The Solar System Project

Report (1)
Intro:

It’s obviously that every single day the main sources of power are going
more expensive than ever “oil, gas, nuclear power …etc”, so the main
objective nowadays is to find a good replacement for such a problem

PV Idea:

Photovoltaic cell (PV) is used to convert directly the solar radiation into
electricity
-The PV cells are usually connected in series and parallel to construct a
PV module
-The PV modules once more are connected in series and parallel to form a
PV generator in order to produce higher power.
Photo: This is the Greek word of Light.
Volt: it is the voltage we can get after we make it in a circuit.

Photovoltaic power conditioning units are used to supply electrical power

to appliances of different voltage forms (Dc or AC) such as the public
electricity grid, telecommunication stations on highways, houses or
villages appliances, and solar boot, etc…

DC/DC Converter Module used to provide a regulated current and a

regulated voltage with very small voltage ripples at the consumer
terminals. It should provide high efficiency over the desired voltage
range, as well as consider the characteristics of the other different
modules (MPP, power supply and battery controller. DSP-Kits are a
microprocessor unit. Its basic task is to control the DC/DC converter.

Electricity generation using photovoltaic’s (PV) represents an alternative

solution for clean energy source. Especially if the continuous increase of
the oil prices and the escalation of the environmental problems are
continued. Therefore, PV as renewable energy source with the energy
efficient Light emitting diodes LED diodes are of high interest.
When the Sunlight hits the
“n-type surface” it will generate
Kind of “-“and “+” voltage which
We need to use in our devices

It’s a simple example of how it work

But we need some more researches
For that.
So we will start from the beginning, what
We can call solar cells for dummies…

Energy received from the solar cells is used to power the system during
sun-on periods, and to recharge the battery pack for sun-off periods.
During solar eclipse, the battery is used as the primary power source. The
main power line (connected to the solar cells and battery) feeds into a
number of DC-DC power converters, which provides the necessary supply
voltages for the electronics.

Electrical
Photovoltaic
Light Energy IN Energy OUT
Cells Conversion
Photovoltaic Panels cells are made up
Of two thin layers usually made from
Silicon which is small amounts of
Substances. The first layer is called the
P-type layer created by treating
Silicon with small amounts of Boron that
Causes a shortage of electrons and
a positive charge. The second layer is
Called the n-type layer that is treated with
Phosphorous creating a surplus of electrons
And therefore a negative charge.
The barrier between these two layers is called
The p-n junction. When light energy is
Applied, the electrons are given enough energy to
Move across this junction.

Explanation step by step:

Radiant energy passes through a glass cover and an anti-reflective

coating
Inside the cell itself we got a silicon sandwich, this is the working part of
the PV cell, the silicon atoms are arranged in a cubic pattern. The top
“n-layer” of silicon has electrons to spare; the bottom “p-layer” is missing
electrons. So in general it has electron holes.
The cell has a positive side and a negative side, just like a battery. A
permanent electrical field called a “junction” separates the tow layers.
Electrons can flow through the junction from the p-layer to the n-layer,
but not the other way.
When a photon of sunlight hits the n-layer, it knocks an electron free.
These electrons stay in the n-layer. When a photon of sunlight hits an
atom in the p-layer, it knocks an electron free. These electrons easily
cross into the n-layer.
Extra electrons accumulate in the n-layer. A metal wire attached to this
layer gives the electrons someplace to go. They enter a DC electrical
circuit.
Electrons flow from the negative side of the cell, through the circuit, and
renter the cell at the positive side. As long as sunlight is corning in, the
electrical current will keep flowing.

The current delivers electrical energy to a load for instance.

So for example:
If we use a light bulb, the current will give us the light we need, and if we
put more efficient fluorescent bulb in our circuit, the same amount of
power will give us five times more light.
Any power we don’t use can go towards reaching a battery. The battery
will push electrons through the circuit after the sun has set.

Sensors Battery Battery

DC-DC
Convertors

An Electrical
Device
The Project Side:

We need to design a system with the next features :

The ability to transfer the Light energy into a useful electrical energy,
and after we understand the physical part, we can start with the Circuit
and we will need the following steps for that:

-Solar panels (The Cells) or the PV transformers.

-The DC-DC convert.
-A Rechargeable Batteries.
-A Battery Sensors, to detect the Full Charge and the Low Charge
situations, and start the charging process automatically, and when we
got a full charge it has to start to get the energy we need directly from
the cells to the circuit no need to use the battery, but we can't detect
any sun light the same sensors will be in charge to turn on the batteries
to get the energy amount we need .

Project objective
Design and implementation of a controller with the following
specifications:
- Over charge and Low charge protection of the battery.
 Light bulb (energy hog because houses
60-100 watts have lots of lights, and it's easy to leave
them on when they're not being used)
Fans
100 watts Floor fan or box fan (high speed)
Ceiling fan (Bigger fans and faster
speeds use more energy. My 2004 42"
Hampton Bay uses 24/28/42 watts on
15-95 watts low/med/high respectively, according to the
manual. Progress Energy says on high
speed fans use 55/75/95 watts for
36"/48"/52" models respectively.)
Computers
140-330 watts Desktop Computer & 17" CRT
monitor
1-20 watts Desktop Computer & Monitor (in
sleep mode)
120 watts 17" CRT monitor
40 watts 17" LCD monitor
45 watts Laptop computer
 Solar Cells

Solar cells are usually made from silicon, the same material used for
transistors and integrated circuits. The silicon is treated or "doped" so
that when light strikes it electrons are released, so generating an
electric current. There are three basic types of solar cell.
Monocrystalline cells are cut from a single large crystal of silicon whilst
polycrystalline cells are made from a number of crystals. The third type
is the amorphous solar cell.

Amorphous Solar Cells

Amorphous technology is most often seen in small solar panels,

such as those in calculators or garden lamps, although
amorphous panels are increasingly used in larger applications.
They are made by depositing a thin film of silicon onto a sheet
of another material such as steel. The panel is formed as one
piece and the individual cells are not as visible as in other
types. The efficiency of amorphous solar panels is not as high
as those made from individual solar cells, although this has
improved over recent years to the point where they can be
seen as a practical alternative to panels made with crystalline
cells.

