Cinecolor Author(s): John Belton Reviewed work(s): Source: Film History, Vol. 12, No.

4, Color Film (2000), pp. 344-357 Published by: Indiana University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3815344 . Accessed: 21/02/2012 16:13
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III

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? Volume12, pp. 344-357, 2000. Copyright JohnLibbey FilmHistory, ISSN: 0892-2160. Printed Malaysia in
I

CinecoIor

John Belton
plantblackand white,as colour productionsrose from54 percent in 1966 to 94 percent in 1970.2 One of the mostintriguing aspectsabout Film they Daily'sspeculationsis justhowfaroffthe mark are. What is fascinatingfor the historianof techand diffunologyabout the invention,innovation, is sion of colour withinthe industry the relatively Theleadingproducing companiesare all emlengthyspan of timethatittook for itto occur.Like ploying some color system in sequences of the developmentof widescreencinema,the history their important productions. Several outof motion picturecolour is a historyof failures, in standingfeatureshave been made entirely detoursand delays. color. Inthis businessof surprises,it is within setbacks, The perceptionof what would take place in that the bounds of possibility color willeventhe field of colour technology in 1930 is clearly the tuallytransplant blackand whitefilm.Even clouded by the recent development of sound. the as todaya silentfeature strikes sound-eduWithin matter fouryears,the industry cona of had cated public as more or less of an oddity, it vertedfrom an all-silentto an all-sound cinema. may come to pass that in the futurea black- Driven the economic interestsof WarnerBros. by and-white subject will appear outdated in and Fox,sound found a solid footholdwithinHolcomparisonwithan all-colorfilm. lywoodfromwhich it quicklyspreadto the restof ... Technicolor,Photocolor, Multicolorand the studios.Butitwas not untilthe late 1950s that the Eastman Sonochrometintedpositivefilms the studiosbegan to investin colourtechnologyare the processesmostgenerallyused incolor in the form of colour laboratoriesat M-G-M, Until to Century-Fox.3 cinematography date .... Theconsensusof WarnerBros., and Twentieth is that before manymonths this period,companies involvedin the innovation informed opinion 50 per cent of all Hollywoodfeatureswill be of colour remained independentof the studios; in theywereserviceproviders searchof customers. usingcolor at least in certainsequences. ..' - Anon., 'Color', The 1930 FilmDailyYearFromthe vantage point of the present, it is clearthatthe adventof soundwas notan accurate book of MotionPictures' model bywhichto predictthe futuredevelopment of of colour.The history colour cannot be written the accordingto the scriptsdeveloped for writing he Film Daily Yearbook's predictions of history sound - or of any othertechnology.The about colourreflectthe technologicalopchief resultof such a comparisoncan only be the in timismof the filmindustry the late tranare. those histories of realisation justhow different sition-to-sound (but pre-Crash) period. a set Eachtechnologyexistswithin different of techof The 'transplanting' black and white by colour would not, alas, occurforanother25 years. Itwas in not until1955 thatproductions colouroutnumJohn Belton teaches film in the English Departberedthose in blackand white;and itwas not until ment at Rutgers University. Address corresponthe late 1960s - and the widespreaddiffusionof dence to 243 Baltic St., Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA. colour television- that colour would finallysup'The industry rapidlybecoming color conis the scious. With majorproblemsof soundsuccessfully solved, the studios and color processesare now bendingtheireffortsto the furtherdevelopment of color cinematography.

Cinecolor345 Cinecolor

345

Fig. 1. William T. Crespinel with the Prizma camera (left) and Nick Musaraca (standing) with a standard black and white camera on location for on The Glorious Adventure (1922). [Photo courtesy of William A. Crespinel.] nological, economic-industrial, and socio-cultural determinants and constraints. And, as a result, the historyof each technology takes a different shape. Yetthe shape that the development of colour motion pictures takes and our understanding of that development necessarily exist within this comparative discourse with the development of sound - within the context of other technologies. The following essay looks at the history of a 'failed' colour process, Cinecolor, and attempts to understand its limited success and ultimate failure by viewing the history of that process within the unique and complex field of forces which governed the uneven and erratic development of motion picture colour. One of the colour processes mentioned by Film Daily in 1930 is Multicolor, a forerunner of Cinecolor. If Cinecolor is the direct descendent of the short-lived Multicolor Process, which was introduced in 1928 but went out of business in 1932, it is also related to Prizmacolor (ca. 1913-1928), which experimented with bi-pack negatives and Duplitized positive release prints (ca. 1919).4 The

