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The School of Mines
As leamedearly in the first semester, there are different ways of classifying
'rocks, One way is to differentiate them on the basis of geological time. Another
way is to base the distinction on the three main classes of rocks: igneous, ','
sedimentary, and metamorphic. These classes are part of the 'Rock Cycle. a
topic that the student is well-advised to review before he or shecontinues further.
(rocks formed from 'fire')
IgneC?us rocks are formed from magma which has originated well below the
earth's surface, risen toward that surface,' and crystallized into solid rock' as it
cooled. The position or location where such rock forms makes a further
,distinction. For example, if the magma cools and forms into solid igneous rock
deep within the crust (commonly several kilometres), then the resulting rock is
characterized as plutonic. If the igneous rock forms at 'medium to shallow
depth', it is called hypabyssal, and if it forms right on surface. it becomes
. I
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volcanic. The rock types formed below surface, whether plutonic or hypabyssal,
invade the host rock, and are, therefore, intrusive. On theother band, if an
igneous rock forms on surface, it is not only volcanic, but it is also extrusive.
Common forms of intrusive. hypabyssal rocks are dykes and sills:' r: ,

Recall that magma is molten rock (for the most part made up of silicate
minerals), and that when it extrudes on to surface,it is called lava. Considerable
, magma is generated through the processes of plate tectonics. For example, at
spreading plate boundaries (e.g. MieJ-AtJantic Ridge), themagmaiS--generally
ultramafic to mafic in composition [high percentage of ferromagnesian silicates
plus Al and Cal,' whereas at converging plate boundaries around the edge of
the Pacific - 'The Ring of Fire'), the magma is typically intermediate to felsic in
composition [high percentage of silica plus K and Nit].
Extrusive rocks are commonly distinguished by their textures. Since they
were brought to surface quickly and cooled very fast, there was little or no time for
mineral crystals to grow. As a result, these rocks are usually very fine- to fine-.
grained Oess than 1 mm in diameter). Such rocks tend to exhibit quench textures
(e.g. spinifex in komatiites). In plutonic rocks, because they crystallize under
pressure and relativelyhigh heat conditions. the minerals have more time to grow;
and as a result are generally medium-grained (1 to 3 mm across) or coarse
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grained (over 3 mm diameter). Rocks in which the texture is so fine that
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,...,. individual grains or crystals can't be distinguished with the naked eye are referred
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to as aphanitic, whereas the term plianeritic applies if aU crystals are large
enough to be seen with the naked eye.
Also recall that igneous rocks, because they have formed from minerals that
have gro\lJJ1 from a, melt, are usually composed of interlocking crystals. The
pattern caused by this 'net' of interlocking grains is called crystalline or igneous
texture. Other common igneous textures are as foJJows: . .
.. glassy texture .. where the magma chilled so quickly that crystals failed to
form, and the reck is a natural glass. It is most common in felsic extrusive'
rocks, such as obsidian. '.'
- porphyritic texture - exists where two sets of crystals of quite distinct
size exist in the same rock. The smaller crystals maybe offine-. medium
or coarse-grained size, and are named collectively as the matrix in which'
the coarser crystals (the phenocrysts) are set. The texture is most
common in extrusive rocks, but is also found in hypabyssal rocks Iusuelly
called porphyries}. The differing grain size results from initial slow cooling
at depth, to allow the phenocrysts to grow, then rapid cooling on or near
surface to 'freeze' the matrix minerals. . /' .
- vesicular and amygdaloidal textures - these textures occur most
commonly in extrusive rocks. Gases dissolved under the high pressures
found at depth, come out of solution and start to expand as the magma
o rises toward the surface. These gas bubbles can force their way up through
the magma and escape. However. when the molten rock rapidly congeals
in a lava flow, the gas is trapped. leaving gas holes called vesicles. These
voids within the rock may later be filled with minerals which may have
precipitated from water circulating through the rock. A vesicle filled with
mineral is called an amygdule.
- pegrnatitic texture - produced where the concentration of water and'
other fluxes in the late..stage residue of a magma lowers the temperature of
crystallization of the minerals forming in it. The extended time of growth
allowsan individual crystal to achieve a size wen beyond what is meant by
'coarse-grained'. Such textures characteristically occur in 'veins', 'stocks'
or 'dykes' of very acidic igneous rock (pegmatite), which can be important
sources of economic minerals. .
.. Other Textures worthy of note include:
l)piBow structure" this characteristic form of submarine lavas has been
described in detail previously.. However, it should be remembered that over
80% of pillow lava is either andesite or basalt. The rest is mainlydacite,so
that felsic pillows are extremely rare. Also beaware that not all andesite or
basalt flows are pillowed. Many are massive, without ~ y distinctive
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structure.
2} spherulitic texture - usually found in felsic lavas, particularly rhyolites, .
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and consist of globular radiating structures of devitrified glass, composed of
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slender fibers of feldspar and quartz varieties. Similer structures in mafic
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.lavas are called variolites. If the felsic lavas are glassy, and feature curving
cracks,they are perlitic.
3) breccia - the varieties of breccia are many, but essentially they are
broken rocks, with the angular pieces still visible. In some cases the pieces
could be reassembled like a jigsaw puzzle.. If the number of fragments is
plentiful, so that many fragments touch; and the matrix component is small!
then the breccia.is said to be fragment-supported. On the other hand, if
fragments are few and widely-spaced, with the matrix predominant, then
the breccia is said to be matrix-supported. In the case ofigneous rocks,
common types of breccia include those that form the top and basal portions
. of lava flows, as well as those formedby friction. drag! and fluid forceson
the margins of intrusions during emplacement. Volcanic breccia is
commonlynamed according to the size of the component particles (recall:
ash. lapilli, and blocks or bombs)
Apart from the textural distinctions made above, igne.ous rocks are usually
named according to percentage of certain key minerals contained within the .
rock. Theprime minerals upon which this scheme is based are the so-called 'super
six' - the six principal rock-forming mineral families: olivine, pyroxene,
amphibole, the micas, the feldspars, and quartz. Consequently. it becomes very
important to know what varieties of feldspar, for example, are contained, as well
o
as how much. The petrology section of the course will emphasize how these rock
names are applied in practice. Please be aware! however. that there is usually a .
gradual change invQ9th mineral composition and proportion in nature.
Consequently, are defined according to set definitions as a matter of
convenience a rock in its approximate category. There is often a subtle
variation from one iQCk-type to another. .
FmaJly, be aware that an Algoman granite may be almost identical in
appearance and composition to one found in the relatively young batholiths of the
Cordillera, Similarly, an unaltered sample of Keewatin andesite may be difficuH to
distinguish from its younger counterpert in the present day Andes. The principal .
difference in these cases is . .
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SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (mainly those formed by aqueous means)
Debris or detritus derived from the erosion of pre-existing rocks is usually
spread by water, ice, gravity, or wind to form new, relatively flat-lying layers of
