25

Fault Detection and Diagnosis in Mechatronic Systems

K.K. Tan S. Huang T.H. Lee A.S. Putra C.S. Teo C.W. de Silva
25.1 Introduction ......................................................................25-1 25.2 Model of the Metal-Cutting Process................................25-2 25.3 Fault Detection ..................................................................25-4
Observer Model and Stability Analysis Model-Based Fault Detection

25.4 Experimental Results.........................................................25-6 25.5 Conclusion.........................................................................25-8 Acknowledgment .........................................................................25-8 References .....................................................................................25-8

Summary
Computer-numerical-control (CNC) machines used in automated manufacturing are mechatronic systems. In this chapter, a fault detection method is developed based on a state observer model for a milling machine in a CNC machining center. The CNC machining center is treated as an uncertain linear system. To obtain more information, a robust observer is designed based on the uncertain linear model. Subsequently, this model is used as a state (tool wear) estimator, and fault diagnosis is carried out using twovariable information. The approach can be used for the detection of faults arising from the malfunction of a sensor or an actuator.

25.1 Introduction
Computer-numerical-control (CNC) machines are commonly used in automated factories for producing machined parts. A CNC machine, which consists of mechanical components, actuators, sensors, controllers, and interface hardware and software, is a mechatronic system. In a metal-cutting process using a CNC milling machine, it is possible that a fault occurs during operation even though the process parameters have been set properly. Faults in the cutting tools, which are frequently caused by tool wear, can potentially damage the workpiece. Prevention of faults is therefore important to minimize possible loss in manufacturing. Before a fault occurs, parameters of the cutting process change beyond their normal values. By detecting the unusual change of the parameters, it is possible to anticipate faults and take preventive or corrective action. This possibility of preventing faults has made continuous monitoring of metal-cutting processes and detection of the changes of parameters an important topic in the area of manufacturing automation

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Mechatronic Systems: Devices, Design, Control, Operation and Monitoring

and mechatronics. Successful monitoring systems can properly maintain the machine tools and delay the occurrence of tool wear. Various methods have been developed to detect the tool wear state. The application of statistical algorithms to associate patterns in measurable signals with wear states is found in Reference [1]. Weck [2] and Byrne et al. [3] use the signal of cutting force to monitor tool wear. By using inexpensive current sensors, several intelligent tool-wear-monitoring systems have been developed [46]. Coker and Shin [7] developed an in-process monitoring and control system for surface roughness during machining via ultrasonic sensing. In Reference [8] an acoustic emission sensor and accelerometers are used to monitor progressive stages of ank wear on carbide tool tips. An alternative approach to tool-wear monitoring is to apply system-theoretic ideas to estimate the wear states during the cutting process. In Reference [9] a linear model is built to detect the tool wear and breakage in the drilling process. In References [10,11] another linearization model is used to design an adaptive observer for online tool-wear estimation in a turning operation. The aim of tool-wear detection is to nd the loss of the original functioning or capability of the tool to detect an abnormal state. The methods of tool-wear diagnosis have focused on the development of signal processing techniques on the measurements such as cutting force, vibration, and spindle motor current. However, a tool signal from a single measurement may make a misjudgment because of the complicated dynamic characteristics of the cutting process and sensor noise. To prevent this, a multisensor approach has been presented in References [12,13]. This requires a higher hardware device supplied for simultaneously treating increased amounts of information. This chapter presents a method of model-based process supervision with fault detection and diagnosis. The model is built based on the data collection from a practical manufacturing plant. Unlike the results of References [911], the method developed in this chapter is focused on a milling machine (see Section 25.2). Note that in general the dynamic model of a milling operation is different from drilling or turning operations, as used in References [911]. The method is also different from what is presented in References [12,13], in that the sufcient observer information (software) is used to make decisions so as to enhance the reliability of tool wear, as opposed to using a multisensor (hardware) technique. The approach presented in this chapter can be summarized in the following steps. First, multiple linear models are identied based on different working conditions, and a dominant model is obtained from the models. The used model is the dominant model plus an uncertainty model with bounded signals. Second, an observer is built based on the identied model. Third, tool-wear signatures are detected by using two signal processing methods: the estimated wear rate based on the observer and the error between the observer and actual cutting force.

