Field Geology of Late Permian and Early Triassic Outcrops on the Southern Moray Coast and Theirs Reservoir

Qualities

ABSTRACT Hopeman sandstone is late Permian aged sedimentary formation. The depositional environment of the formation was Aeolian; the sediments were deposited in arid desert of Pangea. The outcrops of this formation along the coastal strip of Moray Firth provide an opportunity to explore its properties. This is necessary because Hopeman sandstone is analogous to Rotliegend sandstone the principal gas-bearing formation in the southern North Sea. The Hopeman sandstone is composed of well sorted, rounded grains of fine- to medium-size. The large scale cross-bedding is typical; the colour of the formation varies from yellow to dark brown. Cementation varies through different localities. Hopeman sandstone has excellent reservoir properties: high porosity, permeability, net-to-gross ratio. The reservoir potential is diminished by possible sand production caused by moderate cementation and granulation seams at certain localities. Burghead Sandstone is Triassic formation cropping out around Burghead Village. The depositional environment of this formation is fluvial with distinctive trough bedding. The sorting is poor sizes vary from fine sand grains to pebbles. The clasts are rounded, cemented by silica or carbonate. The sandstone has considerable porosity and permeability, and high net-to-gross ratio, which leads to significant reservoir quality. INTRODUCTION This report is written on the field geology of the southern coast of Moray Firth, Morayshire. Moray Firth is a large triangular inlet of the North Sea in north-east Scotland. The exact field trip destination was the exposures of sedimentary clastic rocks in a coastal area between the villages of Hopeman and Burghead (Fig.1). There were 6 localities that were observed: 1-2) Covesea beach sandstones, lying to the west from Covesea lighthouse, 3) sandstone slabs from Clashach quarry and 4) nearby Covebay, 5) Daisy rocks, and 6) sandstone rocks in Burghead Harbour. The objectives of this report are to (a) give the geological description of observed rocks, including lithology, the facies variation, sedimentary structures, and (b) give the interpretation of the formations as a potential reservoir, i.e. determining characteristics such as porosity, permeability, net-to-gross ratio. The detailed study

of

these

formations

is

important

because they are similar in geological features to early- and mid-Permian aged Rotliegend sandstone formations in the southern basin of North Sea. Rotliegend sandstone formation is the principal gas bearing formation on the southern part of North Sea. DATA SECTION & OBSERVATIONS Hopeman sandstones are late Permian sedimentary clastic formations deposited approximately 255 million years ago. At that time, the whole area of Moray Firth was a part of the giant supercontinent geographically Figure 1. Narrow strip of Jurassic-Triassic sedimentary rocks on the southern Coast of Moray Firth was Pangea located in and the

latitude of 15-20 north. Sedimentation process took place in hot, arid desert. Nowadays, a narrow strip of Hopeman sandstone crops out along the southern Moray Coast. The maximum height of rocks is about 40 m, whereas under the seafloor it reaches 150 m. The formation pinches out towards the south. First Locality: Covesea beach (A). Substantial exposures of Hopeman sandstone near the Covesea Golflinks (Fig.2). The facies indicate the Aeolian deposition environment. There is obvious large-scale cross-bedding with layers inclining 30 degrees towards south, suggesting that paleocurrents had N-S direction. The upper part of the exposures is deformed by processes that took place during the transgression of Zechstein Sea into the Central North Sea Basin in early Triassic period. Air, escaping the unconsolidated dune formations during flooding, caused the deformation of the rocks (Ogilvie, Glennie and Hopkins 2000). The Hopeman sandstone is composed of well rounded, fine- to medium-sized grains. The grains are bonded with silica cementing agent; cementation is medium as the rock is a bit friable. The marks of rust are present, signifying the presence of iron oxide cementing. The sandstone is well sorted by grain sizes. The porosity and permeability

Figure 2. Hopeman Sandstone Outcrop. Large scale crossbedding can be obviously seen. At the top of the structure sandstones, transformed by Zechstein Sea

of the sandstone is particularly good. The colour of the rocks varies from yellow to brown. Both the porosity and permeability of the rocks are good. Net-to-gross ratio is almost 100%. Second locality: Covesea beach (B). It was situated to the west from the first one. The colour of the rocks is from pale yellow to saturated brown with greenish tints. The texture of the sandstone is identical to previous locality, net-to-gross ratio is remarkably high, but cementation is more intense. The main cementing agent is also the silica cement with marks of iron oxide cement, but at this locality barium sulphate is present. Due to compression tectonic forces lots of granulation seams were generated. These seams contain a large percentage of barium sulphate cement and are perfectly impermeable (Fig.3). Figure 3. Granulation seam generated as a result of compression tectonic forces. They are completely impermeable and contain high percentage of BaSO4 Third Locality: Clashach Quarry. The huge fossiliferous slabs are displayed near the Clashach Quarry. The age of these slabs is late Permian and they are produced from

Hopeman sandstone formation. The slabs demonstrate prominent trace fossils of prehistoric reptiles, which inhabited the area in the late Permian period (Fig.4). Fossils are immensely useful tools for determining the age of the rocks along with the radiometric, magnetostratigraphic and other methods.