Crystalline Solar Cells

Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce solar

panels. As each cell produces a voltage of between 0.5
and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells are needed to produce an open-
circuit voltage of about 20 Volts. This is sufficient to
charge a 12 Volt battery under most conditions. Although
the theoretical efficiency of monocrystalline cells is
slightly higher than that of polycrystalline cells, there is
little practical difference in performance.
 Solar Power Batteries

In stand-alone systems, the power generated by the solar panels is

usually used to charge a lead-acid battery. Other types of battery such
as nickel-cadmium batteries may be used, but the advantages of the lead-
acid battery ensure that it is still the most popular choice. A battery is
composed of individual cells; each cell in a lead-acid battery produces a
voltage of about 2 Volts DC, so a 12 Volt battery needs 6 cells. The
capacity of a battery is measured in Ampere-hours or Amp-hours (Ah).

Battery Types

The number of times a battery can be discharged is

known as its cycle life, and this is what determines its
suitability for use with solar cells. Car batteries are the
most common type of lead-acid battery, but will survive
only 5 or 10 cycles so are unsuitable for our purposes.
For solar applications a battery needs to be capable of
being discharged hundreds or even thousands of times.
This type of battery is known as a deep-cycle battery, and some of the
many different types are explained here.

Leisure Batteries

Leisure batteries or caravan batteries are usually the

cheapest type of deep-cycle battery. They look similar to a
car battery but have a different plate construction. Their
capacity is normally in the range of 60 to 120 Ah at 12
Volts, making them most suitable for smaller systems. The
cycle life of leisure batteries is limited to a few hundred cycles, meaning
that they are most suitable for systems which will not be used every day,
such as those in caravans or holiday homes.
 Traction Batteries

The term traction battery relates to all batteries

used to power electric vehicles. This can mean
anything from a mobility scooter to a fork-lift
truck, so encompasses capacities from 30 or 40 Ah
to many hundreds. The smaller traction batteries
are usually 6 or 12 Volt units, where the largest
are single 2 Volt cells. Traction batteries are ideal for solar power
applications, as they are intended to be fully discharged and recharged
daily. The larger traction batteries can withstand thousands of discharge
cycles. There are also batteries known as semi-traction batteries, which
can be thought of as higher quality leisure batteries, exhibiting a greater
cycle life. Marine batteries also fall into this category.

Sealed Batteries

There are many types of sealed lead-acid batteries,

ranging from those of 1 or 2 Ah to single cell traction
batteries of hundreds of Amp-hours. The advantages
of sealed batteries are obvious; they need no
maintenance and are spill-proof. They do have
disadvantages however; they are more expensive than
other battery types, they require more accurate charging control and can
have a shorter life, especially at high temperatures. Sealed batteries are
most appropriate where the solar power system will need to operate for
long periods without maintenance.
 Charge Controllers

Most solar power systems will need a charge controller. The purpose of
this is to ensure that the battery is never overcharged, by diverting
power away from it once it is fully charged. Only if a very small solar
panel such as a battery saver is used to charge a large battery is it
possible to do without a controller. Most charge controllers also
incorporate a low-voltage disconnect function, which prevents the battery
from being damaged by being completely discharged. It does this by
switching off any DC appliances when the battery voltage falls
dangerously low.

Controller Types

Solar charge controllers are specified by the system

voltage they are designed to operate on and the
maximum current they can handle. The system voltage is
usually 12 or 24 Volts, or occasionally 48 Volts. The
maximum current is determined by the number and size of solar panels
used. A single panel would need a controller of between 4 and 6 Amps
rating, while larger arrays may need controllers of 40 Amps or more.
Different settings are needed if sealed batteries are used. The
controller shown is available with ratings of 8, 12, 20 and 30 Amps, and
automatically selects between 12 and 24 Volts.

How it Works

The principle behind a solar

charge controller is simple.
There is a circuit to measure
the battery voltage, which
operates a switch to divert
power away from the battery
when it is fully charged.
Because solar cells are not
damaged by being short or
open-circuits, either of these
methods can be used to stop power reaching the battery. A controller which
short-circuits the panel is known as a shunt regulator, and that which opens
the circuit as a series regulator. Optionally there may also be a switch to
disconnect the power from the appliances or loads when the battery voltage
falls dangerously low.
 Inverters

Many different types of inverter can be used in a solar power system.

There are dedicated inverters for solar power available, but what's
important is that the correct inverter is used for the job it has to do.
This job is converting a certain amount of power from low voltage DC to
230 Volts AC to power mains appliances. The right inverter will deliver
enough power but will be no bigger than necessary, and will have the right
output waveform.

How it Works

Most people are familiar with the idea of a

transformer. A transformer is a device that converts
one voltage into another, so why do we need an
inverter? Well the problem with a transformer is that
it can only work with alternating current or AC. The
power from the battery in a solar power system is direct current or DC.
Roughly, what an inverter does is to turn this DC into AC by rapid
transistorized switching, and then use a transformer to convert it to the
correct AC voltage. Depending on how this is done, the result can be
either a sine wave like the mains or a modified sine wave which
approximates to the mains.

Inverter Types

Inverters come in many different sizes. The

smallest and cheapest, like the one shown, are basic
modified sine wave devices designed to be plugged
into a lighter socket. The top end of the market
provides inverters rated at many kilowatts, with a
sine wave output and additional features such as
generator control. As a rule, a smaller system will use a small inverter to
power exceptional loads, whereas a larger system may have everything
powered from the inverter. The choice of waveform is dependent on the
loads; a modified sine wave inverter is likely to be cheaper and more
efficient, so a sine wave inverter would be chosen only if mains-quality
power is specifically needed, for example for a high-quality sound system.
UK's Heat map
Inverters: How To Choose An Inverter For An Independent Power System

The inverter is one of the most important and most complex components in an independent energy
system. To choose an inverter, you don't have to understand its inner workings, but you should
know some basic functions, capabilities, and limitations. This article gives you some of the
information you'll need to choose the right inverter and use it wisely.