sediment. These stratified sediments are initiallysoft and unconsolidated, butthey
become hardened or Iithified by pressure and cementation. The resulting
sedimentary rocks have a clastic texture, composed of discrete rounded-sub
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rounded, and sub-angular particles that are either welded or cemented together.
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Sedimentary rocks are usuallycatalogued by the degree of roundness of theqredns,
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the degree of sorting, and how well graded the bedding is. You have already
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studied many sedimentary rocks in the field, but a brief summary of the main types
follows:
1) Shallow water deposits: (essentially continental deposits)
- conglomerate - formed from unconsolidated gravel. The
component fragmErr1ts or clasts are rounded to sub-rounded by wave or
river current action. If one type of fragment is predominant or unique, then
the conglomerate may be described with that component as a modifier(e.g. .
Jasper conglomerate). As with breccias. these rocks may be fragment- or
matrix-supported. ~ Although not a water-lain deposit, glacial till
yields a rock-type very simiiar to conglomerate when llthified, namely tillite.
- sandstone (arenite) - usually forms in less shallow water than
conglomerates. Commonly, the fine fragments are individual minerals, the
most common being quartz, which survives the erosion and transportation
process because of its hardness. Also, small amounts of feldspar, garnet,
mica, etc. are found as constituent mineral fragments in sandstone. If
larger amounts of feldspar are present, the rock-type may grade through
sub-arkose to arkose. Another special type of 'sandstone' (or mote
o accurately, a turbidite) results from turbidity currents in deeper water, and is
called graywacke. Sandstone is formed when beds of sand become
hardened chieflyby cementing of material between the grains. Cements
are clay, slllce, lime, and oxides of iron - giving rise to clayey or
argillaceous sandstone, siliceous sandstone. calcareous sandstone, and
ferruginous sandstone respectively.
2) Deeper Water Deposits: (essentiallymarine deposits)
- Shale, claystone, siltstone and mudstone (argUlaceous rocks)
very fine-grained rocks hardened from clay-sized particles, commonly
laminated, and sometimes with a secondary cleavage. The clay is mainly
kaolinite, 2H,,O.Al
10J.2SiO,,,
and forms from the cJecay of orthoclase
feldspar, etc. .
- Umestone (calcareous rocks) - limestone was derived from the
decay of igneous rocks, and was carried in solution by rivers and added to
the water of the ocean. Sea inhabitants use this lime to construct shells.
Shells accumulate and build up limestone beds and reefs. Some limestone
may be precipitated by chemical processes. Some limestone, then, could be
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considered either a chemical precipitate, or an organic sedimentary rock.
Dolomite is a related species, except it contains Mg as well as calcium
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r-- carbonate, and is more resistant to weathering and erosion. Since dolomite
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commonly results from partial alteration oflimestone, with some crystal
growth, the resulting rock regularly shows a sugary appearance.
METAMOIWHIC ROCKS (rocks changed by significant increases in temperature
and!or pressure)
.Bothsedimentary and igneous rocks may be so altered by heat and
terrestrial stress that they lose much of their oriqinaleppearence, and acquire new
properties - chemical, mineralogical, or structural (textural). The degree of
metamorphism is related to the conditions of temperature end pressure under
which the new metamorphic rock has formed, arid may be assessed by' some new
minerals which have been produced. These index minerals, each of which . .
indicates a particular temperature and pressure at the time it formed, are used to
define the metamorphic grade of the rock in which they occur. Keep in mind
that their presence and interpretation are conditional upon the composition of the
parental rocks as well as the degree of metamorphism. For example, an
abbreviated list of index minerals signaling a progressive increase in metamorphic
grade is: zeolite, chlorite, biotite, garnet, kyanite, and sillimanite.
Textures also playa big part in distinguishing metamorphic rocks. One
()
textural scheme describes regional metamorphism from high to low, as follows:
1, Gneissic - medium- to coarse-grained minerals, such as feldspar, quartz
and mica, are arranged in irregular colour bands. A gneiss, then is a rock
with e banded or laminated structure (foliation) showing alternate bands of
light and dark minerals. An orthogneiss is a gneiss formed from any
igneous rock. A paragneiss is a gneiss formed from a sedimentary rock.
2. Schistose - fine- to medium-grained minerals such as chlorite,
hornblende and especially the micas, are strongly foliated so that there is a
distinct lamination to the rock.
3. PhyUitic - much the Same as with schists, only the platy minerals are
much finer-grained, imparting a sflky sheen to the cleavage surfaces.
4. Slaty - very fine-grained, with the platy minerals aligned to yield a h i g h l ~
developed slaty cleavage (fissnity) at right angles to the pressure direction
which caused it. Generally, slates are produced by the metamorphism of
fine-grained argnIaceous rocks such as shales.
At extreme grades of metamorphism, partial melting of a rock may occur,
as the rock cycle nears completion. Under such conditions, a metamorphic rock
called granulite may result, in some ways very similar to granite, but produced
through metamorphism. It is also possible to produce a metamorphic rock of
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variable texture in which thin alternating layers or lenses of crystalline quartz and
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feldspar or even 'granite' and schist occur.
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Two other common rock-types should be mentioned here. The first is the
result of metamorphosing limestone, where it acquires a crystalline structure, with
a grain size varying from fine to ' ..cry coarse. Some vaneties are simply termed
crystalline lrnestone. However, when the rock acquires an appearance with
sufficient beauty to justify its use as .a decorative material, it is called marble. The
. second rock-type and the last in this summary is serpentinite. This rock could
result from metamorphism ofultrabasic rocks such as dunite or peridotite.
Generally, however, thesame rock-type results from pervasive alterationof rocks
. bearing olivine and pyrcxene,
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o .
.. . . :... ..::.:.:
.. ... --- . . ... ....--.--_." ". ,..".. ,---..--,._......--.-".......-..,......-.....,..,-- -.. ...."., +, .-""" --",,"''''', ".''', ."" ,,' '....
",.' .. """, ' ,,--,""-""'" ,'.. --"."".. -,. --.. ..(lPl,'1.. _".., .-., " """ -, " - , ".." : "''' ' ","..-- ..
i
......,. ,.." ,.., , .."_.,.,, ,. _.. .... _.._-_ "(-3rJ\Q-1..Sff
W
........... '.' '._' __
... .." '" ,"' .. '" '-'" " 31 r1 -,
,
,,'" -., -- .."f, _ --.,.. ,
I
,
............................,.-".._, ".-. __.. _ .. "'_ _.. 0'1(;
, --" , "" '-, _.., ".,.._ ' _ ".,,_ +
.. ........ .._.. ..,.a-N...'tl .._.-..'."- ,..3..1_QJt LJtdJd.. _.,_ -- ---:.....
.;' ".... ,l)l.D.!. Q -.' _, " -", .- .. "" .,.. "1..--0> , --- -.-
' - - -. -,. -. - <> __.'-.". '-_."' -." -' ,.,. ..., , __ -...- .-.. -_._....,.. '-_. "-.,.,.,.. ,,,. ,.. ., -"--- __ , -j _.... - ..., -. "',>.-..' ' .. _ - _ ..
...." , '.., - - -.,,,-..'-, ---.---- - ..-'._,,.-.. ,,..--..-........ --, -, .. ..-.,._-,,- _, "
- ..... _---._",....,.._- ..
____ _._ __ ,0 _ -
---- .. -, ..__... ..
....._,_ - -,,-_._-_ - . ..,- .. .. ,,---'---- .. _.. ..- -,----..- ,'--'-"--'
}'i"'-'".--,-,.-.. - _._-.--..- --..------..-----
..-"-,-.-.. .. '_' __ .. ..__..,_,_.. .. _ _ __ __,._,._.. _,..__._,-., _ _-..,6 If _ _ , _.
rf
_.<>'!\"'- .. ,..,. __ - _"_ I"'_--.-.__ ,..--......,... r "'_;"""""" """"', -.......""' "' __ .....-. ,-..y'"".-.,. .
I
.....-.....--....,...-..,--.-..-- .. ..---
....... ..- ..-.----l -cam1...-'....
1-10-+ -11'5!11'"'
=,.-e-........ .' " .... -.,... ..... _-....... .......... ... ....
!
... ,,\., . ' j ... ....... 1-:'-..- ....".. .....
... ..y.a._.},q.. .. _ __ " _..,_.. _ _, ,_.__.__..__ _.._.. _I_ _._,__ ),.. __
t .".'(
"lit? ! .
(\ \

