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Grof, Michael Washburn, etc., is almost entirely dependent on the theoretical ideas of Jung. Any evaluation of Jungs work needs to take into account the breadth of his scholarship and vision. Besides his medical training and life-long clinical work, he was also influenced by such disparate fields as the paranormal, gnosticism, Taoism and medieval alchemy. Strange as these interests may be, they reflect Jungs belief that modern psychotherapy was really only a re-discovery of what was a proven ancient tradition. Some of his other major concepts include:- the collective unconscious, the "complex", the model of the psyche, archetypes and symbols, psychological types, introversion and extraversion, individuation, synchronicity, etc. Jung's major writings include: The Psychology of the Unconscious (1917); Psychological Types (1921); Modern Man in Search Of A Soul (1933); Psychology and Alchemy (1944); Answer to Job (1952); Memories, Dreams and Reflections (1961); Man and His Symbols (1964).
completed his Ph.D. thesis on counselling psychology under the supervision of Paul Tillich. Influenced by his own experience of fighting the illness, and his study of european philosophy, he argued that human nature can only be understood by focussing on the individual's subjective experience. He felt that anxiety was the key to selfhood, since it sets us in search of ourselves. He emphasized the central role of freedom, choice and responsibility in human existence, and proposed that the authentic self was only experienced when we assert ourselves take a stand against what we find unacceptable. One illustration of the tension between his ideas and those of Rogers is over "the problem of evil", published in an open letter to Rogers (J. Hum. Psychol., 1982). For Rogers, evil was the result of cultural influences, the human being is " . . essentially constructive in their fundamental nature, but damaged by their experience." In contrast, May proposes that the evil in our culture is the reflection of evil in ourselves, as well as vice versa. The individual's autonomy is achieved not by avoiding evil, but by directly confronting it. The human being is an organized set of potentialities, which are the source both of our constructive (i.e. good) and our destructive (i.e. evil) impulses. In a dialogue with Martin Buber at the University of Michigan in 1951, moderated by Maurice Friedman, Rogers had said, "Man is basically good", to which Buber had answered "Man is basically good - and evil", a sentiment that May, as well as Carl Jung and Erich Fromm would have shared. For May, there is a real danger that the humanistic movement colludes with human narcissism in failing to confront the issues of evil in ourselves, our society and world. May does not mince words with Rogers when he concludes:- "Life to me, is not a requirement to live out a preordained pattern of goodness, but a challenge coming down through the centuries out of the fact that each of us can throw the lever toward good or toward evil." May's major writings include: The Art of Counselling, 1939, 1989; The Meaning of Anxiety, 1950; Man's Search for Himself, 1953; Existential Psychology, 1960; Psychology and the Human Dilemma, 1967; Love and Will, 1969; Power and Innocence: A search for the sources of violence, 1972; The Courage to Create, 1975; The Cry for Myth, 1991.
approach to psychotherapy. He was born in Indiana in 1915, and educated Texas West Stae College and George Peabody College, and completed the doctoral program in clinical psychology at Ohio State University in 1948. Between 1948 and 1955, he taught at the University of California at Los Angeles, but became so disillusioned with the infighting and resistance to humanistic psychology he resigned., and became a full-time psychotherapist. Bugental was the first president of the Association for Humanistic Psychology (1962-63), he published a manifesto for the new force entitled "Humanistic Psychology: A new breakthrough", his leadership was critical in directing the new association in a positive direction. He helped to organize the conference at Old Saybrooke in 1964. Bugentals vision was that humankind was on the verge of a new era because of the emergence of the new paradigm, and that would foster a new evolution of human consciousness. This paradigm viewed the person holistically, rejected the medical model as a guiding principle for psychotherapy, and saw practitioners rather than researchers as pioneers in advancing psychological knowledge. In his practice, although influenced by psychoanalytical thinking, Bugental adopts an existential perspective, understanding the person in terms of intentionality rather than causality, and subjectivity rather than drive theory. He regards psychotherapy as a "philosophic venture", not be seen as the treatment of an illness, but "a daring to confront self and world" (1965). He saw psychotherapy as a struggle, the success of which ultimately depends on the clients willingness to risk reconnecting with his or her "inner sensing." Bugentals major writings include: The Search for Authenticity: An existential-analytic approach to psychotherapy, 1965; The Art of the Psychotherapist, 1987; Intimate Journeys: Stories from life-changing therapy, 1990.