WHY YOU NEED AN INVERTER

Independent electric energy systems are untethered from the electrical utility grid. They vary in
size from tiny yard lights to remote homes, villages, parks, and medical and military facilities.
They also include mobile, portable, and emergency backup systems. Their common bond is the
storage battery, which absorbs and releases energy in the form of direct current (DC) electricity

In contrast, the utility grid supplies you with alternating current (AC) electricity. AC is the
standard form of electricity for anything that "plugs in" to utility power. DC flows in a single
direction. AC alternates its direction many times per second. AC is used for grid service because
it is more practical for long distance transmission.

An inverter converts DC to AC, and also changes the voltage. In other words, it is a power
adapter. It allows a battery-based system to run conventional appliances through conventional
home wiring. There are ways to use DC directly, but for a modern lifestyle, you will need an
inverter for the vast majority, if not all of your loads (loads are devices that use energy).

Incidentally, there is another type of inverter called grid-interactive. It is used to feed solar (or
other renewable) energy into a grid-connected home and to feed excess energy back into the
utility grid. If such a system does not use batteries for backup storage, it is not independent
from the grid, and is not within the scope of this article.

NOT A SIMPLE DEVICE

Outwardly, an inverter looks like a box with one or two switches on it, but inside there is a small
universe of dynamic activity. A modern home inverter must cope with a wide range of loads, from a
single night light to the big surge required to start a well pump or a power tool. The battery
voltage of a solar or wind system can vary as much as 35 percent (with varying state of charge and
activity).

Through all of this, the inverter must regulate the quality of its output within narrow constraints,
with a minimum of power loss. This is no simple task. Additionally, some inverters provide battery
backup charging, and can even feed excess power into the grid.

DEFINE YOUR NEEDS

To choose an inverter, you should first define your needs. Then you need to learn about the
inverters that are available. Inverter manufacturers print everything you need to know on their
specification sheets (commonly called "spec sheets"). Here is a list of the factors that you should
consider.

APPLICATION ENVIRONMENT

Where is the inverter to be used? Inverters are available for use in buildings (including homes),
for recreational vehicles, boats, and portable applications. Will it be connected to the utility grid
in some way? Electrical conventions and safety standards differ for various applications, so don't
improvise.

ELECTRICAL STANDARDS
The DC input voltage must conform to that of the electrical system and battery bank. 12 volts is
no longer the dominant standard for home energy systems, except for very small, simple systems.
24 and 48 volts are the common standards now. A higher voltage system carries less current,
which makes system wiring cheaper and easier.

The inverter's AC output must conform to the conventional power in the region in order to run
locally available appliances. The standard for AC utility service in North America is 115 and 230
volts at a frequency of 60 Hertz (cycles per second). In Europe, South America, and most other
places, it's 220 volts at 50 Hertz.

Safety Certification An inverter should be certified by an independent testing laboratory such as

UL, ETL, CSA, etc., and be stamped accordingly. This is your assurance that it will be safe, will
meet the manufacturer's specifications, and will be approved in an electrical inspection. There are
different design and rating standards for various application environments (buildings, vehicles,
boats, etc.). These also vary from one country to another.

POWER CAPACITY

How much load can an inverter handle? Its power output is rated in watts (watts = amps x volts).
There are three levels of power rating-a continuous rating, a limited-time rating, and a surge
rating. Continuous means the amount of power the inverter can handle for an indefinite period of
hours. When an inverter is rated at a certain number of watts, that number generally refers to its
continuous rating.

The limited-time rating is a higher number of watts that it can handle for a defined period of
time, typically 10 or 20 minutes. The inverter specifications should define these ratings in relation
to ambient temperature (the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere). When the inverter
gets too hot, it will shut off. This will happen more quickly in a hot atmosphere. The third level of
power rating, surge capacity, is critical to its ability to start motors, and is discussed below.

Some inverters are designed to be interconnected or expanded in a modular fashion, in order to

increase their capacity. The most common scheme is to "stack" two inverters. A cable connects
the two inverters to synchronize them so they perform as one unit.

POWER QUALITY -- SINE WAVE vs. "MODIFIED SINE WAVE"

Some inverters produce "cleaner" power than others. Simply stated, "sine wave" is clean; anything
else is dirty. A sine wave has a naturally smooth geometry, like the track of a swinging pendulum.
It is the ideal form of AC power. The utility grid produces sine wave power in its generators and
(normally) delivers it to the customer relatively free of distortion. A sine wave inverter can
deliver cleaner, more stable power than most grid connections.

How clean is a "sine wave"? The manufacturer may use the terms "pure" or "true" to imply a low
degree of distortion. The facts are included in the inverter's specifications. Total harmonic
distortion (THD) lower than 6 percent should satisfy normal home requirements. Look for less
than 3 percent if you have unusually critical electronics, as in a recording studio for example.

Other specs are important too. RMS voltage regulation keeps your lights steady. It should be plus
or minus 5 percent or less. Peak voltage (Vp) regulation needs to be plus or minus 10 percent or
less.

A "modified sine wave" inverter is less expensive, but it produces a distorted square waveform
that resembles the track of a pendulum being slammed back and forth by hammers. In truth, it
isn't a sine wave at all. The misleading term "modified sine wave" was invented by advertising
people. Engineers prefer to call it "modified square wave."

The "modified sine wave" has detrimental effects on many electrical loads. It reduces the energy
efficiency of motors and transformers by 10 to 20 percent. The wasted energy causes abnormal
heat which reduces the reliability and longevity of motors and transformers and other devices,
including some appliances and computers. The choppy waveform confuses some digital timing
devices.

About 5 percent of household appliances simply won't work on modified sine wave power at all. A
buzz will be heard from the speakers of nearly every audio device. An annoying buzz will also be
emitted by some fluorescent lights, ceiling fans, and transformers. Some microwave ovens buzz or
produce less heat. TVs and computers often show rolling lines on the screen. Surge protectors may
overheat and should not be used.

Modified sine wave inverters were tolerated in the 1980s, but since then, true sine wave inverters
have become more efficient and more affordable. Some people compromise by using a modified
wave inverter to run their larger power tools or other occasional heavy loads, and a small sine wave
inverter to run their smaller, more frequent, and more sensitive loads. Modified wave inverters in
renewable energy systems have started fading into history.