. tJ,11 ..
..
......__ .,._ - "--+ _ _ ..
):..... "'" .._- ... -.
...- _ _ -.. - - _.._ - - +- -..' .. " __ - _ _-- ""-' _ - _ _. -_ - .
......... - , ,,, .+._ - _ -.. _- _- .
-,
I
.... -r-' _ C""""" -.- . . -- '''-.or'' ,.. - .. ... ..
.. .. 1'1--'"'''' - -- .
<
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1 ,',": .'
........ - - - --.r--""-"----'"-""'-'
.
,. ,
...-:
._., _._ _ _.,_.__ __ .w__ ._. _ ......... _._._ ,,_ __._...... __ .,._ " _ __ __4 __ __ _

( .''1
._.. _.... .. .. ,.-.' ...._- "..--.-,,,,.--.-..--"---- ..
'"
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--_... ... ...-..... _. -....'.. --_..-... -_... '."-, ....- _.. .... ,-'-" '--'. --.. ... ... ... ...,. .. . .... ... __ ... -._.. .'..
........... - ""'''' _ _ _............. ...-+ _ - - -- ..
_____ ._ .. __._. ._.. _.__ .__.-.._. .__ ... ...__ .. ., ..,.. _ .._ . . ..,_. ._, __ ._ ..._. __ ._. __. __ __.._... _.. __...._..... "j-_ .. _.... .. . _ ._...... _.<_._._ ...._<... .._,_
!
....-----....-.-.........-.------.. ---,-- ...--.-.--.-;----..------.-.-----.....----...----..- ....----..------.-..- ..----.-----.-------4--------..--....----..--
!
1
---.. ....---_.----... ... .....-"-.-.--------.. ..
-.----.. - ---- --..-.....,.........----.. .. ..--- -.-.. .. ...
I : ;' i,;. -, .\ .? v: :: :. ' ,,_ __ .. ..
.. .... -.. ------,.-L-,--.. ......,--_.._-- .M
-. -.. "',. J
._-_._-,_._.__...._-_._......_-.. _.--_..__ .-._--------_..---.. ........-..... .....
)
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-----:r: ':,'Ii ..--:"'-.-'-----.-,---.-.-- L t:"" .. ..-...-- ..--..--.--.
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: '.: : '-'. /-. ! '\ I r' ', i l c. ),' ' ',,! <,
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J

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. .. -------_._- -----
.==

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--.-.- .. -------------.Jr.- .