Fourth Locality: Covebay. The bay is located in the vicinity of Clashach quarry 5-6 km to the west from Covesea beach. There a distinct example of reverse fault can be observed (Fig.5). Although it is a highangled fault (approximately 65-75 degrees), which is associated with extension of the crust, it was generated by compression tectonic forces. The possible explanation is that extension generated a high-angle fault, but later compression forces reactivated the fault and brought the walls together. The hanging wall is displaced 20 meters above the Figure 4. Sandstone slab demonstrating fossil traces nerby Clashach Quarry foot wall. During the frictional movements of fault sides, the slickenside transformed into impermeable rock. This

caused the left side of the fault Figure 5. The Covebay. High-angle fault produced initially by extension, and later reactivated by fluid migration. On the hanging compression forces. On the footwall the sandstone is impermeable, whereas the hanging wall is a nearwall, there is a cove that was perfect reservoir. hollowed out by seawater. The to be highly cemented during a sandstone on this side is made of well sorted, rounded, fine- to medium-sized grains. The grains are poorly cemented by silica. Net-to-gross ratio is remarkably high, almost 100%. The age of the rocks is late Permian, and it is also part of Hopeman

sandstone formation. Large scale cross bedding of the rocks can be observed. Colour of the rocks ranges from yellow to dark brown. Fifth Locality: Daisy rocks. Daisy rocks are part of Hopeman sandstone formation. The grain sizes varies from fine to medium, well rounded, well sorted and of high sphericity. The distinctive feature of this locality is that Daisy rocks are cemented significantly compared to other localities exposures. This fact is explained by major fault that passes near the rocks. The fault transmitted a large amount of fluids and completely cemented all surrounding rocks. The permeability of these rocks is negligible. The rocks were highly deformed by seawaters along with the river waters in the late Permian period, as, at that time, the transgression of Zechstein Sea took place (Fig. 6). There are no traces of cross bedding, although the depositional environment was Aeolian.

Figure 6. The Daisy Rocks. Part of Hopeman Sandstone, but is completely different from other localities. Practically impermeable, transformed by transgression water.

Sixth Locality: Burghead Sandstone. Burghead Sandstone is the exposure at the Harbour of Burghead. These rocks are dated as Triassic sedimentary formations. The depositional environment was fluvial. Hence, the texture of the sandstone is totally different. The Burghead Rock is made of pebbled (up to 50 mm) yellow to brown sandstone and conglomerate with thin greenish yellow interlayers of siltstone and clay (Figure 7). The sediments are well cemented with silica and carbonate, though there are some crumbly layers. Although the general layering is horizontal and trough, but lots of small scale cross-beddings can be observed. The channel feature at the top of the rock exposure suggests that sediments were transported from south-west.The

formation has good porosity and permeability. The sandstone grains are medium- to coarse-sized, well rounded, poorly sorted.

Figure 7. Rock exposure at Burghead Harbour. Poorly sorted sandstone with intervening greenish mudrock.

DISCUSSION According to observations, all Permian aged localities have identical characteristics, except the level of cementation. The latter is different for each locality. For example, Daisy rocks are cemented strongly, and this fact negatively affects the porosity and permeability of this rock. The inference is that Daisy Rocks have poor reservoir properties. On the other hand, Covebay and Covesea beach localities demonstrate medium cementation, which brings good porosity and permeability, but could produce sand during hydrocarbon production. The first locality has excellent reservoir potential: porosity and permeability are good, net-to-gross ratio is 100%. The Covesea beach B locality also has good reservoir properties. Furthermore, due to more intense cementing, the production will not be challenged by sand production. Anyway, the sandstone formation has another problem: impermeable granulation seams. These seams will impede hydrocarbon filtration to the wellbore. The fault analogue of structural trap in the subsurface makes the reservoir potential of Covebay best amongst the others. However, it will produce sand like the first locality sandstone. The Burghead Sandstone has remarkably good quality sandstone, high net-to-gross ratio, and has a high reservoir potential. The intervening silt and shales are not continuous and will not challenge potential oil production.

CONCLUSION Hopeman sandstone was formed at Aeolian environment in deserts in the late Permian period about 255 million years ago. Hopeman sandstone is made of fine- to mediumsized, well-rounded grains of high sphericity. Cementation material and level of cementation varies widely depending on location of the sandstone. The main cementation material is silica cement, also the traces of calcite and iron oxide cementing agents can be observed. Large scale cross-bedding reside in each locality except for Daisy Rocks. Daisy Rocks are highly-deformed, high-cemented sandstone with poor reservoir qualities. Hopeman sandstone has remarkable reservoir characteristics, porous and permeable sandstones with extraordinarily high net-togross ratio. However, due to medium cementation sand production can be a severe problem, as well as granulation seams at Covesea beach (B). Burghead Sandstone was formed in Triassic period in fluvial depositional environment. The sorting is poor, varying from fine sand grains to large pebbles. Grains are well rounded, of high sphericity. There is horizontal trough bedding with some small scale cross-bedding. The cementing agent is silica and carbonate. The sandstone has high potential to be a hydrocarbon reservoir. REFERENCES OGILVIE, S., GLENNIE, K. and HOPKINS, S., 2000. Excursion guide 13: The PermoTriassic sandstones of Morayshire. Geology Today, 16(5). pp.185-190 BIBLIOGRAPHY OGILVIE, S., GLENNIE, K. and HOPKINS, S., 2000. Excursion guide 13: The PermoTriassic sandstones of Morayshire. Geology Today, 16(5). pp.185-190 PEACOCK, J.D. et al., 1968. The Geology of Elgin District. Edinburgh: Her Majestys Stationary Office. PRESS, F. et al., 2003.Understanding Earth. 4th ed. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. SKINNER, B.J. and Porter, S.C., 2000. The Dynamic Earth An Introduction to Physical Geology. 4th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. WICANDER, R. and MONROE, J.S., 1998. Essentials of Geology. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.