MC0063 Discrete Mathematics

1 If Evaluate the following

Solution: (a)

(b)

(C)

Therefore (d)

(e)

2.
prime to n.

(n), the number of integers x such that 1 x < n and relatively

Solution: Let U = {1, 2, , n}. Let p1, p2, , pk be distinct prime divisors of n. Write A1 = {x U / x is divisible by p1}. In general, Ai = {x U / x is divisible by pi}, 1 i k. The integers in U relatively prime to n are those in none of the subsets A1, A2, , Ak. Therefore (n) = | | = |U| |A1 A2 Ak|. If d divides n, then there are n/d multiples of d in U. Therefore |Ai| = Aj| = A2 , |Ai

, |A1

Ak| = . Therefore by the principle of Inclusion and exclusion, (n) = n + . + (-1)k

=n

3. Write short notes on

A. Public key Cryptography B. The R.S.A Cryptosystem Public Key Cryptography The distinguishing technique used in public key cryptography is the use of asymmetric key algorithms, where the key used to encrypt a message is not the same as the key used to decrypt it. Each user has a pair of cryptographic keys a public encryption key and a private decryption key. The publicly available encrypting-key is widely distributed, while the private decrypting-key is known only to the recipient. Messages are encrypted with the recipient's public key and can be decrypted only with the corresponding private key. The keys are related mathematically, but parameters are

chosen so that determining the private key from the public key is prohibitively expensive. The discovery of algorithms that could produce public/private key pairs revolutionized the practice of cryptography beginning in the mid-1970s. In contrast, symmetric-key algorithms, variations of which having been used for thousands of years, use a single secret key which must be shared and kept private by both sender and receiver for both encryption and decryption. To use a symmetric encryption scheme, the sender and receiver must securely share a key in advance. Because symmetric key algorithms are nearly always much less computationally intensive, it is common to exchange a key using a key-exchange algorithm and transmit data using that key and a symmetric key algorithm. PGP and the SSL/TLS family of schemes do this, for instance, and are thus called hybrid cryptosystems. The two main branches of public key cryptography are: Public key encryption: a message encrypted with a recipient's public key cannot be decrypted by anyone except a possessor of the matching private key it is presumed that this will be the owner of that key and the person associated with the public key used. This is used for confidentiality. Digital signatures: a message signed with a sender's private key can be verified by anyone who has access to the sender's public key, thereby proving that the sender had access to the private key (and therefore is likely to be the person associated with the public key used), and the part of the message that has not been tampered with. On the question of authenticity, see also message digest. An analogy to public-key encryption is that of a locked mail box with a mail slot. The mail slot is exposed and accessible to the public; its location (the street address) is in essence the public key. Anyone knowing the street address can go to the door and drop a written message through the slot; however, only the person who possesses the key can open the mailbox and read the message. An analogy for digital signatures is the sealing of an envelope with a personal wax seal. The message can be opened by anyone, but the presence of the seal authenticates the sender. A central problem for use of public-key cryptography is confidence (ideally proof) that a public key is correct, belongs to the person or entity claimed (i.e., is 'authentic'), and has not been tampered with or replaced by a malicious third party. The usual approach to this problem is to use a public-key infrastructure (PKI), in which one or more third parties, known as certificate authorities, certify ownership of key pairs. PGP, in addition to a certificate authority structure, has used a scheme generally called the "web of trust", which decentralizes such authentication of public keys by a central mechanism, substituting individual endorsements of the link between user and public key. No fully satisfactory solution to the public key authentication problem is known The R.S.A Cryptosystem The RSA algorithm is named after Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Len Adleman, who invented it in 1977 [RIVE78]. The basic technique was first discovered in 1973 by Clifford Cocks [COCK73] of CESG (part of the British GCHQ) but this was a secret until 1997. The patent taken out by RSA Labs has expired. The RSA cryptosystem is the most widely-used public key cryptography algorithm in the world. It can be used to encrypt a message without the need to exchange a secret key separately.

The RSA algorithm can be used for both public key encryption and digital signatures. Its security is based on the difficulty of factoring large integers. Party A can send an encrypted message to party B without any prior exchange of secret keys. A just uses B's public key to encrypt the message and B decrypts it using the private key, which only he knows. RSA can also be used to sign a message, so A can sign a message using their private key and B can verify it using A's public key.

4. Proove the given theorem as below:

If S1 = { x1, x2, .. xn} and S2 = {y1, y2, . yn} are any two finite sets with n elements, then the lattices (P(S1), ) and (P(S2), ) are isomorphic. Consequently the Hasse diagrams of these lattices may be drawn identically. Proof: Arrange the sets as known in Fig. 1, so that each element of S1 is directly over the correspondingly numbered element in S2

Let A be a subset of S1 Define f (A) = subset of S2 consisting of all elements that correspond to the

It can be easily seen that f is one one and onto. Also A B if and only if f (A) f (B) for all A, B P(S1). Therefore the lattices (P(S1), ) and (P(S2), ) are isomorphic. Example: Let S = {a, b, c}, T = {2, 3, 5} Define f : P(S) P(T) by f ({a}) = {2}, f ({b}) = {3}, f ({c}) = {5}, f ({a, b}) = {2,3}, f ({b, c}) = {3, 5}, f ({a, c}) = {2, 5} f ({a, b, c}) = {2, 3, 5}, f () = The Boolean lattices (P(S), ) and (P(T) , ) are isomorphic. Note: i) Any finite Boolean algebra has exactly 2n elements for some positive integer n. Also there is a unique (up to isomorphism) Boolean algebra of 2n elements for every n > 0.

ii) From the above theorem, it is clear that the lattice (P(S), ) is completely determined as a poset by the number |S| and does not depend in any way on the nature of the elements in S. iii) Each lattice (P(S) , ) is isomorphic to Bn (n tuples, Boolean Algebra, over {0, 1}) where n = |S| Example : Consider the lattice is a divisor of 6} = { 1, 2, 3, 6} Define f = D6 B2 = { 0, 1} by f (1) = 00, f (2) = 10, f (3) = 01, f (6) = 11 Then f is an isomorphism. These can be represented by a following diagrams

Example i) The lattice D20 ={1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20 } has 6 2 n (for any positive integer n) elements and hence not a Boolean algebra. ii) The lattice D30 = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30} has 23 elements and hence a Boolean algebra. Observe that D30 is isomorphic to B3 (over {0, 1}), where the isomorphism f = D 30 B3 defined by f (1) = 000, f (2) = 100, f (3) = 010, f (5) = 001, f (6) = 110, f (10) = 101, f (15) = 011, f (30) = 111. Note To draw the Hasse diagram for Bn (n tuples over {0, 1}) we join two n tuples if they differ by exactly are component.

5.Evaluate