Findlay Matheson Crib Sheet

STRENGTH & RIGIDITY - A structure must have enough strength & rigidity to resist internal forces in the elements & external reacting forces at the foundations - They must not rapture when the peak load is applied, neither mus t the deflection which results from the peak load be excessive. - Structural calculations to determine STRENGTH & RIGIDITY are divided into TWO parts: 1) Evaluation of internal forces occurring in structural elements 2) Element sizing calculations (sizes elements need to be to ensure they have sufficient strength & rigidity to resist the internal forces) The 2 sets of calculations usually carried out together, but possible to think of them as 2 separate calc. STRUCTURAL FORM & EFFICIENCY - The longitudinal shape & section of an element can greatly alter its structural performance. AXIAL INTERNAL FORCE can be resisted more efficiently than bending type internal force. - AXIAL distribution of stress is constant & this uniform level of stress allows all of the material to be stressed to the limit of size of stress selected according to the size of the material ( c ross section selected) - BENDING - varies in intensity in all the cross sections most of the material is understood & therefore inefficiently used. - AXIAL - forces applied parallel to longitudinal axis - BENDING forces applied at 90 angles - Spans large areas - No interior support - Is a type of vault - CORBELLED DOME: Each layer extends further than the previous. VAULT - Arched form used to provide a space with a ceiling or roof BARREL VAULT - Semicircular, simplest form of vault CORBEL VAULTS/ARCHES: Stone placed butting out further with each stone gradually covering span with each course. Acts in bending. - Only used in bridges of classical times. - Corbel arches used in Mycenian gates. - DO NOT act in compression GROIN & BARREL VAULT: Romanesque RIBBED VAULT: Gothic - pointed and could have different sizes intersecting. DIFFERENCE: Dome is an arch revolved around vertical axis , vault is an arch extruded into the third dimension POST & BEAM - Most common construction method in classical times. EVIDENCE: Wooden roofs of classical structures are horizontal elements & rafters resting as beams would, DID interconnect, DID NOT function as in roof truss VAULTS vs... - Bearing structure elements acting in compression form - uniform system - Every unit is necessary ...POST & BEAM - Horizontal elements act in bending - Vertical elements work in compression - Non-uniform (remove a beam & structure generally s till stands) In post & beam structures Vertical elements are mostly masonry. ARCHADE: Succession of arches supported by columns or piers. ELASTIC MODULUS HIGH: A small amount of deformation only is required to produce a given amount of stress & therefore to resist a given amount of loading. - Such materials feel HARD (steel, stone) LOW: amount of deformation which occurs before a load is resisted is high. - Such materials feel SOFT (rubber) EQUILIBRIUM: - Is established by reacting forces which act between the structures & the foundations. The reacting forces are the resistance of the supports & structure against the LOADS acting upon the structure. - Equilibrium occurs when the net ac ting forces (load) & the net reaction forces equal 0N over the structure. INFLECTION: A point on the curve between a concave arc & convex arc. ( ) DEFLECTION: - Displacement of a structural element under a load. (beams used for framework are selected for their force deflection qualities) - The deflection of a member under a load is directly related to the slope of the member under that is under load. (PROGRESS) ARCHITECTURAL TECHNOLOGY - Greek columns are now considered wasteful as inside column has no function. - Hollow columns are more structurally efficient - Architectural form is now judged more on efficiency & necessity of structure rather than decorative non-functional elements. - Contemporary architecture expresses structure (statically functional) true to its construction methods & materials. HEINZ ISLER FORM FINDING he made paper models - Produced models by hand in order to create prototypes & also used to scale measurements for construc tion PRECISION & MEASUREMENTS - made a grid of dots on his 3d models. Higher density of dots in critical areas, curves, near supports. 3 METHODS OF FORMFINDING HE DEVELOPED - Freely shaped ball - membrane under pressure - hanging cloth reversed All physical modelling techniques Process resin models, load tested scaled up suitable for work shell is cast no pc used He came up with principle of thin membranes in 3d structure. - Tensile membrane as framework for efficient freeform structural elements from beams to columns, floor panels cladding panels. // MODERN DOMES CATENARY ARCH: when a uniform cable is supported between two points without any loads but it's own mass, the tensile forces from the two points & gravity cause it to fall into a curve known as a Catenary. - Inverted it supports itself by compression alone. - Used in St Paul's Cathedral rebuild by Robert Hook. MODERN DOMES - A lot more slender due to reinforced concrete (Candela's Les Manantiales Restuarant - Mexico City) (hyperbolic paraboloids [pringle chip shape] ) Bubble shells are formed through the inflated membrane method. A geodesic is a generalisation of the notation of a straight line to curved spaces. GEODESIC DOME is a sphere like struc ture composed of a complex network of triangles creating a self-bracing framework that gives structural strength while using minimal material. - Same concept can be applied with other shapes instead of triangle (hexagon, decagon). FREI OTTO - master on TENSILE & MEMBRANE STRUCTURES as well as lightweight structures. - German architect & structural engineer. DEFINITIONS TENSILE STRUCTURES: is a construction of elements carrying only tension & no compression or bending TENSEGRITY STRUCTURE: is a structural form with both tensile & compressional elements - Most tensile structures are supported by some form of compression or bending elements such as masts, compression rings or beams. COMPRESSION: A pushing or pressing force directed towards the centre of an object. TENSION: A pulling force directed away from the object which tempts to stretch or elongate object. TRUSSES: are designed to provide support in vertical & horizontal planes. - Generally made of one or more triangulated forms supporting horizontal members. TRIANGULATION: When a force is applied to a triangular frame, two members stretch while the third compresses distributing the forces equally & creating a rigid structure. One type of improved profile which is of great importance is the triangulated profile. By eliminating bending stress from the non form active elements, the triangulated internal geometry allows a high degree of structural efficiency. The axial, internal forces only condition does not occur if load is applied to a triangulated structure other than its joints. SHEAR FORCE: Shear force at a point is the amount by which the external forces acting on the element to one side of that point, do not balance when they are resolved perpendicular to the axis of that element. SHEAR FORCE & BENDING MOMENT occur in structural elements which are bent by the action of the applied load. MAPUNGUBWE INTERPRETATION CENTER: Peter Rich Architects - Envelope is the structure. - Masonary groin vaults (brick) interconnected with a finish of natural stone. - Apart from the finish on the exterior which is simply a decorative element, the structure and the envelope or skin are one in the same as the envelope is necessary to transfer the forces on the building and of the building to the ground. CABLE TRUSSES - It is a structure which conforms to the form-active shape of the load pattern which is applied to it. - Consists of 2 single strand cables complete with turnbuckles and fork ends for tensioning and fixing. The ends are supported by v-brackets which are attached to the main frame columns. Hinges are attached to ends of struts which hold the glass panels in place. These hinges are necessary because the truss changes its horizontal shape and position under load. - Cables must be pre-stretched and pre-stressed so that the load isnt only taken up by one cable. Pre-stressing also stiffens the truss so it offers more support to the glass panels. - The moment is the result of the cable tension & horizontal force applied to the cable ends. Shear is taken by the curvature of the cables. - The three spacer struts prevent rotation of the cables about the axis defined by the two crossover points. - Struts are connected to the cables with cable clamps. These structures are subjected to axial internal forces only. - Struts keep the cables apart. MASONRY - Composite material of stone, brick, or blocks are bedded in mortar to form columns walls arches or vaults. -Stone masonry can be of soft sedimentary rocks such as limestone to the very hard granites & other igneous rock. -Physical properties are moderate compressive strength, minimal tensile strength, high density & durability -Principal internal force is compressive. -Bending stress is kept low by making the second moment of the CROSSSECTION large. - In modern buildings bending moments occur principally by wind loading -The overall thickness must be large enough to ensure tensile bending stress isnt greater than the compressive stress by gravitational load. -Thermal, acoustic & weather tight barriers. TIMBER -Possesses both tensile and compressive strength -Suitable for elements which carry axial compression, axial tension & bending type loads -Used in trusses, floors, skeleton frames, built-up beams, arches, etc. -Produced from sapwood & heartwood of trunk -Has low atomic weight & density -Use of TIMBER CONNECTORS are designed to increase the area of contact through which load is transmitted in a joint. -Structural glues for timber solved problem of stress concentration at joints -Timber shrinks with reduction in moisture -Seasoning process of drying timber for commercial use - It can be sawn (cut directly) or manufactured where further processing occurs - Timber structures never built more than 3 storeys - LAMINATED TIMBER is a product in which elements with large rectangular cross sections are built up by gluing smaller solid timber elements of rectangular cross section. STEEL -High strength, equal strength in compression & tension -Resists axial tension and compression as well as bending loads. -High density and strength to weight ratio -High density of steel favours its use in skeleton frame type structures - Is either Hot-rolled( where shaping process occurs by passing steel in its molten form through rollers) or Cold-rolled( shaped in its cool state) -I & H profiles common for beams and columns of structural frameworks. Channels, tubes used for triangulated frameworks. -Joints affect structural performance and appearance of frame -is a poor performer in fire & corrosion CONCRETE -Similar properties to stone, high density, moderate compressive strength, minimal tensile strength -Semi-liquid form allows other materials to be incorporated into it to alter its properties. -Once reinforced it is high in tensile, bending & compressive strength -Can be cast in complex shapes -Casting allows effective connections to be provided between elements & resulting structural continuity enhances efficiency of structure. -Used in structural frames -Post & beam arrangements, coffered slabs, tapered profiles, cantilevers