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.... _.
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.
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I
'---$31 'A 3$ Ii 0 .. _--...._m--.. ff----1;--N----- ..-----1---------- .. -
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o
ROCK REFERENCE SHEET PETROLOGY
1) : differs from granite
'.. . ...1 . hi . n
,"I .. ' . '".
In.dex gra?l te, 1.1
nO
i
t ne c e s s a r l l y quartz rno nzon a t e .
',' '-I '\2' Y'1'etthl'he: .to; p Lut.onl c r oc k j
. texture much t he" same as granite j . IIianyofthe
plagioclase .gz-ai n s are zoned (with more felsic
c ompos dtions forming the outer rims) j ma r-ginsvof
teplutons exhibit band Lng jwith
numerous mafic inclusions and xenoliths. .
<,"" ,.:,3) ',j . . ... ),',:i ,"
, 1: !> ",
":'1 ::: ".'
r;1/
O
ro t 10T . ..
'
If.!T'lttt)W;WT""
'F L. ..
t' 5% J&T2 .:j,'," '
'" .....
.? 1.J5.-Zo .
., .
'.: : ;r. -. "'" _ . >t .. J' .
0
Mj:::.:_t ...M,I"'"
i .
{j\;J """
, '.
P(,At.toGtASe .

. (;tASe .

-.);. .:,:.....
.,.;
\,:.' .
.' ..,; .:t
.....':
.J
A.
. ,}, )"
4) Related Granodioritic'rocks:
\()
..
. ';..",!.; -: .:,; r ".,
\ Xa c:l )
(.l-WH' J
(0 L II") <IvA5413 J . ''J'' '\ d 'J! ::IV -0

1 'i I ",! "! I' \.
0 I H ""Q 11 )
0t
, .' .... ", :,
.,
....;.:
a ,hvn /'j ,
":'. (f

:_- ...i, '." ;;"):::..' t
f
'" :.;.":; .i .. .: .: .. f;. <., i -; '.,;; ',' ...' '. ,:" T i.;"
','.' ',c .. :' .', ", -.; ,'".' .' ,.' ',:. rr .' ',.. ..... " " .', c.. . '-'," ..,. " ",' . ," '. . ""
. '. ', .... '< -... ! .,'/, .',..... "-' "'':''''' .! .:"
.
911
... . .t ..
o
,
.'.'-.
'. . -z.147 %.s 7
",

rocks
,...

I I
1cm

& Ij. / 0
Classification of igneous rock types is
basedon a combination of just two
features...
. . . 0) '.
is the visual coarse
size, and...
A
_ (2) .
Phaneritlc
..
(coaree-textured)
kinds and amounts of particular .
minerals present .:
Texture is governed largely by the
'I'm a
cooling magma or va.' e mo ten
material cools relatively slowly, the
resulting mineral crystals are coarse B
(i.e., large); whereas if the molten
Aphanitic
cools relatively fast, the result
(fine-textured)
crystals are fine (i.e.,
small).
C
PorphyritiC
(mixed cearse- and fine-textured
Figure 49. Schematic igneous rock textures
as seen on slightly-magnified flat surfaces.
.. . ." . P.t. II veP1t1
Q
What do yousupposeis the
history ofa rock. withporphyritic
I lied-Texture (#1 above left) is not
texture? Reflect onthebu//eted.
just the visual coarseness ofcrystal .
oaragraph (0 Texture) above.
size. Special textures OCcur in certain
volcanic rocks and serve as the sole
1ut
A porphyritic rock need not bea .
basis for their classification, like...
mixture of fine-texture aridcoarse
... some lavas cool so rapidly that
figure 4 lOA. It need only
bixture of two contrasting
chemical elements do not have time to
organize themselves into orderly ar
For example, a porphyritic
rangements that characterize minerals.
rock can be a mixture of coarse-texture
Instead, they are frozen into glass.v, .
and coarser-texture (Fig. 4-lOB).

o
1em
Phenocry6t6 Matrix
('ground maee')
r' """".
i
\---
B
Figure 410. Two different porphyritic rocks.
A: Fine-textured matrix (or groundmass) with
coarse-textured phenocrysts. B: Coarse
textured matrix and coarser-textured
phenocrysts,


with a glassy texture. Volcanic glass
can be compact, as in obsidian, which'
has a smooth conchoidal fracture like
common glass; or, it can be very
porous, with microscopic pores called .
vesicles {produced by gas bubbles), as
.in pumice. Pumice has such a rough
fracture that one must have keen
eyesight to detect its glassy texture. It is
"0,-",/
so porous that some samples will actu
ally float on water.
.., .
. .;,\,
,', 'i.
, " .' -. :.: '; d; ! ';"; :"x;
;r..
. "'-'.:.. ;'-':
.,,'.. ,'
). i
" .
."., .: ""::'r:r:.:: . .'
" '-; ....
. " ..
" Ii JI t: "',';,():
'.';.'
.: . ,,\ ',1 \ I
',.,' -.:. ".I .....
." .-,"
-; I'; ,:.,'...
'i . , ,.,

;"
I',
i':.: '
'.:
'::V:, "1"'
..
"+,,
" " " ' : ; 1<' " ,"
.-' ;<,._ .'
" , ,/'
i""'- ',i ,\.
0
, >.('1
.
(':':' ... 'C
.' :
I;
.,' r''',
", -. . t'.. - '.
'".,-\.::-' ..
,J. ' ::: I
"
\.',
. ) ,
s
" " .:'. .
'r," }
! .'
j ....
:,'.
'. i ..
o
:. ;"';
j'
n. V'
.igneQus roeRs37
o
o
()I\
,J
Airborne volcanic ejecta, such as ash
. and other pyroclastic debris. solidifies
after settling to the ground, either by .
welding together as hot particles or by
being cemented by silica-rich ground- ..
water. The result is a fragmental tuf
faceous texture. Tuff is less porous' .
than pumice and so will not float on
water.
Still other volcanic rocks exhibit pea-,
size, crudely spherical vesicles much
larger than those in pumice. Such rocks
are said to have vesicular texture and,
are called scoria. The bubbles are so '
large you can easily see that the rock
among the bubbles is fine-textured.
. Mineral composition-Minerals that
occur in common igneous rocks are all,
silicates (Fig. 4-11). Notice that, apart
from the micas (muscovite and biotite),
While on the subject.. mineral
.composition is governed by two
things:
.. .. . (1) . ..
.. First, there is the chemical composition
of the crust that melts to provide the"
.. magma (or lava) from which the igneous
rock crystallizes (Fig. 4-12). The
.. elements. (B) In contrast, continental .
.. -.{ . - .
.' crust is rich in..sodiumandpotassium '9r.rv
so magma.that.develops.tends tobe .!
equallyrich inthose elements. . . . .. .
Exceptionl-s-The initial co-ittpositionof
... a magma can differ from that of its . :
parent crust if only partial melting has
. occurred (Le., sort of like the crust
5
4
:3
MUSCOVITE
2
r__
!
!'. BIOTITE
:.

