2.

2 Higher Order Linear Difference Equations / Discrete

Dynamical Systems

2.2.0 Introduction

The main part of this section covers the solution methodology of linear second order
difference equations (discrete dynamical systems). We examine two cases: i)
homogeneous, 2
nd
-order, linear discrete dynamical systems; and ii) non-homogeneous,
2
nd
order, linear discrete dynamical systems. Dynamical systems are powerful tools for
modeling and analyzing a variety of situations.



2.2.1 Homogeneneous Discrete Dynamical Systems

Definition: A homogeneous, 2
nd
-order, linear discrete dynamical system (difference
equation) is of the form:

a( n + 2) + A a(n + 1) + B a(n) =0

where A and B are arbitrary constants.
The characteristic equation of the above dynamical system is:

x
2
+ A x + B = 0

Each 2
nd
order linear discrete dynamical system/difference equation, with constant
coefficients defines a unique characteristic equation. The general solution of the
difference equation depends on the type of the roots of the characteristic equation. Thus
we examine three cases:


Distinct Real Roots:

Theorem 1: Given the discrete dynamical system a(n + 2) + A a(n+1) + B a(n) =0,
with characteristic equation x
2
+ A x + B = 0 with roots x = r and x =s where rs
the general solution is:

a(k) = c
1
r
k
+ c
2
s
k


A particular solution (i.e., the values of c
1
and c
2
) can be found by substituting two
known values (initial conditions) of the sequence { a(n) }





Example: The Fibonacci sequence is defined by the difference equation:
f( n+ 2) = f(n+ 1) + f(n) where f(0) = 1 = f(1). Find the general and particular solution
of the difference equation. Examine the limit of the ratio of two consecutive terms
f( k+ 1) / f(k) as k approaches infinity.

Solution: The difference equation can be written in the form:
f( n+ 2) f(n + 1) f(n) =0

The characteristic equation is: x
2
x 1 =0 with roots:


2
5 1
1
+
= x and
2
5 1
2

= x ( distinct, real roots).

Thus the general solution is:


k k
c c k f
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
5 1
2
5 1
) (
2 1


Using the initial conditions f(0) = 1 = f(1) we obtain the system:

f(0) = 1 = c
1
+ c
2

f(1) = 1 =
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
5 1
2
5 1
2 1
c c
which has solution:


10
5 5
1
+
= c and
10
5 5
2

= c

Thus the particular solution, given the initial conditions is:


k k
k f
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
2
5 1
10
5 5
2
5 1
10
5 5
) (

Wow!. What a complicated expression involving irrational numbers. To convince
yourselves that the above produces the Fibonacci sequence, substitute k = 01,2,3,4,5
and perform exact arithmetic ( do not numerically approximate the 5 with your
calculator, but rather perform all algebraic expansions and arithmetic). The above will
produce the sequence: { 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, . . . }



The ratio of two consecutive terms is:


k k
k k
k f
k f
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
+ +
2
5 1
10
5 5
2
5 1
10
5 5
2
5 1
10
5 5
2
5 1
10
5 5
) (
) 1 (
1 1



Lets use Maple to find the limit of the above as k approaches infinity:

> limit( (((5 + sqrt(5))/10)*((1+ sqrt(5))/2)^(k+1) + ((5
- sqrt(5))/10)*((1- sqrt(5))/2)^(k+1) ) / (((5 +
sqrt(5))/10)*((1+ sqrt(5))/2)^k + ((5 - sqrt(5))/10)*((1-
sqrt(5))/2)^k ), k = infinity);

+
1
2
1
2
5

The above number is called the golden mean. The number has many applications and a
rich history.


Double root:

A 2
nd
order linear homogeneous difference equation of the form:

a(n+2) + A a(n+1) + B a(n) = 0
has a characteristic equation of the form: x
2
+ A x + B =0. Assume that x =r is the
double root. Then the characteristic equation must be of the form: (x r)
2
=0.
Equivalently of the form: x
2
2 r x + r
2
=0. Thus the corresponding difference
equation is of the form : a(n+2) 2 r a(n+1) + r
2
a(n) = 0. The following theorem
states the solution a 2
nd
-order linear homogeneous difference equation in the case of a
double root.

