Forging
Hydroforming
Shearing Operations
Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various die-cutting operations on sheet metal.
Shearing
Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2 and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.) thick AISI 1020 hotrolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P Weaver and K.J. Weinmann.
Shearing
- Process of cutting thin materials with dies or blades
1. Sheet metal is placed between a stationary lower cutting edge and a movable upper cutting blade.
2. As the upper blade is forced
down on the sheet, the blades penetrate the material until the shear strength is reached.
3. Fracture occurs and the
sheared piece falls away.

Reference: ASM Handbook 14B
Shearing
Limitations
Sheet thickness 50 mm Burr Formation
Present on both sheared piece and original sheet
Tolerance
0.4 mm for 1.5 mm sheet thickness
Tolerance increases with sheet thickness
Conventional Versus Fine-Blanking
Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking. Source: Courtesy of Feintool U.S. Operations.
Burr Formation
Clearance between cutting edges
Excessive clearance
Leads to extreme plastic deformation Causes large burrs
Insufficient clearance
Two fracture lines do not meet during deformation, causing secondary shear
Burr Formation
Affected by:
Material thickness
Burrs decrease with thickness
Material hardness
Softer metals produce larger burrs
Condition of cutting edges

Burr Formed by Shearing
Reference: Li, M.
Sharper tools reduce burrs
Clearance between cutting edges

Burr Formation
No formulas/tables exist for optimum clearance dimensions
Consult tables with recommended values Trial and error
Recommended Clearances for Penetration

Burr Formation
Cutting Angle
The angle at which the material is cut is critical to burr formation. For a 20 cutting angle, it is possible to achieve almost no burr formation. Large clearances and extremely dull blades have little effect.
Reference: Li, M.
10
Punching Limitations
Hole size
Limited by sheet material strength and thickness = 4 * * (T/D)
= punch stress = maximum shear stress of sheet metal T = sheet thickness D = punch diameter
Punching Considerations Buckling Prevention

(T/D) < 2.5
T = sheet thickness D = punch diameter
Sheet Distortion
Holes should be placed at least 2*T away from the sheet edge
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Drawing
A process in which flat sheet metal blank is pressed into a die cavity by a punch. Generally called deep drawing.
Beverage Can Formed by Drawing

Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diet_Coke.jpg Reference: Kalpakjian & Schmid
Compoun d Die and Progressi ve Die
Figure 16.11 Schematic illustrations: (a) before and (b) after blanking a common washer in a compound die. Note the separate movements of the die (for blanking) and the punch (for punching the hole in the washer). (c) Schematic illustration of making a washer in a progressive die. (d) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.
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Relationship between Average Normal Anisotropy and the Limiting Drawing Ratio
LDR = = Do Dp Maximum blank diameter Punch diameter
Figure 16.34 The relationship between average normal anisotropy and the limiting drawing ratio for various sheet metals. Source: After M. Atkinson.
Normal and Average Anisotropy

Normal anisotropy, R = Width strain = w Thickness strain t R0 + 2R45 + R90 Average anisotropy, Ravg = 4
Figure 16.33 Strains on a tensile-test specimen removed form a piece of sheet metal. These strains are used in determining the normal and planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.
Al 3003
Rolling direction R=0.40 45 degree R=0.92 90 degree R=1.04

13
Bending
Minimum bend radius
Springback
Ri R Y = 4 i ET Rf
R Y + 1 3 i ET

Bulk Forming
Hydroforming
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Bulk Forming
Rolling Rolls impart a pressure to a material to change its shape or thickness.
Extrusion A punch applies a force to plastically deform a billet into a new geometry
Roll Forging
Play-Doh Extrusion
Reference: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion
Rolling
Flat/Bar Rolling
Two work rolls squeeze the material to the desired thickness. Performs deformation very quickly. Used for railroad tracks, automobiles, sheet rolling.
Flat/Bar Rolling
Reference: http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nen am/metal-rolling-n-drawing.htm
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Rolling
Shape Rolling
Two work rolls squeeze the material to deform it to the desired geometry. Used to produce beams, columns, etc.
Shape Rolling
Rolling
Roll Forging
Two rolls with impressions press the heated metal to lengthen it and form the geometry. Air plane propeller-blades, tapered axle shafts, tableknives, hand shovels and spades are common examples.
Roll Forging
Reference: Kalpakjian & Schmid

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Cold Extrusion Advantages

High dimensional precision Superior surface finish Low energy consumption High production rates
Drawbacks
High loads required Limited deformation possible Limited shape complexity
Cold Extrusion
Forward Extrusion
Material flows in the same direction as the punch. Useful in shaft formation.
Backward Extrusion
Material flows in the direction opposite to the punch. Forms cup-like shapes.
Combined Forward/ Backward Extrusion

Material flows in both directions.
Lateral Extrusion
Material flows perpendicular to the punch.
Cold Extrusion types: a) Forward Extrusion b) Combined Forward/Backward Extrusion

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Cold Extrusion Pressure

Extrusion ratio has a large effect on extrusion pressure R = Ao/Af
Ao = Initial cross sectional area Af = Final cross sectional area
Hardness of the material

Harder materials require more pressure for deformation.
Billet/die interface friction

Larger friction factor increases required extrusion pressure.
Ram pressure in relation to tensile strength of steel for various extrusion ratios. (Forward Extrusion)
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Cold Extrusion Considerations Punch Design - Forward Extrusion

Less stress than backward extrusion
Length to diameter ratio is less important
Punch nose geometry is not critical

Usually flat Diameter very close to the bore of the die
0.025 to 0.125 mm smaller to prevent material from squeezing out
Cold Extrusion Considerations Die Design

Extrusion die angle (forward extrusion)
Dependent on extrusion ratio Typical angles vary from 5 to 30 (half angle) Angles for hollow parts range from 30 to 60 Large angles can create chevrons in the material after multiple extrusions Smaller angles increase material-die contact area Lower angles are preferred with higher reductions
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Chevron Cracking
Figure 15.16 (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected and later cause failure of the parts in service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the plastic zone can be made larger either by decreasing the die angle or by increasing the reduction in cross-section (or both). Source: After B. Avitzur.
Cold Extrusion Limitations Forward Extrusion

Maximum area reduction is 30-35%
Up to 70-75% if the billet is fully enclosed in the die
Ratio of length of extruded part to billet diameter is limited to 8:1
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Ram pressure in relation to tensile strength of steel for various extrusion ratios. (Backward Extrusion)
Cold Extrusion Considerations Punch Design - Backward Extrusion