1
Iron and magnesium Increaeing .
Figure 4-11. With the exceptions of muscovite and biotite, the hardnesses of silicate minerals
that make up the more common igneous rocks are similar (i.e., 5.5 to 7.0).
. composition of the crust determines the. sweating). From figure 4-13 (next page)
initial composition of the magma. .. you can see that different minerals have
There are two broad categories of crustM -different melting points, so partial
(A) Oceanic crust is rich in iron and melting results in selective melting of
magnesium, so magma that developsr 'lid low-temperature minerals. Reasonable,
there tends to be equally rich in those. no?
//
Oceanic crus1; Continen1;a1 crust
.basaltic composi1;ion granitic composition
(rich in iron & magnesium) (rich In 50dium &potassium)
.-/
which are among the easiest of minerals
to identify, the range of hardness is not.
great (i.e., 5.5-7.0). Therefore, hardness
Is of little value in identifying minerals
that make up the more common igneous
rocks. One must rely instead on other
physical properties-such as crystal
shape, cleavage, color, streak, luster,
fracture, and the presence or absence of
Figure 412. A magma developed within oceanic crust is rich in iron and magnesium, whereas
plagioclase striations. a magma developed within continental crust is rich in sodium and potassium.
\
Hardness
Field of ferro-magnesian minerals (Iron
10
.,d/o, _ neelum d.ri:
9
8
7 QUARTZ
.: ..\.. __JOLIVINE i
6 . I ORTHOCLASE, PLAGIOCLASE
I. AMPHIBOLE, PYROXENE
, .. '
i . _ , .. ' ':..
o
-... l
'. ,
: ,".J <
.....
''"'.:"
.\' .
o
.,,"
.j'y ,,:
<s.:
. )
..' .
....;
......
';" '. Lj'
;
:rpJ'
'. }. i .'
"(U,.: ,.... , -I, ."' '\';.'": .
,0.',
,.
;:.',!-' ,.-,'-.
':.J"
. / ,r :,' ... '
;"
\J
:
Le:
i ; ...
, , .
.. I.. - :J.,
",;
, I,
G'" :,:,.CC
.",""
.. .. ;
"",
,:.."
I.:.'
-'1'.\.
. ,!"
l ...
".;,..'

''.-.'
. 'L' '.j: ,\"; ." ;1
.... , I ''i:!.
a'a rocks
r
_ (2)
Ocond thing that affects the
mineral composition of an igneous rock
is the extent to which elements have
been removed from the magma,
through partial crystallization, before
the igneous rock crystallizes. To repeat:
minerals have different melting points
(see above figure), so when a magma
(or lava) cools the higher-temperature
minerals crystallize first. These higher-
temperature minerals are richer in iron
and magnesium, so their development
causes the remaining magma to be im
poverished in those elements and
relatively enriched in sodium and potas
sium. Any rock that crystallizes at a
later time-and perhaps, through
magma migration, in a different
place-will be enriched in sodium and
potassium (Fig. 4-14).
o - ..,t:..
o
o
:!

Figure 4-14. Partial crystallization at X. subsequent migration (arrows), and later
crystallization at Y can result in different mineral compositions.
.>:

.:
/
Q4-11: (Refer to figure 4-14.)
Reflecting on the preceding paragraph,
how would you expect the chemical 'e.
composition ofigneous IJl.fxJ( .
crystallizing at point X to differ from
that crystallizing at point Y?
Q4-12: (Refer tofigure 4-14.) In what
way you the COAVlSeR
igneous rock atpouu Yto differ from
the igneous rock at point Z? (Recall the
point made in rust paragraph in the
discussion of texture-two pages back.)
Q4-13: (Refer tofigure 4-14.)(A) ....
Which rock would you expect to \)
darker in color, that at point X'-lfTthat
at point Y? (B) Why?
Another point-Volcanic rocks rich in
iron and magnesium are less likely to
form glass than are volcanic rocks rich
in sodium and potassium.
Q4-14: (Refe; to figure 4-14.) Where
would you most likely find obsidian, at
point X, Y, obsidian' s t r:
compositiona positioii in tahle 4-1.) , .
/VV'J'
.

(.. .r ':',
.. ':::.\ ":':.. "!';c':, ;
()
....: v.
':", .
._. '" ..... ,.
r,
".\ h:: -"
1,.'.'''': .
".' S. ,- ... ,
., .'''''.' '. \.
":) .'
i .... . '.', 1':--.. '
',

; . '_0
.r
:.", .',!
0 ......
"">
!'
"-,.,;,
! "
:.>
(.
:.' .. 1. , ".1
;!' '.-1;';
r
j;\" ...
,i ;
'., ',.'.
. > .:.
';:".''':
, .
'.,.';
;; : , "
',;0;'.
.. .
.r.' . :. ,it.' : .
",1.
/
"._'
". ,:"':.\'.'
,r,.
.... >.
(.F';
' ..
,
V', /Jr
tOneoU's .rocks 3.9
. . . .:t.}J.. . e; ..
.. Table 4-1 is a bit overwhelming at first lumped together under 'felsite,' because will probably come to realize that the
glance, butdon't despair. ACtually, . these two aphanitic rocks are toofine- .simplest guides to igneous rock
there are only 11. kinds of igneous . '. texturedto see whether or not quartz is identificationare:(a) mineral composi- .(--- .
o
rocks listedhere (29.fewer than in present-s-the basis for distinguishing tion, in cases of phaneritic plutoniC' '.
.America's Top 40). between their phaneritic counterparts, rocks; and (b) color and specific
. ' .' . . . '", ." .
graniteand diorite. In studying speci textures, in cases of aphanitic volcanic .
Rhyolite and andesite are conveniently' mensprovidedby your instructor you...'.
. rocks.' .
I .'
Table 4-1. CLASSIFICATION OFIGNEOUS ROCKS
'8' \: ,"
(mineralogiccomp06itkm6 plotted acroae the top: texture6 plotted down the left margin)