Theorem 2: Given the 2
nd
-order , homogeneous, linear discrete dynamical system :
a(n+ 2) + A a(n+ 1) + B a(n) =0 where x = r is a double root of the characteristic
equation, the general solution is:

a(k) = c
1
r
k
+ c
2
k r
k
= ( c
1
+ c
2
k ) r
k


A particular solution (i.e., the values of c
1
and c
2
) can be found by substituting two
known values (initial conditions) of the sequence { a(n) }


Example: Find the general solution for: a(n+2) 8 a(n+ 1) + 16 a(n) =0. Also find
particular solution given the initial conditions: a(0) =2, a(1) =10.
Solution: First lets write the characteristic equation of the discrete dynamical system.

The characteristic equation is: x
2
8 x + 16 =0. The root(s) are: x = 4,4 (double
root).

Thus the general solution is: a(k) = c
1
4
k
+ c
2
k 4
k

Substituting the initial conditions to the general solution, we obtain the system:

a(0) = 2 = c
1
4
0
+ 0 = c
1

a(1) = 10 = c
1
4 + c
2
4

Solving the above system we obtain the values of c
1
and c
2
. The particular solution is:

( ) ( )
k k
k k a 4
2
1
4 2 ) ( |
.
|

\
|
+ =


Complex Roots:

Theorem 3: Given the discrete dynamical system a(n + 2) + A a(n+1) + B a(n) =0,
with characteristic equation x
2
+ A x + B = 0 with complex roots: bi a x = the
general solution is:

a(k) =( ) | | ) sin( ) cos(
2 1
k c k c r
k
+

where: ( )
2 2
b a r + = and |
.
|

\
|
=

a
b
1
tan

A particular solution (i.e., the values of c
1
and c
2
) can be found by substituting two
known values (initial conditions) of the sequence { a(n) }

Example: Solve the dynamical system: a(n+2) + 1/9 a(n) =0 with a(0) =0 and
a(1) = 1 Interpret the long-term behavior of the solution.
Solution: The characteristic equation of the given dynamical system is:

0
9
1
2
= + x x with roots: i x
3
1
=

The quantities: ( )
3
1
2 2
= + = b a r and |
.
|

\
|
=

a
b
1
tan or
2

= radians.

Thus the general solution is:


(

|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
sin
2
cos
3
1
) (
2 1
k
c
k
c k a
k


Using the initial conditions the values of the constants can be obtained by solving the
system:

( )
1 2 1
0
0 sin 0 cos
3
1
0 c c c = + |
.
|

\
|
=

|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
= )
2
sin( )
2
cos(
3
1
1
2 1
1

c c

Its solution is: c
1
= 0 and c
2
= 3
The particular solution is:

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
= )
2
sin( 3
3
1
) (
k
k a
k


The first term suggests that as k becomes large, the solution becomes small (damping
factor), while the second term suggests that oscillation will be present as the solution
converges to the value of zero. Lets visualize the solution:


> plot((1/3)^k * 3* sin(k*Pi/2), k = 0..7);



Observe the oscillation and the rapid convergence to the value of zero.



2.2.2 Non-Homogeneneous Discrete Dynamical Systems

Besides the homogeneous discrete dynamical systems, a number of physical problems
can me modeled using non-homogenenous linear, discrete dynamical systems. For
example, Newtons second Law, leads a 2
nd
-order difference equation to represent the
average acceleration a(n) of an object during time during time period n in terms of the
distance traveled d(n) after n time intervals. Let u(n) represent the average velocity
during the time period n. Then:

u(n) = d(n+ 1) d(n)
a(n) = u(n+ 1) u(n)

Substituting the expression for u(n+1) into the second equation we get:

a(n) = d(n+2) 2 d(n+1) + d(n)

According to Newtons second law, the acceleration if proportional to the net external
force. Thus a(n) = ( 1/ m) F
net
Assuming that the gravitational force is the only force
acting on he object, the above becomes:

m a(n) = m g Thus, d(n+2) 2 d(n+ 1) + d(n) = g

This is a 2
nd
-order, non-homogeneous linear difference equation. It is solution will
denote the position d(n) as a function on n.