- Load applied obliquely (not straight) combination of bending & axial stress occurs - Cable Tensile stress only = FORM ACTIVE SHAPE Flexible material such as steel or wire results in a form of an ACTIVE SHAPE when a load is applied. 3 categories active, 1 static FORM ACTIVE: those which conform to the form active shape of the load pattern - It matches the shape of the moment's force graph NON FORM ACTIVE: That whose longitudinal axis does not conform to the form active shape & has no axial component of internal force. SEMI FORM ACTIVE: elements which contain combination of bending & axial forces STATICALLY INERT: form disregards/ conceals func tion. Expression of statically function of their bearing structure Statically functions depend on the type of structure surrounding it. To improve the efficiency, the overall shape is adjusted by carrying the depth of the element IMPROVED SECTIONS: The efficiency of a material can be improved if some of the under s tressed material is removed The I element is as efficient as the box element but uses less material - SLAB ELEMENTS, solid elements are less efficient in the use of materials than those in which material is removed from the interior - In general cross sections in which material is boated away from the centre are more efficient in carrying bending type loads than solid c ross sections. - BUT solid cross sections are more simple to construct & therefore have an important place in architecture - Certain improved cross sections are referred to as stressed skin, MONOCOQUE or SEMI MONOCOQUE. To distinguish them from SKELETAL ELEMENTS which - The use of THE IMPROVED NON FORM ACTIVE, monocoque & semi monocoque structures constitute a sensible response to the technical problems proposed. SEMI-MONOCOQUE a very thin stressed skin is used which must be strengthened at regular intervals by ribs & stringers to prevent load buckling POST & LINTEL STRUCTURES - Initially in Egypt openings were bridged with beams & posts but the columns were non structural, the strength was derived from the compactness of the carved rock. - Columns represent forms associated with construction techniques. GREEK ARCHITECTURE COLUMN expressed as an active element of bearing structure evolved from wooden structures, then stone. Did not consistently express materials or system of construction. Decorative. But do represent post & beam construction method. Classical Greek COLUMN HAD A CROSS SECTION AREA that decreased the height. Its form clearly revealed the stability of the stone beam resting upon it as transferring its loads to the ground. MYCENAEAN & MINOAN COLUMNS: wider at the top to take the load of the beam, narrower at the bottom & resting on a block HOW STRUCTURAL NECESSITY BECOMES AN ARCHITECTS LANGUAGE. Architectural form & style was directly influenced by construction systems & materials used in that period. Buildings may have a different shape to building structure or conceals STATICALLY INERT: form disregards function Form/shape conforms to the laws of statics Contemporary architecture should honestly express structure. Not conceal it, express materials & construction method. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS Bearing struc ture built to receive & transfer loads to the ground. Resist weather elements. MONOLITHIC STRUCTURES: MONOLITHIC STRUCTURE: carved/cast from a single piece of material. MONOLITHICITY : characterized by form & shape of the bearing systems. Indian carving does not relate to structure. CANTILEVER DIFFERENT TO POST & LINTEL - Beam supported on only one end. - Beam carries load to support where it is resisted by moment & shear stress. - Allows for overhanging structures without external bracing DIFFERENCE: Post & lintel is supported at both ends with loads applied between the supports. ARCH VAULT DOME DOME is an arch in 360

2 459 words

15 282 characters

Findlay Matheson Crib Sheet

SUSPENSION BRIDGE is a type of bridge in which the deck (the load-bearing portion) is hung below suspension cables on vertical suspenders STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS The main forces in a suspension bridge of any type are tension in the cables and compression in the pillars. In a suspended deck bridge, cables suspended via towers hold up the road deck. The weight is transferred by the cables to the towers, which in turn transfer the weight to the ground Advantages over other bridge types A suspension bridge can be made out of simple materials such as wood and common wire rope. Longer main spans are achievable than with any other type of bridge Less material may be required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve, leading to a reduced construction cost

2 459 words

15 282 characters