EFFICIENCY

It is not possible to convert power without losing some of it (it's like friction). Power is lost in the
form of heat. Efficiency is the ratio of power out to power in, expressed as a percentage. If the
efficiency is 90 percent, 10 percent of the power is lost in the inverter. The efficiency of an
inverter varies with the load. Typically, it will be highest at about two thirds of the inverter's
capacity. This is called its "peak efficiency." The inverter requires some power just to run itself,
so the efficiency of a large inverter will be low when running very small loads.

In a typical home, there are many hours of the day when the electrical load is very low. Under
these conditions, an inverter's efficiency may be around 50 percent or less. The full story is told
by a graph of efficiency vs. load, as published by the inverter manufacturer. This is called the
"efficiency curve." Read these curves carefully. Some manufacturers cheat by starting the curve
at 100 watts or so, not at zero!

Because the efficiency varies with load, don't assume that an inverter with 93 percent peak
efficiency is better than one with 85 percent peak efficiency. If the 85 percent efficient unit is
more efficient at low power levels, it may waste less energy through the course of a typical day.

INTERNAL PROTECTION

An inverter's sensitive components must be well protected against surges from nearby lightning
and static, and from surges that bounce back from motors under overload conditions. It must also
be protected from overloads. Overloads can be caused by a faulty appliance, a wiring fault, or
simply too much load running at one time.

An inverter must include several sensing circuits to shut itself off if it cannot properly serve the
load. It also needs to shut off if the DC supply voltage is too low, due to a low battery state-of-
charge or other weakness in the supply circuit. This protects the batteries from over-discharge
damage, as well as protecting the inverter and the loads. These protective measures are all
standard on inverters that are certified for use in buildings.

INDUCTIVE LOADS and SURGE CAPACITY

Some loads absorb the AC wave's energy with a time delay (like towing a car with a rubber strap).
These are called inductive loads. Motors are the most severely inductive loads. They are found in
well pumps, washing machines, refrigerators, power tools, etc. TVs and microwave ovens are also
inductive loads. Like motors, they draw a surge of power when they start.

If an inverter cannot efficiently feed an inductive load, it may simply shut down instead of
starting the device. If the inverter's surge capacity is marginal, its output voltage will dip during
the surge. This can cause a dimming of the lights in the house, and will sometimes crash a
computer.

Any weakness in the battery and cabling to the inverter will further limit its ability to start a
motor. A battery bank that is undersized, in poor condition, or has corroded connections, can be a
weak link in the power chain. The inverter cables and the battery interconnect cables must be big,
and I mean REALLY big, perhaps the size of a large thumb! The spike of DC current through these
cables is many hundreds of amps at the instant of motor starting. Follow the inverter's instruction
manual when sizing the cables, or you'll cheat yourself. Coat battery connections with a protective
coating to reduce corrosion.

IDLE POWER

Idle power is the consumption of the inverter when it is on, but no loads are running. It is
"wasted" power, so if you expect the inverter to be on for many hours during which there is very
little load (as in most residential situations), you want this to be as low as possible. Typical idle
power ranges from 15 watts to 50 watts for a home-size inverter. An inverter's spec sheet may
describe the inverter's "idle current" in amps. To get watts, just multiply the amps times the DC
voltage of the system.

LOW SWITCHING FREQUENCY vs. HIGH SWITCHING FREQUENCY

There are two ways to build an inverter. Without diving into theory, I'll simply say that there are
differences in weight, cost, surge capacity, idle power, and noise.

A low switching frequency inverter is big and heavy (generally about 20 pounds (10 kg) per
kilowatt), and more expensive. It has the high surge capacity (four to eight times the continuous
capacity) needed to start large motors. Beware of the acoustical buzz that low switching
frequency inverters make. If you install one near a living space, you may be unhappy with the noise.

A high switching frequency inverter is much smaller and lighter (generally about 5 pounds (2.5 kg)
per kilowatt), and also less expensive. It has less surge capacity, typically about two times the
continuous capacity. It produces little or no audible noise. The idle power is generally higher. If
the inverter is oversized for motor starting, its idle power will be higher yet, and may be
prohibitive. Most homes that have a well pump or other motors greater than 1 HP will find a low
switching frequency inverter to be more economical.

Both types of inverter have their virtues. Some people "divide and conquer" by splitting their
loads and using two inverters. This adds a measure of redundancy. If one ever fails, the other one
can serve as backup.

AUTOMATIC ON/OFF

Inverter idling can be a substantial load on a small power system. Most inverters made for home
power systems have automatic load-sensing. The inverter puts out a brief pulse of power about
every second (more or less). When you switch on an AC load, it senses the current draw and turns
itself on. Manufacturers have various names for this feature, including "load demand," "sleep
mode," "power saver," "autostart," and "standby."

Automatic on/off can make life awkward because a tiny load may not trigger the inverter to turn
on or stay on. For example, a washing machine may pause between cycles, with only the timer
running. The timer draws less than 10 watts. The inverter's turn-on "threshold" may be 10 or 15
watts. The inverter shuts off and doesn't come back on until it sees an additional load from some
other appliance. You may have to leave a light on while running the washer.

Some people can't adapt to such situations. Therefore, inverters with automatic on/off also have
an always-on setting. With it, you can run your low-power night lights, your clocks, fax, answering
machine and other tiny loads, without losing continuity. In that case, a good system designer will
add the inverter's idle power into the load calculation (24 hours a day). The cost of the power
system will be higher, but it will meet the expectations of modern living.

PHANTOM LOADS and IDLING LOADS

High tech consumers (most of us Americans) are stuck with gadgets that draw power whenever
they are plugged in. Some of them use power to do nothing at all. An example is a TV with a
remote control. Its electric eye system is on day and night, watching for your signal to turn the
screen on. Every appliance with an external wall-plug transformer uses power even when the
appliance is turned off. These little demons are called "phantom loads" because their power draw
is unexpected, unseen, and easily forgotten.

A similar concern is "idling loads." These are devices that must be on all the time in order to
function when needed. These include smoke detectors, alarm systems, motion detector lights, fax
machines, and answering machines. Central heating systems have a transformer in their
thermostat circuit that stays on all the time. Cordless (rechargeable) appliances draw power even
after their batteries reach a full charge. If in doubt, feel the device. If it's warm, that indicates
wasted energy. How many phantom or idling loads do you have?