8iilIU('UlrciR.IfjIJ
(mlnerale 6ufficiently large for identification)
il.;1
GRANITE
(light-colored)
DIORITE
(intermediate-colored)
GABBRO
(dark-colored)
PERroe-rLTE

(ver::{dark-colored)
: VQLCANIC' ROCK5j'
Volcanic rocke, Group A: With the exception of pos6ible phenocry6t6, minerals are too email for identification:
o
color may be the only gUide to claeelflcatlon.
I
Volcanic rocks of
peridotite compoeition
are exceedingly rare.
()

RHYOLITE I' ANDESITE
FELSITE
(light to intermediate-colored)
BASALT
(dark-colored)
Volcanic rocks, Group B: Claeelflcatlcn of volcanic rock6 below i6 baaed 6OIelyon texture.
(Comp06itional tendencie6 only, 60 the rnlneral-compoettlcn boundary-line6 are 6lanted.
TUFF (con6i6t6 of fragment6 le66 than 4 mm in elze)
VOLCANIC BRECCIA (con6i6t6 offragment6 more than 4 mm in elze)
SCORIA
no ecorta ofthi6 comp06ition (dark colored:
tend6 to be mafic)
(no volcanic gla66 of thi6 chemica I
comp06ition: lava i6 so fluid that cryetale
develop, even with fa6te6t p06sible cooling)
no pumice of thi6 comp06ition
PUMICE
(Ught colored:'
OBSIDIAN
(can be dark, even
though felelc)
'\ ':"'
". .. .'! ..' .. -.. ..,
.'.j ..... "',
; -.: .. ! .- ! .. , __
:... ,.;' ."';
.'
:"':!,..:"
. "l' I.:
" :
, ....:. . ,
,'"
.' ,:' :; .. ..,",
):..: ,- : ' :<.,
""'"
"L".').,' - ,', ,..
0\
'.;::
. I
-, ::
.\
i " '.," . -,I "."
i'
"., ... , ",
r
..... k'
i,;, ..
':-;,
",.
.(r":>v i.

: I
," "
:'..'
-!,-.,
. .. ;"(\:..:.
ptLt ';::1 ..t' '-."
Cd!}. 1 ; Y"::;/'
r2 -..' L'l{; 0,;\(:
", ......
".'
;_; : t
S.r,
o

ROCK REFERENCE SHEET
. ..
.. ' .' ......... .:
) Composition: medium- tocQarse-qrained ..'.
containing-more than....-..cmore than two ..
.' .,,:. . thirds . of which 1. . and . small
IM\X)$'1
IQ
t! j . . . ... percentages. ... of. . . b10. 1te, ... .hornblende . or .... . . .: ... x;'.
A . t,' t E.LDSP/l(ferroma
gnes1an
mf.nez-aLs ... :> c..:t..: \0 WiAefc M'''h
JIol.LKA, I .2) Texture: has thecommones l.nwhl.ch
. some . constituent: minerals are'" eu e ra , . some . are
.7 ..
and some are. anhedral. . Such a texture is .
. . . '. . .. "usually referred to as . Ot'4
is c?mmonly by grclnites, .........
. Some granJ.tesdl.splayfoll.atlon, either
, .. , . shear, or replacement . (see extra notes below)
fJi 3) Sketch:
'. I-tOR.tJt3UlIJ06
P03i1VO)'J'
lArtf2 . ..
..

PAQ\l .r;UAf.T2.
a-litH
LAbioClJ6t
looTiTe..
T6



.--- A ,. .....
t-lOlttJ ..
.. .. ( k-fRl'eAt.) ..
'. . .
P6f.AA:E..
f l..A,,= 10
.' tiCDS ..
\ .
'---..
.4) Related granites: Charnockite
. . '. Alaskite . MAt.kitSl'-l-..l4i
(j
5) Extrus1.ve equ1valent: Rhyol1te ... . ., .
6) Distinctionbetweengranites formedfrom'igneous magma, . and
'granites I formed by replacement: ... . . .' '. .'.
Igneous granites usually occur as stocks or other intrusives,
and. are associated with volcanoes of' similar . composition. The
.. complex . zoning of plagioclases,which. is. a notable feature. of
andesites, dacites, etc. , also. is fairlycommOri in some granitic
rocks .. and since thevolcanic rocks are obviously igneous, it
seems logical to assume that the grariiticrocks are also.
. . . Replacement granites' may show of bedding and other
structures which may be traced' from the ct)Untry rock into the
granite. Mineralogical and chemical peculiarities ().t the country
. rocks may be traced for some distance . into. the granites.. Also,
. replacement or assimilation dykes rather than dilation dykes support
the idea of replacement. . ..' . .. .
(Extra Notes: .. There are several associated with
granitic rocks, some of which are quite . for example,
micrographic intergrowth in which quartz and . alkali feldspar are
intergro\-lo .to look U.ke runic inscriptions or cuneiform writing; .
rapakivi texture in which large orthoclase phenocrysts are Surrounded
by mantles of oligoclase; or orbicular granite in which spherical or
ovoid patches, sometimes up to half a are made up.of
concentric shells alternately rich in dark and light minerals
{thought to be related to inclul3ionl3 either of ,the country rock or
the granite, itself}) .
(
)
'i/.'
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+ ';:' :":)'.1"0,,
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'i.

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ROCK REFERENCE SHEET' , PETROLOGY
o
SYENITE:1)
approxim
-there'i
lutonic rock, with
same general texture as granite.
!>,6JoA6 AC; "

,,! t. \,ZA L,l CNa -,,'
,
,
" "
Al-Ttr<eD
r It?dl()lAS
AM FHi tfiOLC
o

5tNi Tc "'
4) Related syenitesl Rordmarkite
Larvikite
5) ' , 7 5' 2 T J ,--: G RAl 1) ,
, , {'(.
"ue'r
6
.