25.2 Model of the Metal-Cutting Process

A milling machining process is considered in this chapter. Milling is the process of cutting away material of a workpiece by feeding a material stock against a rotating tool/cutter. The workpiece to be machined may have several combinations of shape, such as at, angular, curved, or tubular surfaces. The process of milling is executed by a milling machinea mechatronic systemwhose construction and working mechanism allow it to perform a variety of operations, including machining processes that are normally performed by specically designed machines (e.g., drilling, turning, and shaping). This makes the milling machine among the most versatile machines in manufacturing. The typical feed system of a milling machine consists of the following basic components: cutting tool and tool post, table, saddle, bearings, ball screw, feed box, and feed motor. Figure 25.1 illustrates the typical feed-drive system of a horizontal milling machine. Models for the cutting process have been studied in References [1416]. For example, Lauderbaugh and Ulsoy [14] have proposed the following model:
2 F + n F + n F = K s f s ,

(25.1)

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Fault Detection and Diagnosis in Mechatronic Systems

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Workpiece Table Feed box

Cutting tool

Bearings Feed motor

Saddle Shaft Bearings

Ball screw

FIGURE 25.1 A feed-drive system of a horizontal milling machine.

where F is the cutting force and is the output of the system, f s is the feed rate, and the parameters , n , and K s depend on the depth of cut d, spindle speed v, and feed rate f s . This equation can be rewritten in the statespace form as x = Ax + bu, y = CT x , with x = [F F ]T , u = f s , and 0 A= 2 n 0 1 , b = , C = [1 n Ks (25.2)

0]T

(25.3)

The model is weakly nonlinear and has signicant process parameter variations [14]. Now, consider an uncertain linear model given by x = ( A + A)x + (b + b)u + d, y = CT x , (25.4)

where A and b are the nominal matrices (system matrix and the input gain matrix, respectively) of the system, and 0 A = a1(t ) 0 1 , , b = a2 (t ) b1(t)

(25.5)

2 where a1(t ), a2 (t ), and b1(t ) are the perturbation parameters of n , n , and K s , respectively, and d is the bounded disturbance. It is seen that this model can include more classes than that of Reference [14]. In tool-wear detection, it is well known that the tool life can be divided into three phases characterized by three different wear processes: (1) break-in, (2) normal wear, and (3) abnormal or catastrophic wear. The present objective is to detect the rise in the tool wear and to diagnose the fault types so that a tool replacement decision could be made. Because fault accommodation is not addressed in this chapter, we can make the standard assumption that the control u and the state vector x remain bounded prior to and after the occurrence of a fault.

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Mechatronic Systems: Devices, Design, Control, Operation and Monitoring

Assumption 1 There exist compact sets x R 2 , u R, such that x x and u for all t 0.

25.3 Fault Detection

Having obtained the model for the cutting process, the proposed method of fault detection and its constituent components are now discussed in detail according to the following steps. First, an observer model is presented for estimating the states. Second, the stability of the process is discussed based on the Lyapunov theory. Third, the fault detection strategy is proposed based on the observer.

25.3.1 Observer Model and Stability Analysis

Consider the uncertain plant (25.4). The dominant model in (25.4) can be identied in an ofine or online manner. For the model represented in (25.4), the cutting force can be measured, whereas the other state is not available (one cannot use the derivative of F to represent x 2 because F has strong noise). However, the state variable x can be estimated by an observer. An observer for the estimation of the states in (25.4) are given by x = Ax + bu + K ( y C T x), y = CT x ,

(25.6)

where x denotes the estimate of the state x and K = [k1 k2 kn ]T is the observer gain vector. Only the output y is assumed to be measurable. Dene the state and output estimate errors as x = x x and y = y y , respectively. Thus, the error dynamics is given by x = ( A KCT )x + Ax + bu + d, y = C T x. Theorem 1 Consider the nonlinear system described by (25.4) and the observer by (25.6). If Assumption 1 holds, x 0 x. Then, all of the signals are bounded and the state estimate x still remains in the compact ||| x x || BQ ,x x } . In addition, a small error of ||x|| may be achieved by selecting gain K . set x = {x (25.7) (25.8)

25.3.2 Model-Based Fault Detection

For a practical cutting process, the tool wear can be formulated by

= 0 + t,

(25.9)

where w is the tool wear level, w0 is the initial tool wear level, is the wear rate, and t is the cutting time. In the normal phase, the wear rate is constant. However, a sudden rise in the wear rate can be observed in an abnormal phase. Our objective is to monitor the rise in the wear rate to give a warning to the operators so that they can determine whether to replace the tool or to take some other action. It is observed that the tool wear is related to the cutting force [5]. One may represent this by F = F0 + L, (25.10)

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Fault Detection and Diagnosis in Mechatronic Systems

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where F0 is the cutting force arising under identical cutting conditions, but with an unworn cutting tool, and L is a parameter dependent on the cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. Substituting (25.9) into (25.10) yields F = F0 + L 0 + L t. The following wear rate is derived in Reference [5] (25.11)

F , L t

(25.12)

where F and t are the differences of F and t, respectively. Unfortunately, the measured cutting force is noisy and this causes difculty in the calculation of (25.12) in reality. On the other hand, from (25.10) it follows that F = L . (25.13)

This implies that F can be used to estimate the wear rate. Although F cannot be computed due to noise, its observer x 2 is available without the need of differentiation. When the observer is designed to satisfy the stability requirement, one can use x 2 in place of F. In order to monitor the tool wear, a time interval is dened as [t 0 ,t f ]. This interval can be computed by t f t0 = lf fr / 60