Limit length to diameter ratio to 3:1 to provided strength necessary for high loads Punch nose geometry
Affects force distribution Controls lubrication flow Optimal: 170 tapered punch nose
Gradual angles in punch stem and shoulders to prevent stress concentration

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Cold Extrusion Limitations Backward Extrusion

Reduction ratio varies from 20-25% to 7075% Maximum hole depth is three times the hole diameter Thickness of cup bottom must be greater than or equal to cup wall thickness
Cold Extrusion Considerations

Tooling design
Proper alignment of die and punch Allowances for excess material volume Friction between tooling and billet Balance of metal flow Uniform metal flow velocity Ease of assembly Stress concentration Load distribution Elastic deflection
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Cold Extrusion Considerations Die Design

Shrink-fit rings are used to balance high hoop stresses in the die
Maximum effective shrink-fit ring diameter is 45 times the die diameter Pressures less than half the yield stress do not need reinforcement
Closed-Die Forging Versus Flashless Forging
Figure 14.9 Comparison of closed-die forging with flash (left side of each illustration) and precision or flashless forging (right side) of a round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
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Bulk Forming
Hydroforming
Hydroforming
Process in which fluid under pressure is used to deform material
Hydroforming sheet metal Hydroforming tubes
Reference: http://lcdev.kek.jp/photos/20060610Di/200606 10Di-026.html

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Sheet Hydroforming
1. 2.
3. 4.
The material is placed on the blankholder. The pressure dome, filled with pressurized fluid, is placed over the material and hydraulic pressure is applied. Fluid pressure increases as the punch is raised into the cavity. The fluid pressure causes the material to deform to the punch geometry.
Tube Hydroforming
1. Dies with the desired geometry are prepared. 2. A tube section is inserted into the dies. 3. The ends of the dies are sealed around the tube.
5.
Tube Hydroforming Process

4. High-pressure fluid is injected into the cavity to form the tube to the die.
The completed tube section is released from the die.
Reference: http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phasetrans/2006/hydroforming.html
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Computer Integrated Manufacturing System

Basic Tests
Material Characteristics Friction Models Failure Criteria Computational Methods
Statistical Analysis
Materials
Analysis/ Simulation
Press
Sensors
Part/Tooling Design
Process Parameters
Content
Part 2: Challenges
26
Common Crystal Structures
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Packing Factor = 68%
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Packing Factor = 74%
Hexagonal Closed-Packed (HCP) Packing Factor = 74%
Diamond Cubic (DC) Packing Factor = 34%

Crystal Structures of the Metallic Elements
Hosford: Physical Metallurgy, 2005

27
Melting Points
Melting point correlates well with the Youngs modulus and the coefficient of thermal expansion. Hosford: Physical Metallurgy, 2005
Pole Figure
A pole figure is a graphical representation of the orientation of objects in space. For example, pole figures in the form of stereographic projections are used to represent the orientation distribution of crystallographic lattice planes in crystallography and texture analysis in materials science.
Pole figure of a diamond lattice in [111] direction.

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Miller Indices
Notations in a Cubic
[lmn] a direction (lmn) planes orthogonal to a direction [lmn] {lmn} - all planes that are equivalent to (lmn) by the symmetry of the crystal <lmn> - all directions that are equivalent to [lmn] by symmetry
z [001] y [010] x [100]

Miller directions Lattice planes and their miller indices Ref. Ashcroft & Mermin (1976) Solid States Physics
Stereographic Projection
z
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Sample Pole Figures
Inverse Pole Figure

While the pole figure shows how the specified crystallographic direction of grains are distributed in the sample reference frame, the inverse pole figure shows how the selected direction in the sample reference frame is distributed in the reference frame of the crystal.
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Texture
Texture is the distribution of crystallographic orientations of a sample. Texture can be determined by X-ray diffraction, or the EBSD-method (electron backscatter diffraction) in Scanning Electron Microscopes, or neutron diffraction.
Texture
Pole figure of cold rolled and recrystallized brass. It shows a very strong crystallographic texture. [Beck and Hu]
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Rotation of the Crystal Lattice

Large plastic deformation
Crystal Lattice slips
Rotation of crystal lattice in tension
Tensile/Compression axis changes but is constrained by the frame in (b)
Crystal lattice undergoes rotation in (c)

Rotation of crystal lattice in compression
Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
Texture - Copper
Left (after thermal annealing) : no texture Right (cold working): cubic texture From the axe with the 5300-year-old mummy of the Iceman Neuron for Science www.ill.fr
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Single Crystal Plasticity

At room temperature the major source of deformation is the location movements through crystal lattice Schmids Law
Yield would begin on a slip system when the resolved shear stress on this slip plane and in the slip direction reached a critical value, independent of the tensile axial stress and the other normal stress on the lattice plane
c =
c cos cos
c = critical axial stress c = critical resolved shear stress = angle that the slip plane normal n makes with the loading axis = angle that the slip direction s makes with the loading axis cos cos = Schmid factor
Slip plane and slip direction
Shear Stress-Shear Strain Curve

The critical shear stress c is usually a function of plastic strain and will increase due to the material hardening caused by plastic deformation Based on the experimental studies on aluminum crystals, Taylor and Elam (1936) proposed the approximated equation
c =
1 2
Where, = material constant = resolved shear strain of the slip system
Stage I: Hardening rate is low (easy glide region) Stage II: Much higher hardening process Stage III: Characterizing a decreased hardening rate Several conditions that decide whether a particular stage will occur: orientation of the crystals, purity, temperature during deformation, material, grain size, surface condition, strain rate
c- curve
33
Micromechanics Consideration of Taylor and Elams Equation
Taylors dislocation model for hardening of single crystals
L ( L / 2) b Lb = = L ad
c = KG
b L
1/ 2
Where, L = dimension of the crystal or the distance to the boundary b = magnitude of Burgers vector = average dislocation density = 2/ad G = shear modulus K = proportionality factor
FCC
z [001]
y [010] x [100]
34
Single-Slip and Multislip Modes