Definition: 2
nd
-order non-homogeneous, linear discrete dynamical system has the form:

a( n+ 2) + A a(n + 1) + B a(n) = g(n)


Method: The method is very similar to the one presented for solving 1
st
-order linear
homogeneous difference equations, and consists of three steps:
Find the general solution a
h
(k) to the associated homogeneous equation
Find a particular solution a
p
(k) to the non-homogeneous equation
Form the general solution a(k) by adding them together:
a(k) = a
h
(k) + a
p
(k)


The nature of the particular solution depends on type of the function g(n). Thus we
examine the following cases:




Non-homogeneous equations: Polynomial Functions:

In this case g(n) could be a constant or any polynomial in terms of n. The final
conjectured form for a
p
(k) depends on the nature of the solution a
h
(k) of the associated
homogeneous equation. The final form for a
p
(k) is obtained by multiplying the initial
guess by k
m
where m is the least integer to avoid duplication. (A very similar
approach was used to solve non-homogeneous, linear differential equations). The
following table summarizes the technique, presenting various cases for g(n) and the
initial and revised conjectures for a
p
(k).

g(n) Initial Conjecture a
h
(k) Final Conjecture

c (constant) a
p
= q k a
h
= c
1
+ c
2
k a
p
=q k
2

2 n + 6 a
p
= q
1
+ q
2
k a
h
= c
1
+ c
2
2
k
a
p
=k ( q
1
+ q
2
k)

5 n
2
8 a
p
= q
1
+ q
2
k +q
3
k
2
a
h
= c
1
+ c
2
k a
p
=k
2
(q
1
+ q
2
k +q
3
k
2
)


Example: Find the general solution for: a(n+ 2) 3 a(n+1) + 2 a(n) = 16
Solution: Since g(n) is constant we initially conjecture a solution a
p
(k) = q
Lets examine the solution of the associated homogeneous equation. The characteristic
equation is: s
2
- 3 s + 2 with roots s = 2, 1. Thus the general solution to the
associated homogeneous equation will be:

a
h
(k) = c
1
2
k
+ c
2

Thus there is a duplication between the initial conjecture for the particular solution and
solution for the associated homogeneous equation. Thus the revised conjectured
particular solution is: a
p
(k) = q k
To find the value of q we substitute the particular solution to the given non-
homogeneous equation, collect like terms and equate the corresponding coefficients:

a
p
(k + 1) = q ( k + 1) and a
p
( k + 2) = q ( k+ 2)

Substituting into the given equation (and performing algebraic manipulations) we obtain:

q k - 3(q k + q) + 2 ( q k + 2 q) = 16

k(q 3q + 2q) + ( -3q + 4q) = 16

Thus q = 16.
The general solution to the non-homogeneous discrete dynamical system is:

a(k) = c
1
2
k
+ c
2
+ 16 k



Example: Find the final form of a
p
(k) for the discrete dynamical system:
d(n+ 2) - 2 d(n+ 1) + d(n) = 32
Solution: Since g(n) is a constant, the initial conjecture is a
p
(k)=q. The final form is
dictated by the nature of the solution for the associated homogeneous equation. The
characteristic equation for associated homogeneous equation is:

x
2
- 2 x + 1 = 0

Thus, a
h
(k) = c
1
+ c
2
k

To avoid duplication the original conjectured particular solution must be multiplied by a
factor k
2
Thus the final form is:

a
p
(k) = q k
2


Non-homogeneous equations: Exponential Functions:

In this case g(n) could be an exponential function in terms of n. The final conjectured
form for a
p
(k) depends on the nature of the solution a
h
(k) of the associated
homogeneous equation. The final form for a
p
(k) is obtained by multiplying appropriate
terms of the initial guess by k
m
where m is the least integer to avoid duplication. (A
very similar approach was used to solve non-homogeneous, linear differential
equations). The following table summarizes the technique, presenting various cases for
g(n) and the initial and revised conjectures for a
p
(k).


g(n) Initial Conjecture a
h
(k) Final Conjecture
a
p
(k) a
p
(k)

5(4)
n
+ 3(5)
n
q
1
4
k
+ q
2
5
k
c
1
+ c
2
4
k
q
1
k4
k
+ q
2
5
k


2
n
+ 5 3
n
q
1
2
k
+ q
2
3
k
(c
1
+ c
2
k) 2
k
q
1
k
2
2
k
+ q
2
3
k



Example: Find the general solution for the non-homogeneous discrete dynamical
system:
a(n + 2) a( n+ 1) 6 a(n) = 30 (3)
n