There are several ways to cope with phantom and idling loads:
* You may be able to avoid them (in a small cabin or simple-living situation).
* You can minimize their use and disconnect them when not needed, using external switches (such
as switched plug-in strips or receptacles).
* You can work around them by modifying certain equipment to shut off completely (central
heating thermostat circuits, for example).
* You can use some DC appliances.
* You can pay the additional cost for a large enough power system to handle the extra loads plus
the inverter's idle current.
Be careful and honest if you contemplate avoiding all phantom and idling loads. You cannot always
anticipate future needs or human behavior.

POWERING A WATER SUPPLY PUMP

At a remote site, a water well or pressure pump often places the greatest demand on the inverter.
It warrants special consideration. Most pumps draw a very high surge of current during startup.
The inverter must have sufficient surge capacity to handle it while running any other loads that
may be on. It is important to size an inverter sufficiently, especially to handle the starting surge.
Oversize it still further if you want it to start the pump without causing lights to dim or blink. Ask
your supplier for help doing this because inverter manufacturers have not been supplying
sufficient data for sizing in relation to pumps.

In North America, most pumps (especially submersibles) run on 230 volts, while smaller appliances
and lights use 115 volts. To obtain 230 volts from a 115 volt inverter, either use two inverters
"stacked" (if they are designed for that) or use a transformer to step up the voltage.

If you do not already have a pump installed, you can get a 115 volt pump if you don't need more
than 1/2 HP. A water pump contractor will often supply a higher power pump than is needed for a
resource-conserving household. You can request a smaller pump, or it may be feasible (and
economical) to replace an existing pump with a smaller one. You can also consider one of a growing
number of high-effiency DC pumps that are available, to eliminate the load from your inverter.

BATTERY CHARGING FEATURES

Backup battery charging is essential to most renewable energy systems because there are likely to
be occasions when the natural energy supply is insufficient. Some inverters have a built-in battery
charger that will recharge the battery bank whenever power is applied from an AC generator or
from the utility grid (if the batteries are not already charged). This also means that an inverter
can be a complete emergency backup system for on-grid power needs (just add batteries).

A backup battery charger doesn't have to be built into the inverter. Separate chargers are, in
some cases, superior to those built into inverters. This is especially true in the case of low
switching frequency inverters, which tend to require an oversized generator to produce the full
rated charge current.
The specifications that relate to battery charging systems include maximum charging rate (amps)
and AC input power requirements. The best chargers have two or three-stage charge control,
accommodation of different battery types (flooded or sealed), temperature compensation, and
other refinements.

Be careful when sizing a generator to meet the requirements of an inverter/charger. Some

inverters require that the generator be oversized (because of low power factor, which is beyond
the scope of this article). Be sure to get experienced advice on this, or you may be disappointed
by the results.

QUALITY PAYS

A good inverter is an industrial quality device that is proven reliable, certified for safety, and can
last for decades. A cheap inverter may soon end up in the junk pile, and can even be a fire hazard.
Consider your inverter to be a foundation component. Buy a good one that allows for future
expansion of your needs.

YOUR FINAL CHOICE

Choosing an inverter is not a difficult task. Define where it is to be used. Define what type of
loads (appliances) you will be powering. Determine the maximum power the inverter will need to
handle. Is the quality of the power critical? Does size and weight matter? The inverter selection
table will help you to determine what type of inverter is best for you.

Your next step is to learn what inverters are available on the market. Study advertisements and
catalogs, or ask your favorite dealer. It is best to listen to professional advice, and to purchase
your equipment from a trained and experienced dealer/installer. We hope this article helps you
make the right choice.

Batteries Controllers
A charge controller is an essential part of nearly all power systems that charge batteries,
whether the power source is PV, wind, hydro, fuel, or utility grid. Its purpose is to keep your
batteries properly fed and safe for the long term.

The basic functions of a controller are quite simple. Charge controllers block reverse current and
prevent battery overcharge. Some controllers also prevent battery overdischarge, protect from
electrical overload, and/or display battery status and the flow of power. Let's examine each
function individually.
Blocking Reverse Current

Photovoltaic panels work by pumping current through your battery in one direction. At night, the
panels may pass a bit of current in the reverse direction, causing a slight discharge from the
battery. (Our term "battery" represents either a single battery or bank of batteries.) The
potential loss is minor, but it is easy to prevent. Some types of wind and hydro generators also
draw reverse current when they stop (most do not except under fault conditions).

In most controllers, charge current passes through a semiconductor (a transistor) which acts like
a valve to control the current. It is called a "semiconductor" because it passes current only in one
direction. It prevents reverse current without any extra effort or cost.
In some controllers, an electromagnetic coil opens and closes a mechanical switch. This is called a
relay. (You can hear it click on and off.) The relay switches off at night, to block reverse current.

If you are using a PV array only to trickle-charge a battery (a very small array relative to the size
of the battery), then you may not need a charge controller. This is a rare application. An example
is a tiny maintenance module that prevents battery discharge in a parked vehicle but will not
support significant loads. You can install a simple diode in that case, to block reverse current. A
diode used for this purpose is called a "blocking diode."
Preventing Overcharge

When a battery reaches full charge, it can no longer store incoming energy. If energy continues to
be applied at the full rate, the battery voltage gets too high. Water separates into hydrogen and
oxygen and bubbles out rapidly. (It looks like it's boiling so we sometimes call it that, although it's
not actually hot.) There is excessive loss of water, and a chance that the gasses can ignite and
cause a small explosion. The battery will also degrade rapidly and may possibly overheat. Excessive
voltage can also stress your loads (lights, appliances, etc.) or cause your inverter to shut off.

Preventing overcharge is simply a matter of reducing the flow of energy to the battery when the
battery reaches a specific voltage. When the voltage drops due to lower sun intensity or an
increase in electrical usage, the controller again allows the maximum possible charge. This is called
"voltage regulating." It is the most essential function of all charge controllers. The controller
"looks at" the voltage, and regulates the battery charging in response.

Some controllers regulate the flow of energy to the battery by switching the current fully on or
fully off. This is called "on/off control." Others reduce the current gradually. This is called "pulse
width modulation" (PWM). Both methods work well when set properly for your type of battery.