Whether or not a slip system is active depends on the Schmid factor, which in turn depends on the orientation of the crystal relative to the loading axis
Designation of slip systems in FCC crystals
Standard [0 0 1] stereographic projection of FCC crystals
Suppose that all the slip systems have the same initial critical stress, c If the loading axis is within any one of the triangles, only one slip system will operate, called single-slip It is possible that more than two slip systems can be operative at the same time, called multislip
Single and Multi Slip Systems for Rigid Plasticity Models Single Slip
According to Taylors minimum principle, the active slip systems in single slip can be determined as shown below, Where () is the resolved stress-resolved strain or slip curve and also m is independent of the amount of strain
1 = = =m cos cos = m ( ) = m (m )
Multi Slip
Consider the general case where the deformation rate is arbitrarily given Due to the incompressibility, the number of independent components of the deformation rate is five and the relations can be seen in the reference (Khan & Huang, pp. 387) The valid combination of shear rates is the one for which the sum of their absolute values is minimum, satisfying Taylors minimum work principle
35
Overshooting and Latent Hardening Effect

Boundary
At the beginning, only a 2 is activated (primary system)
Slip direction rotates toward boundary
If Schmid factor of a 2 = that of b1 (secondary system) Double slip occurs
Tensile axis overshoots the boundary
Higher
on secondary system
Slip systems are hardened by slip on slip on other systems latent hardening
Continuum Mechanics
Indicial notation
A vector is denoted in indicial notation by xi, where the range of the index is the number of dimensions Indices repeated twice in a term are summed For example in three dimensions
xixi = x1x1 + x2x2 + x3x3
Tensor notation
The indices are not shown The symbol : denotes the contraction of a pair of repeated indices which appear in the same order For example, A:B = AijBij
Ref. Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005) Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures
36
Deformation and Motion

Definitions
0 = Undeformed (initial) configuration = Deformed (current) configuration
Undeformed (initial) and deformed (current) configurations of a body
Motion
xi = i (X, t )
Deformation gradient x Fij = i X j
Displacement, velocity, and acceleration

(X, t ) =u t v(X, t ) a(X, t ) = =v t v (X, t ) =
ui = i (X j , t ) X i
Ref. Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005) Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures)
Strain and Stress Measures

Green strain tensor 1 E = (F F I )
T
Velocity gradient
L= v v , Lij = i x x j
Cauchy stress
n d = df = td
Rate of deformation
D=
Spin
1 L + LT 2
) )
Nominal Stress
n 0 Pd0 = df = t 0 d0
Where t is the traction
W=
1 L LT 2
Jaumann rate
J =
D W WT Dt
Ref. Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005) Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures
37
Kinematics of Single-Crystal Deformation

The crystal undergoes a plastic (shear) deformation due to the dislocation movements through the crystal lattice During this plastic deformation, the orientation and crystal lattice spacing remain unchanged
Kinematics of single-crystal deformation
dx = F dX dp = F P dX
u p = s0 n0 X F p = I + s0 n0
Where, x = current coordinate X = initial coordinates F = deformation gradient dp = corresponding infinitesimal line element after deformation up = displacement caused by plastic flow p = shear strain n = slip normal s = slip direction
Kinematics of Single-Crystal Deformation

Plastic deformation Lattice and material deform elastically Elastic unloading Slip normal and directions deform Asaro (1983) showed that the following equations could be obtained
L = Le + s n
=1
n
Lattice is distored Lattice returns original orienation
D = D + P
e
=1
n
W =W +
e
=1
s = F e s0 , n = n0 F e
( )
e
s = L s , n = n L
e
Where, L = velocity gradient Le = elastic velocity gradient D = deformation rate De = elastic deformation rate W = spin tensor We = elastic spin tensor
and
1 s 0 n0 + n0 s0 2 1 = s 0 n0 n0 s0 0 2 P0 =
) )
38
Elastic-Plastic Constitutive Equations for Single Crystals

Since the crystal lattice is not altered by the dislocation slip, it is assumed that the elastic behavior of the crystal is not changed during the elastic-plastic deformation Hill and Rice (1972) suggested the elastic laws of the crystals under large deformation as follow,
= C ep : D
C ep = C I C : P + g P : [C I ]
1 n n
=1 =1
=
g = h + P : C : P
Where, = Jaumann rate of Cauchy stress C = fourth-order tensor of elastic moduli h = hardening modulus matrix characterizing the material behavior of the crystalline solids
Hardening Rules for Single Crystals

General form
d = h d
Observations 1. Latent hardening rate >> self-hardening rate 2. Hardening rate of primary system < hardening rate of slip systems to primary system 3. Other intersection slip systems harden at the highest rate Other hardening models 1. Taylor 2. Nakada and Keh 3. Hayer and Shalaby 4. Pierce, Asaro, and Needleman 5. Weng
Note: See reference for more details
39
Rigid Plasticity; Uniaxial Tension

General form of constitutive equations for rigid plasticity of single crystal can be obtained as follow,
Where,
o D = k111 P1 : P1 o W P = k111 P1 : 1
1 1 1 1 1 s n +n s 2 1 1 = s1n1 n1s1 2 k11 = h P1 : 1 1 P1 =
Note: h is experimentally obtained hardening modulus in single slip
The relation between the increment of the axial stress and axial strain is
h (cos 2 cos 2 ) = 2 2 2 cos 2 cos 2 cos cos
= D
Where is the unit vector in the loading direction
Polycrystal Plasticity
An aggregate of a great number of single-crystal grains with different orientations
Determination of slip systems
FCC crystals 12 or 24 slip systems
Equivalent stress = initial yield stress Most metals, Initial yield stress is 2 or 3 orders less than E
Material behavior
D = D P = P
=1
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Taylors Minimum Work Principle

Of all possible combinations of the 12 shears that can produce the assigned strain, only that the combination for which the energy dissipation is least is operative and can be expressed mathematically as,
Where,

=1 c =1 c* *
= activated shears that produce the force deformation rate D

c* = current shear strength of the th geometrically possible slip system that may not be compatible with external applied stress * = any set slips that are geometrically equivalent to the prescribed D
c = current shear strength of the th activated slip systems
The slip systems are assumed to harden at the same rate Taylors minimum principle is used to determine the combination of slip systems that will occur when a prescribed deformation rate is forced on a crystal by an external energy
Content
Part 2: Challenges
41
Copper-Zinc Phase Diagram
Phase fcc Phase - bcc
( ) = K ( ) n
Effects of Zinc in Copper-Zinc Alloys (Brass)
Zinc is cheaper than copper. Zinc lowers the melting temperature. Zinc raises the tensile strength. Zinc increases the strain hardening ( ) = K ( ) n , better coefficient, n in formability. A typical n value varies from 0.4 in pure copper to 0.6 in 65-35 copper zinc alloy. The n value also depends on the grain size.
42
Zinc Effect
The increase of tensile strength with increasing zinc. The tensile strength is also increased by a finer grain.
Mendenhall, J.H. 1977

The Hall-Petch Relationship

y = 0 +
K d
K is the constant and d is the mean grain size.