7', ....
Yoti -r ", -e- ltnOI2t:
L- SAN/( C6lbwe. c=)
',' TRAC,HYT(,J .. 06....'o5
iTlbN.

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, ('5ve -. fNIf.US'


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II
ROCK REFERENCE SHEET PETROLOGY
0
.. . . . . ,
\ .. #-' .0
... -',TO - . kf,;J<AL.1 .
"'\ j ..
. . IfPL!'
A. .
."IP . ..'
(J lIU'Y0l- ilt . -,
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.PAti TE
.. AND f,C;\ 1 ..
.. A. g AL-1 .
. "\'.. ... . .
. . \.
.Lbf ofPtlH/t'o I!e/l; .

1 ) " essentially . the same as
. Granite, . except that only. j $ J' ; J
d I I j bi 2 S3 gat f I j i . n 'S } . J J I
(including oligoclase). The percentage of dark
minerals (Colour Index) is higher than Granite
also. .... .. . . .
2} .medium- to c oar-se-cg r-ai.ned plutonic
. rock, wit4ageneral texture not unlike
grani t.e j some quartz monzoni tes . have
phenoc r-ys t s . of potash . feldspar ,andthese
. por-phyr-Lt Lc varieties playimportarit roles as
hosts to porphyry copper . and stockwork
molybdenum deposits; .a few monzonites
exhibi t repeki v i texture.
3) Alternate Name: Quartz. Monzoni te is c ommon Ly
called Adamellite.
4' 7 . i . SiU .
Q.....
.:r-P
O
TASH S\lIIIllPlltNoCI<'(S1
tiL
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PETROLOGY'
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ROCK' . RBFERENCE .SBEET
. PETROLOGY
-,DIABASE:
"1) . . : essentially .._1111111111!1._.......__.
<:2
an' L .. : usually the. plagioclase is '.
in the labradorite 'range and the pyroxene
is . .
2) Related Rock: types: pyroxene ;is
tll-e rock . l.S known as '.' ..... '. '1
..... If the eI l.S less than10, the. rock passes .
into anorthosite. . If the quartz content 4<..
the rock is called
.' quartz gabbro orquartz.norite. . . . .
3) Texture: . gabbro and diabase are both mediuin
to and are
. . '. although there are some dl.fferences l.n
occurrence and. texture. For exalllple,
diabase commonlyexhibitsthe classic
igneous' texture, also. called diabasic'
L 1 0 fJto .MA fll. M i .
texture. Thi.s consists of
..' ,orienteq" . well-shaped laths of feldspar, .
or olivine c
-4, '.' .' l.nterstl.ces '. (spaces) them. Also;--'
GO MMOtJ'lt\.l tl,1efeldspars are more commonly zoned in
'. df.abase .
\At On the other hand, gabbro usually displays
. OGKpoikilitic larg
7
grains
. '. ...."_ completely enclose smaller gral.ns), or
- . fOJl I 1 particularly. "ophitic (where
0
1':' ." .' ..' 'P \A 0 Al;E, . .' laths are enclosed Wl. thl.nlarge
\('141 U . gral.ns . of pyroxene)
-, "". ftU>StPAR. 4) sketch: . .

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... ---- "-'--'--'--" - -.- ------.---. - .---....... ..-.-..-....-. --"'- - -_. - --.-.. - -- -- --------.---- ...- '-" --.--.- -.----- --.-----.--.. -..- -.-......_.--.- - ..---.- ----.-.r----.-.. -.--.-.-..
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Page 4 of 6
o
Dipyramid faces: sloping faces
1st order dipyramids )
2nd order dipyramids ). see above re cutting
Oitetragonal dipyramids) of horizontal axes.
Basal pinaco1d faces: horizontal faces flbase.
cutting c-axts at r't<'s
Half forms (disphenoids of chalcopyrite)
Combinations of the above.
3. Hexagonal System Hurlbut p.
Prism faces: vertical faces 1'1 c-axf s
1st order prisms ) .
2nd order prisms ) see Hurlbut
Oihexagonal.prisms) .
Dipyramid faces: sloping faces.
1st order dipyramids )
2nd order dipyramids ) see Hurlbut
Oi hexagona1 d1 pyrami ds)
Basa1 pi nacoi d faces: horizonta1
".
0
' faces II base. cutting c..axis at r' t < 's
i l l l ~ ~ j ~ calcite, dolomite, etc. Some of the carbonate
minerals are characterized by crystallizing as, or
cleaving into. rhombohedrons. See Hurlbut p, - Calcite.
They are half forms of a di pyramid of the 1st or 2nd order.'
See Figures
Scalenohedrons (dogtooth spar) - these are half forms of a dihexagonal
dipyramid. See Hurlbut p.
~
Combinations of the above.
4. Orthorhombic System Hurlbut p.
Prism forms: three sets, each consisting of four faces.
1st order prism faces are 11 a-axis, but cut b- &" c-axes.

2nd II " " .. Ilb-" til"a- & c-axes

Ii 3rd" " II "II c- ,." a- & b-axes . II II
o
o
3rd II II " II verti ca1 faces.