A PWM controller holds the voltage more constant. If it has two-stage regulation, it will first hold
the voltage to a safe maximum for the battery to reach full charge. Then, it will drop the voltage
lower, to sustain a "finish" or "trickle" charge. Two-stage regulating is important for a system
that may experience many days or weeks of excess energy (or little use of energy). It maintains a
full charge but minimizes water loss and stress.

The voltages at which the controller changes the charge rate are called set points. When
determining the ideal set points, there is some compromise between charging quickly before the
sun goes down, and mildly overcharging the battery. The determination of set points depends on
the anticipated patterns of usage, the type of battery, and to some extent, the experience and
philosophy of the system designer or operator. Some controllers have adjustable set points, while
others do not.
Control Set Points vs. Temperature

The ideal set points for charge control vary with a battery's temperature. Some controllers have
a feature called "temperature compensation." When the controller senses a low battery
temperature, it will raise the set points. Otherwise when the battery is cold, it will reduce the
charge too soon. If your batteries are exposed to temperature swings greater than about 30? F
(17? C), compensation is essential.

Some controllers have a temperature sensor built in. Such a controller must be mounted in a place
where the temperature is close to that of the batteries. Better controllers have a remote
temperature probe, on a small cable. The probe should be attached directly to a battery in order
to report its temperature to the controller.

An alternative to automatic temperature compensation is to manually adjust the set points (if
possible) according to the seasons. It may be sufficient to do this only twice a year, in spring and
fall.
Control Set Points vs. Battery Type

The ideal set points for charge controlling depend on the design of the battery. The vast majority
of RE systems use deep-cycle lead-acid batteries of either the flooded type or the sealed type.
Flooded batteries are filled with liquid. These are the standard, economical deep cycle batteries.
Sealed batteries use saturated pads between the plates. They are also called "valve-regulated" or
"absorbed glass mat," or simply "maintenance-free." They need to be regulated to a slightly lower
voltage than flooded batteries or they will dry out and be ruined. Some controllers have a means
to select the type of battery. Never use a controller that is not intended for your type of
battery.

Typical set points for 12 V lead-acid batteries at 77 F (25 C)

(These are typical, presented here only for example.)
High limit (flooded battery): 14.4 V
High limit (sealed battery): 14.0 V
Resume full charge: 13.0 V
Low voltage disconnect: 10.8 V
Reconnect: 12.5 V
Temperature compensation for 12V battery:
-.03 V per C deviation from standard 25 C
Low Voltage Disconnect (LVD)

The deep-cycle batteries used in renewable energy systems are designed to be discharged by
about 80 percent. If they are discharged 100 percent, they are immediately damaged. Imagine a
pot of water boiling on your kitchen stove. The moment it runs dry, the pot overheats. If you wait
until the steaming stops, it is already too late!

Similarly, if you wait until your lights look dim, some battery damage will have already occurred.
Every time this happens, both the capacity and the life of the battery will be reduced by a small
amount. If the battery sits in this overdischarged state for days or weeks at a time, it can be
ruined quickly.

The only way to prevent overdischarge when all else fails, is to disconnect loads (appliances, lights,
etc.), and then to reconnect them only when the voltage has recovered due to some substantial
charging. When overdischarge is approaching, a 12 volt battery drops below 11 volts (a 24 V
battery drops below 22 V).

A low voltage disconnect circuit will disconnect loads at that set point. It will reconnect the loads
only when the battery voltage has substantially recovered due to the accumulation of some charge.
A typical LVD reset point is 13 volts (26 V on a 24 V system).

All modern inverters have LVD built in, even cheap pocket-sized ones. The inverter will turn off to
protect itself and your loads as well as your battery. Normally, an inverter is connected directly to
the batteries, not through the charge controller, because its current draw can be very high, and
because it does not require external LVD.

If you have any DC loads, you should have an LVD. Some charge controllers have one built in. You
can also obtain a separate LVD device. Some LVD systems have a "mercy switch" to let you draw a
minimal amount of energy, at least long enough to find the candles and matches! DC refrigerators
have LVD built in.

If you purchase a charge controller with built-in LVD, make sure that it has enough capacity to
handle your DC loads. For example, let's say you need a charge controller to handle less than 10
amps of charge current, but you have a DC water pressurizing pump that draws 20 amps (for short
periods) plus a 6 amp DC lighting load. A charge controller with a 30 amp LVD would be
appropriate. Don't buy a 10 amp charge controller that has only a 10 or 15 amp load capacity!
Overload Protection

A circuit is overloaded when the current flowing in it is higher than it can safely handle. This can
cause overheating and can even be a fire hazard. Overload can be caused by a fault (short circuit)
in the wiring, or by a faulty appliance (like a frozen water pump). Some charge controllers have
overload protection built in, usually with a push-button reset.

Built-in overload protection can be useful, but most systems require additional protection in the
form of fuses or circuit breakers. If you have a circuit with a wire size for which the safe
carrying capacity (ampacity) is less than the overload limit of the controller, then you must
protect that circuit with a fuse or breaker of a suitably lower amp rating. In any case, follow the
manufacturer's requirements and the National Electrical Code for any external fuse or circuit
breaker requirements.
Displays and Metering

Charge controllers include a variety of possible displays, ranging from a single red light to digital
displays of voltage and current. These indicators are important and useful. Imagine driving across
the country with no instrument panel in your car! A display system can indicate the flow of power
into and out of the system, the approximate state of charge of your battery, and when various
limits are reached.

If you want complete and accurate monitoring however, spend about US$200 for a separate
digital device that includes an amp-hour meter. It acts like an electronic accountant to keep track
of the energy available in your battery. If you have a separate system monitor, then it is not
important to have digital displays in the charge controller itself. Even the cheapest system should
include a voltmeter as a bare minimum indicator of system function and status.
Have It All with a Power Center

If you are installing a system to power a modern home, then you will need safety shutoffs and
interconnections to handle high current. The electrical hardware can be bulky, expensive and
laborious to install. To make things economical and compact, obtain a ready-built "power center."
It can include a charge controller with LVD and digital monitoring as options. This makes it easy
for an electrician to tie in the major system components, and to meet the safety requirements of
the National Electrical Code or your local authorities.
Charge Controllers for Wind and Hydro

A charge controller for a wind-electric or hydro-electric charging system must protect batteries
from overcharge, just like a PV controller. However, a load must be kept on the generator at all
times to prevent overspeed of the turbine. Instead of disconnecting the generator from the
battery (like most PV controllers) it diverts excess energy to a special load that absorbs most of
the power from the generator. That load is usually a heating element, which "burns off" excess
energy as heat. If you can put the heat to good use, fine!
Is It Working?