many regard as having occupied a key position on the periphery of the humanistic movement. He studied psychology and sociology at the Universities of Heidelberg, Frankfurt and Munich, and in 1927, began a psychoanalytic training at the Psychoanalytic Institute in Berlin, with Hans Sachs and Theodore Reik. In 1929, he joined the Institute for Social Research (the neo-marxist oriented Frankfurt School), where he worked with Max Horkheimer and Herbert Marcuse. In 1933, he went to the United States at the invitation of the Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute, eventualy moving to New York a year later. During this time, he worked with Karen Horney and met up with Abraham Maslow. He set up a private practice in psychoanalysis, and later in his career he divided his time between the National University in Mexico City and New York University. Fromm saw human life as basically a contradiction because we are both a part of nature and separate from it, we are both animal and human being. Out of this arises five basic existential needs:- relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, identity and frame of orientation. Fromm proposed the idea of social character as a mediating process by which the individual is unconsciously molded by the social and economic order. Particular character types develop to fit into the roles and functions that the society requires. In Western culture, five basic types are found:- receptive, exploitative, hoarding, marketing and productive. Fromm's major writings include: Escape from Freedom, 1941; Man for Himself, 1947; The Forgotten Language, 1951; The Art of Loving, 1956; Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism, 1960; The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, 1973; To Have or To Be, 1976.
his followers, and during the 20's and 30's began to develop his own theory and methods. Only in the 50's and 60's was his work recognized outside of Italy. During his education he was encouraged to read and travel extensively, and was deeply versed in the philosophy and spiritual practices of both the Eastern and Western cultures. Assagioli placed high value on human intuition, creative thought and inspiration, and he argued that therapy should be as much concerned with studying the higher unconscious (supercosciousness) as it was studying the depths of the unconscious. He argued that the individual can integrate the seemingly different and conflicting parts of the self when they are able to engage in inner work with ease. Achieving our individual purposes, honouring our true self, will bring psychological health and spiritual fulfillment. Psychosynthesis methods include:- creative visualization, fantasy, free drawing, sub-personalities, training the will, meditation, interpersonal and group work, etc. Assagioli's writings include: Psychosynthesis: A manual of principles and techniques, 1965; The Act Of Will, 1974; Transpersonal Development: The dimension beyond psychosynthesis, 1988.
behaviour. Gestalt therapy emphasises:- the holistic principle that human beings are unified organisms and always function as wholes; the principle of homeostasis, and balance of opposites; here-and-now awareness; reponsibility for self, and the existential choices that we make for ourselves. Gestalt techniques include:- the empty chair, dream work, experimentation, unfinished business, etc. Perls' writings include: Ego, Hunger and Aggression, 1947; Gestalt Therapy Verbatim, 1969.
University. He was a severe critic of modern psychiatric practice and the medical intervention with mental illness. He proposed that psychiatric illness was largely the consequence of social conditions, such as family dynamics, pathological communication, intolerable social pressures, or failure to conform to the dominant model of social reality in force. He pioneered the running of therapeutic communities where patients could "go with" their illness experience, without the intervention of drugs, ECT, psychosurgery, etc. He was greatly influenced by Existential philosophy and Phenomenology. The great store he placed on subjective experience, and the special qualities of the "I -Thou" relationship in the therapeutic alliance, place him squarely within any Humanistic-Existential approach to psychology. Laing is perhaps most insightful when describing the therapeutic relationship. He saw psychotherapy as, " . . an obstinate attempt of two people to recover the wholeness of being human through the relationship between them." He felt that the idea of therapy springs from the hope that authentic meeting between human beings is still possible, and observed that therapy involves:- " . . a partaking of the sacrament of every present moment - that is the healing factor." Laing's major writings include: The Divided Self, 1959; Self and Others, 1961; Sanity Madness and theFamily, 1973; The Politics of Experience, 1967; The Voice of Experience, 1983.