E.O.Hall, Proc. Phys. Soc., Ser. B, Vol. 64, pp. 747-753, (1951). N.J.Petch, J. Iron and Steel Institute, pp. 25-28, May 1953.
370 Tensile strength (MPa) 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 Mean grain size (mm)
Exp. Hall-Petch
Exp. Data obtained from the previous slide on CuZn30.
43
The Hall-Petch Relationship

y = 0 +
K d
K is the constant and d is the mean grain size.

E.O.Hall, Proc. Phys. Soc., Ser. B, Vol. 64, pp. 747-753, (1951). N.J.Petch, J. Iron and Steel Institute, pp. 25-28, May 1953.
370 Tensile strength (MPa) 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 Mean grain size (mm)
Exp. Hall-Petch
Exp. Data obtained from the previous slide on CuZn30.
Size Effect on Grain Size Strengthening

Hardness or strength grain size effects
Hall-Petch S ~ d-1/2
Grain size d
Technical University of Eindhoven
44

Chokshi et al., 1989
Technical University of Eindhoven

Size Effect on Grain Size Strengthening Aluminum
From Geers, M. Technical University of Eindhoven

45
Compression tested UNS12000 copper cylinders. d is the grain size and D is the sample diameter (5 mm). A lack of grain size effect on strength is evident. (MIRDC)
.
Tsai, M. -C., Y. -A. Chen, C. -F. Wu, F. -K. Chen. 2004. Size effect in micro-metal forming of copper and brass. Forging, 13:2, 41-46 [in Chinese with English abstract].

Tension tested UNS12000 copper. d is the grain size and T is the sample gage thickness. From MIRDC. The strength appears to correlate to d/T, not d.
46

Calculated flow stress compared to experimental values for a strain equal to 0.4, based on a rule of mixtures between surface and interior grains.
400
350 Calculated Stress (MPa)
300
250
.
200 200 250 300 350 400 Experimental Stress (MPa)
Bourell, D, WTEC report, 2005

Size Effect on Material Properties
F. Vollertsen, Z. Hu, H. Schulze Niehoff, C. Theiler, State of the art in micro forming and investigations into micro deep drawing, JMPT. 151 (2004) 7079.
47
Raulea, L.V., Goijaerts, A.M., Govaert, L.E. and Baaijens, F.P.T., Size effects in the processing of thin metal sheets, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 115 (2001), 44-48. Uniaxial tension tests and bending experiments to investigate the effect grain size and specimen size for Aluminum.
Bending Experiments
Thickness to grain size ratio Two distinct regions: Multiple grains over thickness: Hall-Petch effect Single grain over thickness: reversed trend, increased scatter
Michel, J.F. and Picart, P., Size effects on the constitutive behavior for brass in sheet metal forming, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 141 (2003), 439-446.
Tensile tests and hydraulic bulge tests for brass. New proposed model for flow stress curves
Tensile Tests
Hydraulic Bulge Tests
(Flow stress independent of size effects)
Proposed Model:
(F = Corrective factor, = sheet thickness)
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Grain Size
Measurement of grain size uses ASTM Standard Mean Lineal Intercept Method (Heyn) draw lines randomly with respect to the microstructure count the number of intersections per length (N) 70/30 Brass an alloy widely used for tubes, sheets and wires.
the average linear intercept is then 1/N
Micro-Forming Size Limitations

Size Limitations Due to:
Gripping and positioning of the part Grain size effect Alignment of punch and die Precision of machine at high speeds
Ex: Forming objective: 300 parts/minute, diameter = 0.5 mm. Must transfer part between stations in ~0.2 sec and position it with an accuracy of a few microns. The current technology is not capable of this accuracy.
Complex inner geometries

Reference: Geiger et. al.
49
Micro-Forming Size Limitations Size Limitation Examples:

Cold forging
Frictional forces become increasingly important As part size decreases, relative punch pressure increases
Punching
Punch forces do not decrease with size Miniature punches must withstand very high forces to puncture the material
Laser-Assisted Micro-forming
Jens P. Wulfsberg, Sven-Eric Hilpert, Andreas Ostendorf, Christian J. Kulik, Thorsten Temme, and Katja Samm, Sapphire tools for laser-assisted microforming, Fourth International Symposium on Laser Precision Microfabrication, Vol. 5063, pp. 172-176
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Heat-Assisted Micro-Embossing
Ni, Jun et al. (2006), Micro/meso-scale Manufacturing and Applications, ICFDM 2006
Micro-machining Micro-forming (heat assisted) semi-solid forming for micro-reactor mass production Energy device
Micro-Sheet Forming
Saotome, Y. and Okamoto, T., An in-situ incremental forming system for three dimensional shell structures of foil materials, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113 (2001), 636-640.
Principle of incremental sheet metal forming
SEM micrograph of deformed specimen (a car body) fabricated using 10 m aluminum sheet.
Specimen formed using a silicon die

51
Micro-Sheet Forming
Saotome, Y. Yasuda, K, Kaga, H., Microdeep drawability of very thin sheet steels, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113 (2001), 641-647.
Material: low carbon steel Thickness: 0.05, 0.10, 0.20 and 1.00 mm Material mechanical properties were reported for each thickness. Different die radii and punch diameters were used in the experiments. Grain sizes were not reported. Lubricant and surface condition were not reported. Experimental results were compared to the calculated punch force based on the macro-deep drawing of sheet metals. Results of the comparison are shown in the figure.
Micro-Sheet Forming
Vollersten, F., Hu, Z., Schulze Niehoff, H. and Theiler, C. (2004), State of the art in microforming and investigations into micro deep drawing, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 151, 70-79.
Review of microforming technology and research. Experimental investigations of micro deep-drawing.
Failures in micro deep-drawing of Al 99.5