...
Dipyramid forms: eight sloping faces ,which cut all three axes.
Pinacoid forms: three sets, each conshting"of b"o 'faces.
(-)
Basal pinacoid faces are II a- & ..b axes. but cut c-axts at r't<. IS.
. " It hori zonte1 II II
Front II II II b- & ..c axes, " "a- II II. II II
Side II " II a.. &- c " t " "b- " " II. II II
Combinations of the above.
II
, .
(j
:,'.
'.' ,t.:.
~ ..
' ~ ..
'. <.
..f
t
,
, ~ : ,
. .t:
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Page 5 of 6
,0
-. . .. ", '"......." ' . ";'" "':.' '.,' 'i
5. Monoclinic System Hurlbut p.
o
:
o
o.
CD
to
(a) Prism forms: three sets, each consisting of four faces.
1st order prism, II a-axis) similar to tfie
3rd II II, /) c- .) orthorhombic sys
4th . II, 3 axes
II
cut; + '.'Po, (&V'r) - vee II
Note (1) There is no 2nd order prism, 1 b-axf s , due
to the <'A two face forms =
+ ve 2nd order pinacoid, (&/or) .
- ve 2nd II ".
Note (2) Due to the '(beta) the dfpyramid of the
, . orthorhomb1c-+ four faced forms =
+ve 4th order prism, (&Ior)
, - ve 4th II II
(b) Pfnacoid forms: four sets, each consisting of two faces .
Basal --
Front " ) s imil ar t6 the . ,
Side II) orthorhombic system. . '
2nd order pinacoid, (lib-axis, but cutting a- & c-axes);
, + ve, (&/or) - vee
Note - The basal pinacoid makes the.(.J6>(beta) with the c-exts ,
but is II Boo & b-axes.
(c) Combinations of the above.
6. Trfc1inic System Hurlbut p.
, This system is character! zed by pinacoid forms, consisting of two
parallel faces.
Basal pinacoids) similar to the orthorhombic system;
Front ) they are II two axes, & intersect II
Side II ) the third axis. ' .
II 1st order
l
they are II one axi s ,
2nd II " & intersect the other
3rd II, II .
two axes.
II II
4th - . they intersect a11 three axes.
Combinations of the above.
LAWt'
Law of Constancy of Interfacial Angles Hurlbut p.
The internal structure of any crystalline mineral is constant. The crystal
faces therefore aredeffnitely related to that structure. As a result the
faces have a definite relationship to each other. This fact is known as
the law of constancy of the interfacial angles which means that the angles
between corresponding faces on crystals of the same mineral are constant.
C)
'This law is fundamental and the most important rn-the science 'of crystallo
graphy. Amineral may frequently be identified by measurement of the
interfacial angles on its crystals. A mineral may be found in crystals of
widely varying shapes (distorted malformed). and sizes, but the angles
between pairs of corresponding faces are always the same. .' '" .
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. Page 6 of 6
D
Distortion (malformed crystals) Hurlbut
Aunor specimen. and garnet .
Contact goniometer)
Reflection ) Hurlbut p. , II
In the foregoing discussion of the six crystal systems the character o,f
the perfect geometric individual crystals has been considered. Such crystals,
in nature are the exception, and minerals are more frequently found in '
crystals which are (i) distorted, or (1i) intergrown with one another. See
Hurlbut It ..... -' .
, Ii ",-elU(,; . . .....'. .' .... . .. '
. .... $l
... ....
Hurlbut. 16 edition. '
If two or more crystals are intergrown according to some definite law
they are called twins. Such forms of a crysta'l1izedm1neral are the external
expression of an internal molecular structure. See Hurlbut p. .
,q&fqTwinning ... Crystals may be grouped together in a peculiar way called twinning ...
, two, or more. individuals arranged according to some definite law. .
(a) Hurlbut: ... Fig. 2.Ulc Interpenetration twins of fluorite (2 CUbes);
p. Fig's Staurolite twins. II
(b) Carlsbad twins (Orthoclase): Hurlbut p, ... Fig. Other twins of
/' orthoclase: Hurlbut p. - F1g.s , &
(c) Repeated contact twinning )
, II Mult.i
Ple
twinning j Plagioclase feldspars
=Albite twinning
II Polysynthetic twinning
This type of twinning occurs only in minerals crystallizing in the
Triclin1c system. See Hurlbut p. ... Tricl1nie system.
Hurlbut: p. ... Fig. ; p. .. Fig. p. .. Fig. 's & ,.
OJJ QypgUIA A.'t' .. 11ciL.
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...
c1mens will be passed as follows:
-
...
.
Some students find crystallography the most difficult aspect of mi neralstudy.
s
several Carlsbad twins of white feldspar (lens)
with one Carlsbad twin of orthoclase feldspar (lens)
your Table of Igneous Rocks re .
Microcline ... pink. showing multiple tWinnng on the basalpinacoid .
, - green (no twinning).
1 s nthetic twinning
(rock specimen) with one crystal showing (a) a Carlsbad
, , with of the Carlsbad twin showing polysynthetic twinning.
Oligoclase (Albite) - showing multiple twinning on the basal pinacoid
cleavage surface. .

I
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810111
I .Isometr1c (Cub1c) System
Simple (holohedral) forms: .
. ,/1. . Octahedron
J2. . Cube (Hexahedron)
.13. Rhombi c dodecahedron
~ 4 . Trapezohedron
!5. Trisoctahedron
.t6. Tetrahexahedron
.)7. . Hexoctahedron
Half-forms (hemihedral forms):
/8. Tetrahedron
9. Trigonal tristetrahedron
10. Deltoid dodecahedron
11. Hextetrahedron .
. tl12. Pyritohedron (pentagonal)
dodecahedron)
13. A diploid
II Hexagonal .S1Stem
Basic (fundamental) forms:
14. Hexagona1.. di pyrami d.
15. .Dihexagonal dipyramid
16. Hexagonal prism w1thbasal
p1naco1d
17. D1hexagonal prism w1thbasal
. pinlco1d
.;..
,
Or.thorhombic d1pyrani1d .
Orthorhombic.3rd order prism
<. II C-axi s) . and basa1. pi nacold
. 2na orderpri sm (q .:b-axis) and
1st. order prism (t' a-axis)
Front p1nacoid
S1dep4naco1d
Basalpinacoid
24.
25
26.
27.
Half-forms (hemihedralforiJiSl
18. Rhombohedron
19. Scalenohedron
III Tetragonal System
./20 Tetragona1 di pyrami d
21. Ditetragonal dipyram1d
~ 2 2 . Tetragonal prism and basal p1naco1d
23. Ditetragonal prisms and basal
. p1naco1d
IYOrthorhombic Sxstem

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V 'Monoclinic System
28. Side pinacoid
Basal Pinacoid
.Front pi nacoid ,
29. 3rd order prism and basal pinacoid
VI Triclinic System
30. Pinacoids (only):, because of
CI( ,$ and y' angles
Centre of symmetry. '
, GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
HAILEYBURYSCHOOL OF MINES
INTRODUCTORY COLLECTION OF
30 WOODEN CRYSTAL MODELS
The most important crystal fonns. '
'Adaptable to any Mineralogy Text.'
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