How do you know if a controller is malfunctioning? Watch your voltmeter as the batteries reach
full charge. Is the voltage reaching (but not exceeding) the appropriate set points for your type
of battery? Use your ears and eyes-are the batteries bubbling severely? Is there a lot of
moisture accumulation on the battery tops? These are signs of possible overcharge. Are you
getting the capacity that you expect from your battery bank? If not, there may be a problem with
your controller, and it may be damaging your batteries.
Conclusion

The control of battery charging is so important that most manufacturers of high quality batteries
(with warranties of five years or longer) specify the requirements for voltage regulation, low
voltage disconnect and temperature compensation. When these limits are not respected, it is
common for batteries to fail after less than one quarter of their normal life expectancy,
regardless of their quality or their cost.

A good charge controller is not expensive in relation to the total cost of a power system. Nor is it
very mysterious. I hope this article has given you the background that you need to make a good
choice of controls for your power system.
 More Information
Photovoltaic modules are so reliable that we forget that things can go wrong! The real world
imposes temperature extremes, lightning and static electricity, moisture and wind stresses, as
well as imperfect manufacturing. Here are some suggestions for testing and troubleshooting.

Selective shading test - If the array is in a parallel or series-parallel configuration, this trick will
help you locate a fault without disconnecting any wiring. Find an object that is large enough to
shade at least 4 cells. (A cowboy hat will do.) Shading just a few cells will drop the module's
output to less than half. With the array connected andworking, monitor the current (or in the case
of a nearby solar pump, just listen to it). Now, shade a portion of one module. You should see the
current should drop noticeably (or the pump should slow down). If the current does NOT drop,
then the module that you are shading is out of the circuit. Look for a fault in the wiring of that
module, or of another module that is wired in series with it.

Fading in the heat

Occasionally somebody complains of reduced array output when the sun is hottest. Heat fade
shows up most severely in battery systems. If the difference between the array voltage and the
battery voltage approaches zero, then current flow can drop nearly to zero. This can also cause a
solar pump to produce less than it should.

The voltage of a PV module normally decreases with temperature rise. PV manufacturers document
this by showing several lines on the IV curve (the graph of amps vs. volts), or by stating it in volts
per degree of deviation from 25?C (77?F). Nominal "12 volt" PV modules are designed to sustain
good current flow all the way to 17 or 18V at 25?C. This allows for voltage drop at higher
temperatures. If heat fade is severe, it MAY be caused by weak PV modules or by any other weak
links in the power chain, including undersized wiring, poor connections and controller losses. Here
are some tests to isolate these factors.

First, you can confirm heat fading by cooling the array with water while the system is operating.
Monitor the current. Does it rise to normal? If so, you need to determine where the voltage drop
is severe. Connect a voltmeter directly to the PV array (or it's combiner box). Disconnect the
array from the controller, in order to read the open circuit voltage. If it is less than 18V (relative
to a 12V configuration), then part or all of the PV array may be defective. The selective shading
test (above) can help you locate weaker modules in an array.

Next, reconnect the array to the system. Under good sunlight, test for voltage drop in the wiring
by measuring the voltage at the array, and then again at the controller input. Note that voltage
drop in wiring will increase in proportion to the current flow. Next, test for drop in the controller
by measuring the voltage at its PV input, and then at its battery terminals. Remember, if the
battery is fully charged, the controller SHOULD drop the voltage. If that is the case, you can
bring down the battery voltage by turning loads on. When the battery is at less than 13.5V
(relative to a 12V system), the controller should allow full current to flow.

If voltage drop occurs at a single point (at a connector or within the controller) then concentrated
heat will result. You may feel it, or see signs of heat damage. If voltage drop is evident at the
loads (dimming lights, low voltage disconnection when batteries are not low) then check for
corroded battery connections (see "Batteries: How to Keep Them Alive" in SunPaper 1, or at our
website).

Burnt terminals
Years of temperature cycling will occasionally cause a screw to loosen, or metal to distort. This
can be caused by poor workmanship and/or inferior materials. Add a touch of oxidation and
corrosion, and you get electrical resistance. Now, keep the current flowing and you get even more
heat. When you repair overheated connections, replace all metal parts that have been severely
oxidized. In worst cases, an electric arc will jump a gap, melting metal and burning insulation to a
char. Charred terminals on PV modules can be bypassed by soldering a wire directly to the metal
strip that leads to the PV cells.

Diode failures

Most PV modules have bypass diodes in the junction boxes, to protect cells from overheating if
there is a sustained partial shade on them. On rare occasions a diode will fail, usually as a result of
lightning. Most often, it will short out and reduce the module's voltage drastically. (A shorted
diode will read near-zero ohms in both directions.) If the module is in a 12V array, there is no
need for the bypass diode so you can remove it. In a 24V array that is unlikely to experience
sustained partial shading, you can remove it. In any other case, replace it with a silicon diode with
an amps rating at or above the module's maximum current, and with a voltage rating of 400V or
more.

Grounding
Lightning and related static discharge is the number one cause of sudden, unexpected failures in
PV systems. Lightning does not have to strike directly to cause damage to sensitive electronic
equipment, such as inverters, controls, radios and entertainment equipment. It can be miles away
and invisible, and still induce high voltage surges in wiring, especially in long lines. Fortunately,
almost all cases of lightning damage can be prevented by proper system grounding. Owners of
independent power systems do not have grounding supplied by the utility company, and often
overlook it until it is too late.

My own customers have reported damage to inverters, charge controllers, DC refrigerators,

fluorescent light ballasts, TVs, pumps, and (rarely) photovoltaic panels. These damages cost many
thousands of $, and ALL reports were from owner-installed systems that were NOT GROUNDED.