Solution:
The initial conjecture for a
p
(k) is a
p
(k) = q 3
k
Lets examine the solution of the
associated homogeneous equation. The characteristic equation is:

x
2
x 6 = 0 with roots: x = 3, -2

Thus the solution of the associated homogeneous equation is:

a
h
(k) = c
1
3
k
+ c
2
( -2)
k

To avoid duplication, the revised particular solution becomes: a
p
(k) = q k 3
k
The value of q can be found by substituting to the non-homogeneous equation. Note
that:
a
p
(k+ 2) = q ( k+ 2) 3
k+2
and a
p
(k+1) = q ( k+ 1) 3
k+1

After substitution and algebraic simplifications we obtain: q = 2

Thus the general solution is: a(k) = c
1
3
k
+ c
2
( -2)
k
+ 2 k 3
k




2.2.3 Long Term Behavior

Difference equations are used to predict the future, thus it is natural to want to know what
the model predicts in the long run. Will the solution approach steady-state value? grow?
decay? oscillate? Will the outcomes predicted by the model be sensitive to the starting
value? In this section we analyze the long-term behavior of the second order
homogeneous and non-homogeneous linear difference equations / discrete dynamical
systems.

Definition: The number a
e
is an equilibrium value for the dynamical system:
a(n+2) =f ( a(n), a(n + 1)) if a(k) = a
e
for all values of k when the initial values
are a(0) = a(1) = a
e


Definition: An equilibrium point a
e
is stable if there is a (small) number such that
when | a(0) a
e
| < then the limit of a(k) is a
e
as k approaches infinity.

Homogeneous Discrete Dynamical Systmem:
The following table summarizes the various types of solutions to a 2
nd
-order
homogeneous, linear discrete dynamical system of the form:
a(n+2) + A a( n + 1) + B a(n) = 0
with characteristic equation: x
2
+ A x + B =0

Roots of Char. Equation Form of General Solution

1) Real, Distinct, x = r, s ; r s a(k) = c
1
r
k
+ c
2
s
k

2) Double root: x = r a(k) = (c
1
+ c
2
k) r
k

3) Complex, x = a + bi, a bi a(k) =(r)
k
(c
1
cosk + c
2
sink )


If a 2
nd
-order homogeneous, linear dynamical system has an equilibrium value, this value
must be a
e
= 0. Well, if a
e
is an equilibrium point, then a
e
= a(n+2) = a(n+1) = a(n)
Substituting in the 2
nd
order difference equation yields:
a
e
+ A a
e
+ B a
e
= 0. Thus (1 + A + B ) a
e
=0 So, a
e
=0 assuming that
A + B -1

Note: If A + B = -1, then the dynamical system: a(n+2) + A a(n+1) + B a(n) =0
has no equilibrium value. The characteristic equation is: x
2
+ A x + B =0 with roots:


2
) 4 (
2
B A A
x

= Thus, if A = -1 B , one of the roots will be r =1 (real
rots), and thus according the solutions in the above table, the value of a(k) will grow
with no bound.

Theorem 4: The discrete dynamical system: a(n+ 2) + A a(n+ 1) + B a(n) =0 has a
single equilibrium value a
e
=0. If | r | < 1 and | s | < 1 then the equilibrium is stable.
If either | r | > 1 or | s | >1 or both, then the equilibrium is unstable.


Example: Find the general solution of the following discrete dynamical system.
a(n+ 2) + 5 a(n+1) + 6 a(n) =0
Characterize the long term behavior of the solution.
Solution: The characteristic equation is:

x
2
+ 5 x + 6 =0 with distinct real roots: x = -2, -3
Thus the general solution is:

a(k) = c
1
( -2)
k
+ c
2
(-3 )
k

Both terms in the general solution will grow as k increases, their signs will alternate.
The magnitude of the solution will increase, but the solution itself will oscillate around
the equilibrium value a
e
=0 which is unstable.

Non-homogeneous Discrete Dynamical System:
What about the long-term behavior of 2
nd
order non-homogeneous, linear discrete
dynamical systems? Consider the dynamical system:

a(n+ 2) + A a(n+1) + B a(n) = c

For a number a
e
to be an equilibrium point, we must have:
a
e
= a(n+2) = a(n+1) = a(n)

Substituting into the difference equation, yields: a
e
+ A a
e
+ B a
e
=c

which has solution:
B A
c
a
e
+ +
=
1
(assuming A + B -1 )

From the above expression, it is obvious that for a 2
nd
-order non-homogeneous linear
difference equation to have an equilibrium value, the g(n) term must be a constant.