(25.14)

where l f is the reference distance that is determined by the user, fr is the feed rate (given in unit length per minutes, which is a machining parameter), and 60 is one minute in seconds. The sampling points t t can be calculated by N = f T 0 , where T is the sampling time. Thus, an estimate of x 2 during the interval is given by

x2 The threshold value is given by

i =1

|x 2 (i)|

(25.15)

FT = C1 x 2 , where C1 is a constant that is determined by experiments. Another variable to monitor is the error between the cutting force and its estimated value: e = y C T x. Similarly, the threshold value is given by

(25.16)

(25.17)

ET

=C
2

i =1

| e(i) | . (25.18)

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Mechatronic Systems: Devices, Design, Control, Operation and Monitoring

The fault detection problem consists of checking whether the following conditions hold: |e| > ET , |x 2 | > FT . The fault detection based on multiple variables strengthens the reliability of the method. (25.19)

25.4 Experimental Results

The model of the cutting process and the state observer for tool-wear detection as discussed in Section 25.2 and Section 25.3 have been implemented in an actual milling machine. The results of the implementation of the developed method are discussed now. The machine used in the experiment was a horizontal milling machine, designed and manufactured by MAKINO. The actual cutting force was measured by a force dynamometer at a sampling rate of 2000 Hz. In order to estimate the tool wear, a camera system was mounted on the machining center. For model identication, several cutting tests were conducted under various cutting conditions, as shown in Figure 25.2. Utilizing the identication technique, the following models were obtained: 1.633 103 s 2 + 3.9488 103 s + 1.2247 103 1.2034 103 s 2 + 1.7258 103 s + 1.2584 103 433.5270 s + 1.2310 103 s + 580.9918
2

G1(s) =

for test 1,

(25.20)

G2 (s) =

for test 2,

(25.21)

G3 (s) =

for test 3,

(25.22)

G4 (s) =

699.6232 s + 1.7190 103 s + 996.5475

2

for test 4,

(25.23)

The nominal model was then constructed as 0 A= 3 1.0152 10 1 3 2.1562 10 ,

(25.24)

| a1(t) | 435 , | a2 (t) | 1793 0 b= , b1(t) 642. 992.3876

(25.25)

The observer gain K is chosen as [100 10]T so that A- KC is stable (where the eigenvalues are 100.4987 and 2155.7). By choosing Q = 2I , the Lyapunov equation can be computed, providing an error estimation. The cutting processes according to the aforementioned four tests were used to compare the estimated results and the actual measurement. Figure 25.3 presents the comparisons. The estimated error was found to be within 12 m, which validates the accuracy of the proposed method. It follows that the established observer is suitable for use as a monitoring method to detect faults.

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Fault Detection and Diagnosis in Mechatronic Systems

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250 Cutting force 200 150 100 Cutting force 0 20 Time (a) 200 Cutting force Cutting force 180 160 140 120 100 0 5 10 Time (c) 15 20 40 60

140 120 100 80 60 40 0 20 Time (b) 180 160 140 120 100 80 0 5 Time (d) 10 15 40 60

FIGURE 25.2 Cutting force obtained from CNC milling center: (a) SS = 800 rpm, fr = 150 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm; (b) SS = 1000 rpm, fr = 100 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm; (c) SS = 1000 rpm, fr = 200 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm; (d) SS = 1200 rpm, and fr = 200 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm.

30 20 Errors Errors 0 20 Time (a) 30 20 Errors Errors 10 0 10 20 0 5 10 Time (c) 15 20 40 60 10 0 10 20

30 20 10 0 10 0 20 Time (b) 30 20 10 0 10 20 0 5 Time (d) 10 15 40 60

FIGURE 25.3 Comparison of actual and estimated cutting forces: (a) SS = 800 rpm, fr = 150 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm; (b) SS = 1000 rpm, fr = 100 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm; (c) SS = 1000 rpm, fr = 200 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm; (d) SS = 1200 rpm, and fr = 200 mm/min, depth of cut = 1 mm.

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Mechatronic Systems: Devices, Design, Control, Operation and Monitoring

25.5 Conclusion
CNC machines used in automated manufacturing are mechatronic systems. In this chapter, a fault detection method was developed based on a state-observer model for a milling machine in a CNC machining center. Specically, a state-observer model of the cutting force was used to detect tool wear in milling operations, with satisfactory results. In this method, only the cutting force was used for monitoring the automated machining. The inexpensive technique based on the observer model was applied to a CNC milling center. Experimental results showed that the proposed method would provide robust performance and could be easily used to monitor tool wear.

Acknowledgment
The authors thank Dr. Wang Wenhui for his helpful suggestions and the effort in data collection.

References
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