52
Micro-Bending
Anisotropy Springback Electronics industry Force size effect
N Matsushita (2003) Laser bending, SPIE Vol. 5063 2003
Micro-Punching
Joo, B.Y., Oh, S.L. (2001) Development of micro punching system, CIRP, Vol. 50(1), pp. 191-194. (see right) 100 micron meter hole Sang Min Yi, Byung Yun Joo, Min Soo Park, Chong Nam Chu, SooIk Oh (2006) Mechanical punching of 15 m size hole, Microsystem Technologies, Vol. 12(9), 877-882, 15 m hole, 13 m thick, brass & stainless steel foil.
Ike, H., Microforming of cavities for direct-marking of twodimensional barcode symbols, ESAFORM 2006
53
Micro-Sheet Forming Equipment
Qin, Yi, Proc. Of ESAFORM 2006, April, Glasgow, 2006 Multi-station Univ. of Strathclyde (U.K.), Tekniker (Spain), Gammastamp SpA (Italy), Pascoe Engineering (U.K.)
High-speed Micro-sheet forming progress die

Micro-Extrusion
Geiger, M., Kleiner, M., Eckstein, R., Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming, Keynote Paper, Annals of the CIRP, 50-2 (2001), 445-462.
Material: CuZn15
Extruded Micromotor Shaft
54
Micro-Extrusion
Saotome, Y. and Iwazaki, H., Superplastic backward microextrusion of microparts for micro-electro-mechanical systems, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 119 (2001), 307-311. Microgear shafts of dia. 200 m.
Micro-die fabricated from photochemically machinable glass.
Microgear shaft made from Al-78Zn superplastic alloy. Pitch circle dia. = 200 m
Extrusion machine fabricated as a microfactory cell

Micro-Extrusion Equipment
Arentoft, M. and Padan, N.A., Production equipment for manufacturing of micro metal components, Proc. Of ESAFORM 2006, April, Glasgow, 2006, 579-582.
Sub-millimeters in diameter A few microns in geometrical accuracy IPU (Denmark), Pascoe Engineering (Scotland) and IPK (Germany)
High-speed Micro-press
55
Cao, J., Krishnan, N., Wang, Z., Lu, H., Liu, W.K., Swanson, A. (2004) Microforming Experimental investigation of the extrusion process for micropins and its numerical simulation using RKEM, ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol. 126, pp. 642652.
1st generation NU micro-press Load capacity: 10kN Max. ram speed: 0.18 mm/sec Linear bearing
Ehmann, K., Krishnan, N. and Cao, J (2006)
210 mm
405 mm
150 mm
Assembled Micro-extruder 2nd generation NU micro-press with sub-assembly, actuator and support frame Load capacity: 19 kN (up to 100mm/sec) Max. ram speed: 230 mm/sec Electro-mechanical actuator
56
Micro-Extrusion Punch Pressure

Grain Size (m) 32 32 32 32 211 211 211 211 Die set (mm/mm) 0.76/0.57 1.50/1.00 1.75/1.17 2.00/1.33 0.76/0.57 1.50/1.00 1.75/1.17 2.00/1.33 Billet Diameter (mm) 0.76 1.5 1.75 2 0.76 1.5 1.75 2 Punch Pressure (GPa) 1.86
Punch Pressure (GPa)
2.00 1.90 1.80 1.70 1.60 1.50 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1
Micro-Extrusion Punch Pressure

32um 211um
1.32 1.51 1.64 1.69 1.06 1.59 1.25
Billet Diameter (mm)
Micro-Extrusion Analytical Models

Two models were considered by Avitzur and Altan Avitzurs Model
Assumptions - Upper-bound model - Rotationally symmetric - Spherical velocity field at the die inlet - Constant flow stress - Follows von-Mises Law
Where, p = extrusion pressure pi = pressure required for internal deformation ps = pressure required for shear deformation in the reduction zone psf = pressure required to overcome friction along the die surface in the reduction zone pf = pressure required to overcome friction along the billet/container interface.
p = pi + ps + psf + p f pi = 0 f ( ) ln( R ) ps = 2 psf =
2 cot 3 sin m3 cot ln( R ) L cot m4 1 1 R r0
0
3
pf = 2
0
3
0 = flow stress of the material f ( )= geometric factor (equal to 1.00625 for =30) = semi-cone angle of the die, L = billet length, r0 = billet radius, m3, m4 = friction factors along the die surface and container surface.
Ref. Avitzur (1965) Analysis of Metal Extrusion
57
Micro-Extrusion Analytical Models

Altans Model
Assumptions - Slab model for asymmetric extrusion - Constant flow stress - Follows von-Mises Law
p = pi + p s + psf + p f Pi = r02 0 ln( R ) 2 cot 3 sin ln( R ) 2 0 Psf = r0 m3 sin cos 3 Ps = 2r02
Where, Pf = 2r0 Lm4 0 3 p = extrusion force, pi = force required for internal homogeneous deformation , 0 = flow stress of the material ps = force required for shear f ( )= geometric factor (equal to 1.00625 for =30) = semi-cone angle of the die, deformation L = billet length, psf = force required to overcome r0 = billet radius, friction along the die surface pf = force required to overcome friction m3, m4 = friction factors along the die surface and container surface. along the container surface
Ref. Altan, T., Oh, S. and Gegel, L.H. (1983) Metal Forming: Fundamentals and Applications
Size effect in Friction
Friction depends on
Surface roughness of the contact pair Material pair Contact pressure Lubricant Temperature
58
Stribeck Curve
Competing mechanisms Coulomb and hydrodynamic friction

viscosity U velocity W load
Friction in Micro-extrusion
Geiger, M., Kleiner, M., Eckstein, R., Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming, Keynote Paper, Annals of the CIRP, 50-2 (2001), 445-462.
Forward rod backward can extrusion of CuZn15 specimens from 0.5 to 4 mm with different grain size (4 m and 120 m). Double Cup Extrusion
Specimens with grainsize bigger than cup thickness resist cup formation
Shape of the rim is irregular because grains of different size and orientation have to pass through a clearance between die and punch which is much smaller than the mean grain size.
59
Friction in micro-extrusion
Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming Effects of miniaturization, Metal forming 2000, ISBN: 90 5809 1570, pp.355-360.
Friction in micro-sheetforming
Vollersten, F., Hu, Z., Schulze Niehoff, H. and Theiler, C. (2004), State of the art in microforming and investigations into micro deep drawing, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 151, 70-79.
Friction coefficient in microforming is great than that in macro-forming. They showed that with the increasing of lubrication the friction force decreases, but the decreasing in micro forming is significant higher than that in macro forming. Friction coefficient decreases when the contact pressure increases. (with lubricant)
60
Friction in micro-ring_compression
A. Messner, U. Engel, R. Kals and F. Vollertsen (1994), SIZE EFFECT IN THE FESIMULATION OF MICRO-FORMING PROCESSES, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 45 (1994) 371-376.
Grain size: 47 m and 79 m. Material: CuZn15 Specimen size: 1.0, 2.0, 4.8mm no significant dependency between friction behaviou and specimen dimension.
Experimental Set-up for Microextrusion