on another, seemed so utterly meaningless, and it was this meaninglessness that was so difficult to bear. Those who did survive created and held onto meaning in simple, often trivial ways. He, himself, found meaning in helping others rather than concentrating on his own survival, pain and distress. Frankl saw that each person's suffering is unique, and opportunity for growth lies in the way the person bears their suffering. Logotherapy is an attempt to implement that insight in a therapeutic context. Frankl had been strongly influenced by the existential philosophers, Heidegger and Jaspers, and began to develop a philosophy of his own. As the titles of his many popular books suggest, Logotherapy is concerned basically with meaning, the will to meaning, the unheard cry for meaning. Finding meaning for life is central to individual growth and wellbeing. The search for meaning in one's life is the primary motivational force. A human being is not determined, but rather determines themself. We are free, however harsh the circumstances, to give meaning to our lives. Ultimately, Logotherapy is a therapy that seeks to bring to awareness the unconscious spiritual factors of the human personality. Frankl's major writings include: Man's Search for Meaning, 1963; Psychotherapy and Existentialism, 1967; The Will to Meaning, 1981; The Unheard Cry for Meaning: Psychotherapy and Humanism, 1987.
Hillman wrote Re-Visioning Psychology, which emphasized a psychology of soul through a long celebration of its historical champions (people like Marsilio Ficino, Giordano Bruno, and Giambattista Vico). He has especially looked to classical myths for a polytheistic way of reading the psyche that involves a way of living that is multiple-minded rather than singleminded, that is fragmented rather than holistic in perspective, and is archetypal rather than moralistic. The soul, according to Hillman, is the proper subject matter of psychology. The soul lies hidden behind our routines, dogmas and beliefs, and is more likely to emerge in those chaotic, pathological moments when we experience the disintegration of our beliefs, values and security. Psychopathology is our most valuable ally, and is the primary vehicle through which soulfulness is achieved. He agrees with Otto Rank that there is an intimate connection between psychopathology and creativity. Hillman regards the soul as the imaginative possibility of our human nature. The soul makes all meaning possible, and turns events into experiences. Furthermore, Hillman sees the goal of psychology as the deepening of meaning and experience per se. But he is concerned less with the psyche of humanity and more with the soul that is at the heart of world. Nevertheless, he is critical of contemporary humanistic psychology, particularly with respect to the notions of the unity and essential "health" of the self, and the focus on self-actualization and spirituality at the expense of the chaos, multiplicity and the disintegrative aspects of the soul and the world (1975). In 1978, he moved back to Dallas, in the United States, and later to Thompson, Connecticut, where he continues as the publisher and editor of Spring Publications. He has held teaching positions at Yale University, Syracuse University, the University of Chicago and the University of Dallas. Hillman's major writings include: Re-Visioning Psychology, 1975; Healing Fiction, 1983; Weve Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy and the Worlds Getting Worse (with Michael Ventura), 1992; The Souls Code, 1996; The Force of Character, 1999.
positivist science. He quickly became absorbed in Eastern philosophy and religion, and is a practitioner of Zen meditation. He is a prolific writer, demonstrating a remarkable capacity to integrate and synthesize across disciplinary boundaries. His theories of consciousness and transpersonal experience encompass psychology, philosophy, Eastern and Western religions, mysticism, evolution, sociology, anthropology and postmodern thought. His key ideas and concepts include: the spectrum of consciousness, pre/trans fallacy, Levels: Personal/Centaur/Subtle/Causal. His most recent focus has been in the development of a possible fifth force in psychology: integral psychology. Major writings by Wilber include: The Spectrum of Consciousness, 1977; The Atman Project, 1980; No Boundary, 1981; Up From Eden: A transpersonal view of human evolution, 1981; Eye to Eye: The quest for the new paradigm, 1983; A Brief History of Everything, 1996; The Marriage of Sense and Soul, 1998; Integral Psychology: Consciousness, spirit, psychology, therapy, 2000.