In exercise #11), you are asked to show that the solution to the 2
nd
-order non-
homogeneous difference equation is: a(k) = a
h
(k) + a
e
where a
h
(k) is the solution of
the associated homogeneous difference equation. Thus the stability of the equilibrium
point a
e
follow the stability of the associated homogeneous equation.


Theorem 5: The dynamical system a(n+2) + A a(n+1) + B a(n) =c has a single

equilibrium point:
B A
c
a
e
+ +
=
1
(assuming A + B -1 ). Let x = r, s be the

solutions to the characteristic equation of the associated homogeneous equation.
If | r | < 1 and | s | <1 then the equilibrium point is stable. If either | r | >1 or
| s | >1, or both, then the equilibrium point is unstable.



Example: An object of mass m falls from a height and encounters air resistance
which over small time intervals is approximately c times its velocity at the beginning
of this interval. Assuming that no other forces act on the object, formulate a difference
equation/discrete dynamical system for the distance the object falls. Assume the object is
initially at rest.
Solution: Let a(n) represent the average acceleration of the object, and let u(n) denote
the average velocity during time period n. If d(n) is the distance traveled after time
period n then:

u(n) = d(n+ 1) d(n) and a(n) = u(n+1) u(n)

According to Newtons second Law: m a(n) = F
net

But F
net
= m g - c u(n)

The term c u(n) represent the average force of air resistance. Experimentation has
shown that this approximation is reasonable over a range of values of the velocity u(n).
We use the average velocity u(n) over the time period n to approximate the average
force of resistance during the nth interval of time. We use small intervals of time to
improve our approximation of this behavior which varies continuously over time.



Substituting into Newtons second law yields:

m ( d(n+2) - 2 d(n+1) + d(n) ) = m g - c ( d(n+1) d(n) )
Thus:

g n d
m
c
n d
m
c
n d = |
.
|

\
|
+ + |
.
|

\
|
+ + ) ( 1 ) 1 ( 2 ) 2 (

The above is a 2
nd
-order, linear non-homogeneous discrete dynamical system.


Example: Consider a spring of length l
0
. A mass m is attached at the end of the spring
which stretches a distance l (from its original position) and achieves equilibrium. The
spring is suddenly stretched and released. Model the motion of the mass by constructing
a discrete dynamical system. Examine the cases: i) no damping force; ii) damping force.
Solution: At the initial equilibrium position, the weight m g is balanced by the
restoring force which is proportional to the distance the spring is stretched beyond its
equilibrium point (Hookes Law).

:
Therefore: m g = k l where k denotes the spring constant.

Let d(n) denote the displacement beyond the previous equilibrium point at the n
th
time
interval.

Case I:
According the Newtons second Law: m a(n) = F
net


Therefore: m a(n) = m g - k ( l + d(n) )

Since a(n) = u(n+ 1) u(n) and u(n) = d(n+ 1) d(n) we get:
a(n) = d(n+ 2) 2 d(n+ 1) + d(n)

Therefore:
m [ d(n+2) 2 d(n+1) + d(n) ] = m g - k ( l + d(n) )
Using m g = k l the above simplifies:

0 ) ( 1 ) 1 ( 2 ) 2 ( = |
.
|

\
|
+ + + + n d
k
m
n d n d
which is a 2
nd
-order homogeneous linear discrete dynamical system.

Case II:
Assume that the system (spring and mass) moves in a fluid which creates a viscous drag
force proportional to the average velocity. So F
d
= c u(n) where c denotes the
damping coefficient. The drag forces always opposes the motion.

According to Newtons second law:

m a(n) = m g - c u(n) - k ( l + d(n) )

Substituting, m g = k l and using expressions for a(n) and u(n) we obstain:

m [ d(n+ 2) 2 d(n+1) + d(n) ] + c [ d(n+1) d(n) ] + k d(n) = 0

which simplifies into:

m d(n+2) + ( c 2m) d(n+1) + (m + k c) d(n) = 0

which is a 2
nd
-order homogeneous linear discrete dynamical system.

If an external force F
ext
is applied, using the above analysis, the model for the motion is:

m d(n+2) + ( c 2m) d(n+1) + (m + k c) d(n) = F
ext


which is a 2
nd
-order non-homogeneous linear discrete dynamical system.