GROUNDING means connecting part of your system structure and/or wiring electrically to the
earth. During lightning storms, the clouds build up a static electric charge. This causes
accumulation of the opposite charge in objects on the ground. Objects that are INSULATED from
the earth tend to accumulate the charge more strongly than the surrounding earth. If the
potential difference (voltage) between sky and the object is great enough, lightning will jump the
gap.

Grounding your system does four things: (1) It drains off accumulated charges so that lightning is
NOT HIGHLY ATTRACTED to your system. (2) If lightning does strike, or if a high charge does
build up, your ground connection provides a safe path for discharge directly to the earth rather
than through your wiring. (3) It reduces shock hazard from the higher voltage (AC) parts of your
system, and (4) reduces electrical hum and radio caused by inverters, motors, fluorescent lights
and other devices, and not least . . .

GROUNDING IS REQUIRED by the NATIONAL ELECTRICAL CODE (NEC)(r). Photovoltaic

systems are included in Article 690 of the Code. Low voltage systems are NOT exempt from
grounding requirements or from the NEC.

To achieve effective grounding FOLLOW THESE GUIDELINES:

INSTALL A PROPER GROUNDING SYSTEM:

Minimal grounding is provided by a copper-plated ground rod, usually 8 ft. long, driven into the
earth. This is a minimum proceedure in an area where the ground is moist (electrically conductive).
Where the ground may be dry, especially sandy, or where lightning may be particularly severe,
more rods should be installed, at least 10 feet apart. Connect or "bond" all ground rods together
via bare copper wire (#6 or larger, see the NEC) and bury the wire. Use only approved clamps to
connect wire to rods. If your photovoltaic array is some distance from the house, drive ground
rod(s) near it, and bury bare wire in the trench with the power lines.

Metal water pipes that are buried in the ground are also good to ground to. Purchase connectors
approved for the purpose, and connect ONLY to cold water pipes, NEVER to hot water or gas
pipes. Beware of plastic fittings -- bypass them with copper wire. Iron well casings are super
ground rods. Drill and tap a hole in the casing to get a good bolted connection. If you connect to
more than one grounded object (the more the better) it is essential to electrically bond (wire)
them to each other. Connections made in or near the ground are prone to corrosion, so use proper
bronze or copper connectors. Your ground system is only as good as its weakest electrical
connections.

If your site is rocky and you cannot drive ground rods deeply, bury (as much as feasible) at least
150 feet of bare copper wire. Several pieces radiating outward is best. Try to bury them in areas
that tend to be moist. If you are in a lightning-prone area, bury several hundred feet if you can.
The idea is to make as much electrical contact with the earth as you can, over the broadest area
feasible, preferably contacting moist soil.

You can save money by purchasing used copper wire (not aluminum) from a scrap metal dealer, and
stripping off the insulation (use copper "split bolts" or crimped splices to tie odd pieces together.
If you need to run any power wiring over a distance of 30 feet or more, and are in a high-lightning,
dry or rocky area, run the wires in metal conduit and bond the conduit to your grounding system.

WHAT TO CONNECT TO YOUR GROUND SYSTEM:

GROUND THE METALLIC FRAMEWORK of your PV array. (If your framework is wood, metalically
bond the module frames together, and wire to ground.) Be sure to bolt your ground wires solidly to
the metal so it will not come loose, and inspect it periodically. Also ground antenna masts and wind
generator towers.

GROUND THE NEGATIVE SIDE OF YOUR POWER SYSTEM, but FIRST make the following test
for leakage to ground: Obtain a common "multi-tester". Set it on the highest "milliamp" scale.
Place the negative probe on battery neg. and the positive probe on your ground system. No
reading? Good. Now switch it down to the lowest milli- or microamp scale and try again. If you get
only a few microamps, or zero, THEN GROUND YOUR BATTERY NEGATIVE. If you DID read
leakage to ground, check your system for something on the positive side that may be contacting
earth somehow. (If you read a few microamps to ground, it is probably your meter detecting radio
station signals.)

Connect your DC negative to ground ONLY IN ONE PLACE, at a negative battery connection or
other main negative junction nearby (at a disconnect switch or inverter, for instance. Do NOT
ground negative at the array or at any other points.

GROUND YOUR AC GENERATOR AND INVERTER FRAMES, and AC neutral wires and conduits in
the manner conventional for all AC systems. This protects from shock hazard as well as lightning
damage.

PV ARRAY WIRING should be done with minimum lengths of wire, tucked into the metal
framework, then run through metal conduit. Positive and negative wires should be run together
wherever possible, rather than being some distance apart. This will minimize induction of lightning
surges. Bury long outdoor wire runs instead of running them overhead. Place them in grounded
metal conduit if you feel you need maximum protection.

SURGE PROTECTION DEVICES bypass the high voltages induced by lightning. They are
recommended for additional protection in lightning-prone areas or where good grounding is not
feasible (such as on a dry rocky mountain top), especially if long lines are being run to an array,
pump, antenna, or between buildings. Surge protectors must be special for low voltage systems, so
contact your PV dealer.

SAFETY FIRST!!! If you are uncertain of your ability to wire your system properly, HIRE AN
ELECTRICIAN!

120W Solar Panel Kit £699.99

• High efficiency crystalline cell for “all weather” charging

• Perfect for TV operation, 240v appliances* and for permanent fitting
• Water resistant, robust construction for outdoor use.
• 20 year cell warranty and 10 year module warranty

The 120W panel provides much higher power demands and includes bypass diodes to minimise the
effect of shadows. It delivers maximum power in the smallest module size saving weight and
space. It is supplied with all the necessary cable (5m), connectors and detailed installation
instructions.
The 8Ah (STS01208) Charge controller (sold separately) should be used with this kit to protect
the battery from being overcharged and to prevent reverse current drain.

Specifications
Power: 120watts
Peak Output: 7.93A @ 17.2V
Approx. watt-hours/day** 840
Approx. amp-hours/day** 55.1
Dimensions: 1483x671x35mm
Weight: 11.5kg

* An inverter is required to power or charge 240V appliances – not included

** Based on 7 hours of average daily peak sunlight hours

Price £699.99 VAT included

Reference