32 micron 211 micron
CuZn30 billets with varying grain size Segmented Dies Forming assembly
Loading stage with forming assembly mounted. Force-displacement response for microextrusion
* Cao, J., Krishnan, N., Wang, Z., Lu, H., Liu, W.K., Swanson, A., (2004) Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, Vol.126, pp. 642-652. Northwestern University
61
Effect of surface roughness on ram force

Krishnan, N., Cao, J. and Dohda K. (2006) Study of the Size Effect on Friction Conditions in Micro-extrusion: Part 1 Micro-Extrusion Experiments and Analysis, accepted to ASME J. Manufacturing Science and Engineering.
5 32 micron (1) 4 Ram force (kN) 3 2 1 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Ram displacement (mm) 32 micron (2) 32 micron (3)
First set of results for each case is lower than other tests

5 4 Ram force (kN) 3 2 1 0 0
5 32 micron (1)87 micron (1) 32 micron (2)87 micron (2) 4 32 micron (3)87 micron (3) Ram force (kN) 3 2 1 0 0.5 0
1 0.5
1.5 1 2 1.5 2.5 2 Ram displacement displacement (mm) Ram (mm)
3 2.5
62

5 4 Ram force (kN) 3 2 1 0 0
Ram force (kN)
3 2 1 0 0.5 0
Ram force (kN)
5 5 32 micron (1)87 micron (1) 200 micron 32 micron (2)87 micron (2) 200 micron (2) 4 4 32 micron (3)87 micron (3) 200 micron (3)
3 2 1
0 1 0.5 0
1.5 1 2 1.5 2.5 2 3 2.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 Ram displacement displacement (mm) Ram (mm) Ram displacement (mm)
2.5 3

1.5mm region
3
Surface Roughness (microns)
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -1 0
Ra Rq
32
1
87 211 211 87 32 211 87 32

2 3 4 5 Test Number 6 7 8 9 10
63

1.5mm region
1.0mm region
3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5
Ra Rq
Ra Rq
3
2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -1 0
32
87 211 211 87 32 211 87 32
32
1
87 211 211 87 32 211 087 32 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Test Number
10
Test Number
Surface roughness decreases during initial tests and then remains approximately the same
FEM simulations
Mesh: 3600 2D axisymmetric reduced-integration elements (CAX4R) with the adaptive meshing. Die and container surfaces are modeled as rigid analytical solids. Young's modulus E=5429MPa, a Poisson's ratio =0.34, a von-Mises yield surface and isotropic hardening. Plastic behavior of the material is modeled using the power law where the strength coefficient K=379 MPa and the strain hardening exponent n=0.49.
500 True Stress (MPa) 400 300
1.3 mm (6 grains)
6 (Extruded length) / (Billet Diameter)
0.76 : 0.57 mm 1.50 : 1.00 mm 1.75 : 1.17 mm 2.00 : 1.33 mm
200 100 0 0 0.1 0.2
1.3 mm (6 grains) 0.8 mm (4 grains) 0.8 mm (4 grains) 0.4 mm (2 grains)
Deformed mesh and contour plot for equivalent plastic strain at a friction coefficient of 0.1 (2.00 : 1.33 mm case)
0.3
0.4
True Strain True stress v/s True strain (211 micron grain size)
1
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Tensile test results for 211 micron grain size material with samples of varying cross-section.
Friction Coefficient
Pin length variation with changes in friction coefficient

64
Estimation of friction coefficient
Extruded pins obtained from experiments using the four different dies, (a) 0.76:0.57 mm die, (b) 1.50:1.00 mm die, (c) 1.75:1.17 mm die, (d) 2.00:1.33 mm die.
Die Geometry 0.76 : 0.57 mm 1.50 : 1.00 mm 1.75 : 1.17 mm 2.00 : 1.33 mm
Sample 1 (minimum) 3.14 mm 3.48 mm 3.37 mm 3.28 mm
Sample 2 (intermediate) 3.72 mm 3.58 mm 3.65 mm 3.30 mm
Sample 3 (maximum) 3.91 mm 3.65 mm 3.69 mm 3.41 mm
Mean 3.59 mm 3.57 mm 3.57 mm 3.33 mm

Estimation of friction coefficient

Friction Coefficients from comparison of Experiments and FEM simulations
0.25
0.2 Friction Coefficient
0.15
Pin Length Extrusion Force
0.1
0.05
Friction Factors from comparison of Experiments and Analytical Models

0.76 : 0.57 1.50 : 1.00 1.75 : 1.17 2.00 : 1.33 1
0 Die Extrusion Ratio 0.8 Friction Factor
Difference in predictions is apparent at smaller extrusion ratios. Force comparisons show a decrease in friction at smaller pin dimensions.
0.6
Avithzur Altan et al.
0.4
0.2
0 0.76 : 0.57 1.50 : 1.00 1.75 : 1.17 2.00 : 1.33 Die Extrusion Ratio
Decrease in friction factor can be observed for smaller extrusion ratios. Northwestern University
65
Coating Effect
5 R am forc e (k N ) 4 3 2 1 0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 Ram displacement (mm)
Fig. 12: Averaged force-displacement response for all dies.
uncoated DLC-Si CrN TiN
Friction Tests
Stored-energy Kolsky bar
Incident (input) bar. Transmitted (output) bar. Friction samples attached between the two bars. Static axial load applied by the axial load device. Torsional load produced by torque device and stored by clamp.
Clamp release produces a torsional pulse along incident bar. Pulse transmitted to the output bar via contacting frictional surfaces. Stresses measured with strain gages. Ratio of transmitted torsional stress to the incident compressive stress gives an estimate of the friction coefficient.
66
Friction Tests
Typical Signals from the Wheatstones bridge
Normal Stress:
NI = axial compression load, Ac = contact area, ro, ri = outer and inner radii of the annulus. Averaged Shear Stress:
TT = transmitted torsional pulse Friction Coefficient:
Espinosa, H.D., Patanella, A., Fischer, M., 2000, "A Novel Dynamic Friction Experiment Using a Modified Kolsky Bar Apparatus," Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 138-153.
Friction Tests
Test Scenarios: Vary grain size of CuZn30 Vary contact pressure Vary contact area