2.2.5 Homework Problems and Projects

Problems

1) Find the general and particular solutions for the discrete dynamical systems:

a(n+2) a(n+1) 6 a(n) = 0, a(0) = 1, a(1) = 2

a(n+2) a(n+ 1) - 12 a(n) = 0, a(0) = 5, a(1) = 10


2) Find the general and particular solutions for the discrete dynamical systems:

a(n+2) + 3 a(n+1) - 4 a(n) = 0, a(0) = 1, a(1) =0

8 a(n+2) - 10 a(n+ 1) 3 a(n) = 0, a(0) =0, a(1) =1



3) Consider the following 2
nd
-order linear discrete dynamical system:
a(n+2) = - a(n+ 1) + 6 a(n), a(0) = a(1) = 1

Find the general and particular solution for the dynamical system
Calculate the limit of the ratio of two successive terms (refer to the
example for the Fibonacci sequence)
How the above limit relates to the roots of the characteristic equation?


4) Find the general and particular solutions for the discrete dynamical systems:

b(n+2) + b(n+ 1) + b(n) / 4 = 0, b(0) = 2, b(1) = 4

16 c(n+ 2) 24 c(n+ 1) + 9 c(n) =0, c(0) = 0, c(1) = 2


5) Solve the following dynamical systems. Find the general and particular solution.
Interpret and graph the long-term behavior of the solution:

a(n + 2) a(n+ 1) + a(n) = 0, a(0) = 0, a(1) =1

a(n+ 2) 4 a(n+1) + 5 a(n) =0, a(0) =0, a(1) =1

4a(n+2) + 4 a(n+1) + 5 a(n) = 0, a(0) =0, a(1) =1


6) Find the general solution to the difference equation

3a(n + 2) - a(n + 1) = n
2
+ n + 1

7) Find the general solution and the particular solution of the non-homogeneous
difference equations ( using the initial conditions)

a(n+ 2) 16 a(n) = n
2


9 a(n+ 2) -12 a(n + 1) + 4 a(n) = 3 n

12 a (n+ 2) + 5 a ( n+ 1) - 2 a (n) = 2n + 5

8) Find the general solution of the following:

a(n + 2) 2 a(n+ 1) - 8 a (n) = 3
n
+ 5
n


a(n+2) - 4 a(n+1) + 13 a(n) = 2 (3)
n
+ 2
n



9) Find the general solution for the following non-homogeneous difference
equations. Use your experience in solving non-homogeneous differential
equations to conjecture appropriate particular solutions:

12 a(n+2) + 5 a(n+1) - 2 a(n) = 2
n
+ n + 6

a(n+2) + 3 a(n+1) + 2 a(n) = 1 + (-2)
n


10) Find the general solution for each of the discrete dynamical systems. Find the
equilibrium point (if it exists). Classify the equilibrium point in each case:

0 ) (
6
1
) 1 (
6
5
) 2 ( = + + + n a n a n a

3 ) (
16
1
) 2 ( = + n a n a

a(n+2) a(n) = 1


a(n+2) + 3 a(n+1) + a(n) = -1



11) Show that the solution to a(n+2) + A a(n+1) + B a(n) = c is

a(k) = a
h
(k) + a where
B A
c
a
+ +
=
1


Assuming that 1 + A + B 0 Justify!!!




12) A box weighing 192 lb falls off a building that is 2000 ft high. Assume that as
the package falls it is subject to a drag force that over small time intervals it is
numerically equal to 12 times the velocity at the beginning of the interval. The
initial velocity is assumed to be zero. Create a discrete dynamical system to model
the motion. Solve the model to determine the vertical displacement of the
package as a function of time. When does the package hits the ground?







Projects:

1) A 64 lb weight is attached to the lower end of a coil spring suspended from the
ceiling stretching it by 8 ft. The resistance in the mass-spring system over small
time intervals is numerically equal to the average velocity on that interval. At time
t =0 the weight is set in motion from a position 2 ft below its equilibrium
position by giving it a downward velocity of 2 ft / sec.
Derive a mathematical model (discrete dynamical system) to describe the
motion. Show all steps of the derivation
Solve the model and obtain an expression of the displacement as a funtion
of time.
Characterize the motion.