chain of developmentsleading to Cinecolor can be traced back even further the developmentof to Kinemacolor(1906-1 91 4).5 Just before its demise, Kinemacolor developed an alternateframe colour printingprocess that eliminatedthe need for special filtersplaced in frontof the projection lens.6 Featuresof this printingprocess seem to have been incorporatedinto the Prizma process, as well as processes for printingMulticolorand Cinecolorfilms. One of the threadswhich linksthese various experimentsin colour technology is William T. whofirstbegan to workforKinemacolor Crespinel, in 1907 and was sent byKinemacolorto United the Statesin 1912. Shortly afterthe demiseof Kinemawhere he color in 1915, Crespineljoined Prizma, for Our Navy (1917) photographed sequences and The Gilded Lily(1921). Crespinelwas the for photographer the firstfull-lengthmoprincipal filmedin colour (inPrizma), GloriThe tion picture ous Adventure (1922), produced by J. Stuart Blacktonand starringLadyDiana Mannersand Afterleaving Prizma, VictorMcLaglen.7 Crespinel

346 worked for Harriscolor. Crespinel'spatent for a 'gate for multiple(i.e. bi-pack)films' became the basis for Multicolor, which was formed in 1928, and whose patents became the cornerstonefor Cinecolor(1932) afterMulticolor wentout of business.8 Thechief objectiveinthe developmentof colour film technology is the productionof a threecolour, 35mm negative and printfilm. Thisgoal was not achieved untilthe 1940s.9 In 1941, Agfacolor introduced'a negative-positiveprocess for This the productionof ... release prints'.10 was a developmentof its 1937-1939 16mm colour rewhichhad itsown versalfilm.)1In 1942, Eastman, film in 1935, introduced 16mm colour reversal a three-colournegative,whichitcalled Kodacolor.'2 EastmanKodak'sworkduringthe war and postwarera on a 35mm negative-positive processculof minated in the introduction an Eastmancolor SafetyFilm, Negative Film,Type5247, and a Print Type5281, in 1950.13 At aroundthe same time, Ansco was developing a colour negative-colour positive process.14To a certain extent, then, the was of widediffusion colourin Hollywood delayed factors- the developmentof colbytechnological our negativeand positivefilm. Prior thisdevelopment,companiessuch as to Technicolorand Cinecolor made do with black and white film. They relied on colour sensitive black and white negativesand printing processes with inwhichcolourdyeswere used in conjunction sensitised black and white positive film stock to generate multiple release prints.The Cinecolor printingprocess, knownas 'dye toning', involves the treating silverimage inthe emulsion(i.e. toning the silver)with mordantswhich enable the emulsion to hold dye. Cinecolor's two silver images, once mordanted,are then dyed in complementary colours (blue/green and red/orange).'5 Technicolor's dye transferand Cinecolor's dye toning processes did work,butthe formerfailed to meet need for an affordablecolour procthe industry's the ess. More importantly, Technicolorprocess additional stress upon the industry'salplaced readyover-burdenedproductionand distribution introduced delays Technicolortechnology systems; of and distribution studiofilms. in the production The viabilityof two-colour Cinecolor, as a to process, lay in its abilityto enable filmmakers

John Belton Its makefilmsin colourcheaplyand simply.16 chief competition duringthe 1930s and 1940s was with the three-colour Technicolor. Technicolor required filmmakers lease itsproprietary, camto three-strip era and to workunderthe supervision special of colour consultantswho set standardsfor set and costume design, set illumination,and other asand pre-production procpects of the production ess. Filmmakerswere often forced to watch rushes in black and white because it Technicolor took Technicolor 'several[four- Ed.]daysto procin ess and delivercolor dailies'.17Filming Techni40 color cost roughly percent morethanfilmingin black and white. Technicolor films could only be and printedin Technicolor labs; these processed labswereregularly booked solidand the company was forcedto turnbusinessaway.'8 to Cinecolor permittedfilmmakers shoot in colour using standardblack and white cameras; the Cinecolor lab could deliver colour rushes within hours;and filmingin Cinecolor twenty-four cost only 20-25 per cent more than filming in was blackand white.Itschief drawback thatitwas a two-colour process, while Technicolorwas a did three-coloursystem.19 (Cinecolor providecolso our consultants,if a producer desired,butconsultants were not required.)20Technicolor's enabled it to cornerthe superiorcolour rendition 'A'filmproduction; in Cinecolor'scost and market secured it dominance in the 'B' filmand flexibility short-filmmarket.But it is Cinecolor's historical association with'B' filmsthat will preventit from eversecuringa solidfootholdin the 'A'market a in that market becomes increasingly important the shifts moreand more to era post-war as Hollywood big-budgetfilmmaking. advance in colour techThe most significant nology duringthe 1920s was the shiftfromtwocolour additive to two-colour subtractive processes. Additiveprocesses, such as Kinemacolor, Prizmacolor and Technicolor Process NumberOne, producecolour by 'adding'two or more differentcolours to one another on the screen duringthe projectionprocess. In Kinemasuccescolor,thiswas accomplishedbyprojecting sive framesof red then green-sensitiveblack and whitepositivefilmthrougha rotatingshuttercontainingred-orangeand blue-greengelatinfilters. the (sometimesmistakThrough phi-phenomenon