Friction Specimens
All samples ground and lapped to ensure perfect flatness. Low contact pressure = 22MPa. High contact pressure = 250 MPa. High pressure test samples were pre-compressed at 150 MPa to prevent indentation of steel into brass
1018 Steel Cups Annular contact along the rim ensures that the torsional stress profile is almost constant. Large area test: 25.4mm outer dia., 1 mm thick. Small area test: 9mm outer dia., 0.5 mm thick.
1.25 CuZn30 brass disc.
Heat-treatment to produce different grain size
550 deg. C for 1 hr (32 micron)
700 deg. C for 1 hr (211 micron)

67
Friction Tests
Mori, L., Krishnan, N., Cao, J. and Espinosa, H.D., 2006, Study of the Size Effects and Friction Conditions in Micro-extrusion: Part IISize effect in dynamic friction for brasssteel pairs, submitted to ASMEJ. Manufacturing Science and Technology.
for high pressure tests lower than low pressure results because of lower surface roughness caused by pre-compression. for all tests in the range 0.28 ~ 0.38. for the 211 micro small area test lower than the results for the other tests. Sliding velocity for large area tests = 5~6 m/s Sliding velocity for large area tests = 0.8 m/s
Friction Tests
Test Results:
68
Friction Tests: Surface profile

Pre-compression indent for High pressure Tests
32 micron grain size; Indent ~ 30 m
211 micron grain size; Indent ~ 50 m
Small area test (211 micron) ; Indent ~ 50 m

Friction Tests: References

Wang W, Wagoner RH, Wang XJ (1996) Measurement of friction under sheet forming conditions Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A- Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, 27(12), 3971-3981. Bending under tension tests for dynamic friction. Punch speed = 200 mm/s. CuZn30 Brass in contact with A2 steel (Ra=0.2 microns) Dynamic Friction Coefficient (dry) = 0.26~0.32 Davim PJ (2000) An experimental study of the tribological behavior of the brass/steel pair Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 100, 273-277. Pin-on-disc friction test, velocity = 0.1 ~1.0 m/s. CuZn30 Brass and Ck45 (1045) steel. Contact pressure = 1MPa~10MPa. Dynamic Friction Coefficient = 0.18~0.28 Kim DE, Hwang DH (1998) Experimental investigation of the influence of machining condition on the contact sliding behavior of metals Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 120, 395-400. Pin-on-disc friction test, velocity = 0.3 ~ 0.5 m/s. CuZn40 (Ra=0.2~0.4 microns) Brass in contact with STB2 steel (Ra=0.15 microns) Contact pressure = 150kPa. Dynamic Friction Coefficient = 0.25
69
Friction Tests: References

Ogawa K (1997) Impact friction test method by applying stress wave Experimental Mechanics, 37(4), 398-402. Modified split Hopkinson bar method, sliding velocity up to 5m/s Brass in contact with brass (Ra=0.07 microns) Contact pressure = 100MPa. Dynamic Friction Coefficient = 0.20~0.30 ( almost constant independent of normal force or sliding velocity). Sofuoglu H, Gedikli H, Rasty J (2001) Determination of friction coefficient by employing the ring compression test Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, 123, 338-348. Ring compression test, velocity = 5.1 mm/min. Brass samples Friction Coefficient = 0.12~0.20
ASM Handbook, CuZn40 on Tool Steel, Dynamic Friction Coefficient = 0.24
References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
ASM Handbok. (2006). Metalworking. (Vol. 14). Materials Park: ASM International http://www.ganoksin.com/borisat/nenam/metal-rolling-n-drawing.htm Li, M., 2000, An experimental Investigation on Cut Surface and Burr in Trimming Aluminum Autobody Sheet, International Journal of Mechanics Science, 42(5), pp. 889-906 http://www.advantagefabricatedmetals.com/metalformingglossaryp.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Diet_Coke.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrusion Kalpakjian, S. & Schmid, S.R. (2003). Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials. India: Pearson Education, Inc. http://lcdev.kek.jp/photos/20060610Di/20060610Di-026.html http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2006/hydroforming.html http://www.tekniker.es/home.asp?idm=en Nexus Market Analysis. WTC Wicht Technologie Consulting, Frauenplatz 5, D-80331 Munchen. Geiger, M., Kleiner, M., Eckstein, R., Tiesler, N. and Engel, U., Microforming, Keynote Paper, Annals of the CIRP, 50-2 (2001), 445-462. Avitzur, B., 1965, Analysis of Metal Extrusion, J. Engg. Indust., 87(1), pp. 57-70 Altan, T., Oh, S. and Gegel, L.H. (1983). Metal Forming: Fundamentals and Applications, American Society of Metals Ashcroft, N. & Mermin, D. (1976). Solid States Physics. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Belytschko, T., Liu, W., and Moran, B. (2005). Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Khan, A. & Huang, S. (1995). Continuum Theory of Plasticity. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hosford, W. & Caddell, R. (1993). Metal Forming Mechanics and Metallurgy. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
70
Homework Assignments
1. 2. 3.
Micro-forming market search Derivation of punch stress formula Tensile stress of a single crystal
1. Micro-Forming Market Search Perform a search on micro-forming market data

US or worldwide sales of micro-parts Micro-parts market share Market trends in micro-parts
Comparison with Nano and MEMs parts
Note: Please include your references
71
2. Derivation of Punch Stress Formula

Derive the following formula, = 4 * * (T/D)
= punch stress = maximum shear stress of sheet metal T = sheet thickness D = punch diameter
3. Tensile Stress of a Single Crystal
Determine the resolved shear stress resulting from a tensile test on a silver single crystal. The axial stress applied is 10 MPa along the [1 1 0] axis of a silver single crystal to cause a slip on the (1 1 1 )[0 1 1 ] system.
72
Selection of Slip Systems for Elastic Plastic Materials

Assumptions - Total deformation rate plastic deformation rate - Reverse and forward slip systems are separate 5 independent slip rates are necessary Slip systems determined by Taylors minium work principle
Constitutive Equations
P : (C I ) : D = g , ( > 0)
=1
n
= 1,2,..., n
Consitutive equations satisfying the slip systems are given.

Note: a single crystal subjected to Jaumann rate of Cauchy stress
: P < k , ( = 0)
=1
n
Where,
k = h P :
: P = k , ( > 0)
=
=1 Ref. Khan & Huang (1995) Continuum Theory of Plasticity
Taylors Rigid Plastic Model for Polycrystals

Assumptions 1. Small elastic deformation 2. Homogeneous deformation 3. Material is rate independent 4. Hardending rates are the same for all the slip systems 5. Multi-slip must satisfy the compatibility condition
Overall stress-strain curve for a single crystal
* =
d * N
i =1 =1
d i
Where d* is a component of the prescribed incremental strain tensor
Overall stress-strain curve for polycrystal
* = m * (m * *)
Where m* is an average value of the Schmid factor
73
Taylors Rigid Plastic Model for Polycrystals
Prediction of polycrstal stress-strain curve from a single stress-strain curve
The results of the experiment and prediction are in agreement Taylors model is the simplest approximation of the elastic-plastic behavior of polycrystal metals and can describe the basic features of polycrystalline deformation, such as texture development and stress-strain curve However, the equilibrium condition boundaries is violated by forcing all the single grains to deform the same as the aggregate
Eshelbys Solution for Elliptical Inclusion

Assumptions 1. Ellipsoidal domain in homogeneous, indefinitely extended, isotropic and linear material 2. Small deformation undergoes arbitrary Homogeneous strain ()
Ellipsoidal Inclusion in D
is removed from D
is forced back into D
Stress produced inside and D-

= S :'
Sijkl = S jikl = Sijlk 4(4 5 ) 4 5 Sijkl = 1 15(1 ) ijkl +15(1 ) (ik jl +il jk )
Actual strain = +P
16 5 + 1 5 + 1 11 = G 11 2G '22 2G '33 15(1 ) 15(1 ) 15(1 )
74
Kroner, Budiansky, and Wus Model

Assumptions 1. Single-crystal grain sphere surrounded by a homogeneous polycrystal matrix 2. Single crystal and polycrystal aggregate are elastically isotropic 3. Single crystal size is very small
Simple Model of Polycrystals
Stress and strain relations = C : * + *P + ( P *P )

= * 2G (1 )( P *P )
Modified
Adding accommodation factor

T =
9 K T + 8G T 5G T (3 K + 4 G ) 9 K + 8G 6 G (K T + 2 G T ) + G T (9 K T + 8G T )
Where, KT = tangent bulk GT = shear moduli S* = the overall deviatoric stress tensor *m = the overall mean stress *m = the overall mean strain
and KT and GT are defined by,
* S * = 2GT * m I 3 *m = 3K T *m
Hills Self-Consistent Model

Assumptions 1. Relate and in the single-crystal grain and * and * by
= C ep : * = C *ep : *
Where, Cep = tangential elastic plastic stiffness tensor of the single crystal in the case of finite deformation C*ep = tangential elastic plastic stiffness tensor of the aggregate in the case of finite deformation
Introduce the constraint tensor L*
* = L* : ( *)
Consider the plastically deformed polycrystal aggregate to be an isotropic material
* =
2GGT (7 5 T ) P *P GT (7 5 T ) + 2G (4 5 )
)
75
Calculated Results of Self-Consistent Models
Comparison of various models
The stress-strain curve obtained by Kroner, Budiansky, and Wu showed much stronger restraint than that obtained by Hills model In actual cases of elastic-plastic deformation of polycrystal, the aggregate cannot be plastically deformed everywhere, and there should be some regions where the material remain elastic Berveiller and Zaoui obtained the solutions of uniaxial tension of polycrystal specimen using their plastic accommodation model and an improved result can be observed
1 1 + (3G / 2)G *P / *
)
76

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Fundamentals of Microforming Processes

October 31, 2006

Micro-Manufacturing - What is it?

Zeiss - Germany Micro-parts

Micro-structures manufactured by micro-SLA Japan

Klocke Nanotechnik Micro-Motor

Micro-EDM NTU - Taiwan

Applications of Metallic Microparts

Parts used in:

Reference: WTC-Wicht Technologie Consulting, Munich

Computer Integrated Manufacturing System

Material Characteristics Friction Models Failure Criteria Computational Methods

Parts Formed by Bulk Forming

Forming is most useful in large volume production

Macro-Metal Forming Classifications Sheet Forming

2. As the upper blade is forced

3. Fracture occurs and the

sheared piece falls away.

Reference: ASM Handbook 14B

Conventional Versus Fine-Blanking

Condition of cutting edges

Sharper tools reduce burrs

Clearance between cutting edges

Recommended Clearances for Penetration

Reference: ASM Handbook 14B

Punching Considerations Buckling Prevention

Beverage Can Formed by Drawing

Compoun d Die and Progressi ve Die

Normal and Average Anisotropy

Rolling direction R=0.40 45 degree R=0.92 90 degree R=1.04

Macro-Metal Forming Classifications Sheet Forming

Reference: Kalpakjian & Schmid

Cold Extrusion Advantages

Combined Forward/ Backward Extrusion

Cold Extrusion types: a) Forward Extrusion b) Combined Forward/Backward Extrusion

Cold Extrusion Pressure

Hardness of the material

Billet/die interface friction

Cold Extrusion Pressure

Cold Extrusion Considerations Punch Design - Forward Extrusion

Punch nose geometry is not critical

Reference: ASM Handbook 14A

Cold Extrusion Considerations Die Design

Cold Extrusion Limitations Forward Extrusion

Ratio of length of extruded part to billet diameter is limited to 8:1

Reference: ASM Handbook 14A

Cold Extrusion Pressure

Cold Extrusion Considerations Punch Design - Backward Extrusion

Gradual angles in punch stem and shoulders to prevent stress concentration

Cold Extrusion Limitations Backward Extrusion

Reference: ASM Handbook 14A

Cold Extrusion Considerations

Cold Extrusion Considerations Die Design

Reference: ASM Handbook 14A

Closed-Die Forging Versus Flashless Forging

Macro-Metal Forming Classifications Sheet Forming

Reference: http://lcdev.kek.jp/photos/20060610Di/200606 10Di-026.html

Reference: Kalpakjian & Schmid

Tube Hydroforming Process

The completed tube section is released from the die.

Computer Integrated Manufacturing System

Material Characteristics Friction Models Failure Criteria Computational Methods

Common Crystal Structures