Cinecolor

347 347

together. The 'front' negative was on orthochromatic stockand recordedthe bluegreen elementsof the scene; the rear negative, on panchromatic stock, provided 1KC. F1LM$ the red-orange record.23 announces ~ ethe perfection of ABi'.f Crespinel's chief contribution to bi-pack technology was the discovery an orthat thochromatic 'front' negaThe year's most colorful contritive could be successfully art bution to the cinematographic combined with a panchroMulticolor Rainbow Negative calls for no increase in lighling over black on white. Standard cameras used. matic'rear'negativeto genColor and sound on positive film in one complete and reliable erate clear,sharpimages on process. 201 N. OCCIDENTAL BLVD. MULTICOLOR FILMS, Inc. both negatives. He also deLos Angeles, Calif. DUNkirk 5401-2-3 Protected by United States and Foreign Patents veloped a camera gate that held the two negatives in perfect register.The special The for Fig. 2. A trade advertisement Multicolor. 1931 FilmDaily camera gate, which could YearBookof MotionPictures. be installedin any standard referred as 'persistenceof vision'),the two blackand white35mm camera, reliedon a series to enly separate colours appeared to merge or combine of rollerswith crowned surfacesto hold the two on screen. Prizmacolor relied on rotating negativestightly as initially togetherin register theypassed filters in projection but eventuallydeveloped a through gate.24Crespinel the also patented,under process of dyeing successive frames on positive the name of Multicolor,a method for placing the a on prints,thus eliminating need for filtersin pro- soundtracks colourprints, filmcolouringmaThisinnovationwould be crucialto the chine, a 'methodof producingfilmin natural coljection.21 of the Multicolor/Cinecolor our' (a printing and a methodof making development procprocess), esses. coloured photographs(a filmingprocess).25 had Hal Stull ThoughTechnicolor shiftedfroman addiCinematographers Hulland William tive to a subtractive in the early 1920s, it praisedthe Multicolor process process,citingits'compatiwas not until1928 that its two-coloursubtractive bility' withblackand whitefilmingand processing It technology was perfectedthroughthe advent of techniques.26 was notonlycompatiblewithblack imbibition whichsecuredtwo and whitecameras, butthe 'laboratory treatment dye transfer, printing colour recordson a single stripof blackand white of the twinnegatives[was]exactlyidenticalto that positive film. In 1928, Multicolor- which was of black-and-white negatives'.27 rebornas Cinecolorin 1932 - introduced twoa coloursubtractive '... In this printing process, an amazing processthat reliedon a bi-pack amount of control can be exerted over the negative in filmingand on toning and dyeing to film generate colour release printson Duplitized qualitiesof the finishedpicture.Not only can stock.22'Duplitized' stockfeaturedtwo emulsions the overall densityof the printbe varied, as with black-and-white, the color balance but sandwichinga common base; in the Multicolor as well .... The new RainbowNegative ... process,one emulsioncontainsthe blue-greenrecord of the originalscene and the otherthered-orservesto improve color rendition the verynoange record. Multicolor dubbed its bi-pack ticeably, and increasesthe overall sensitivity of the process to exact equalitywith blacknegativethe 'Rainbow Negative'.A double magazine fed two films,emulsionto emulsion,to a speand-white.This makes it possible to handle cial camera gate where they were exposed in Multicolor exactlythe same way as blackr

*,

Rainbow Multicolor Negative

348 348
and-white. that Anything is possible in monochrome is equallypossible in Multicolor with no otherchange thanthe use of Multicolor film and the adjustment the cameragate to acof commodatethe two films [emphasisin original]. No additional lighting is required ... every lightingeffect used in normal production can be used unchanged in Multicolor. Extreme and can high-key low-keylightings be used exactlyas in monochrome,as can every imaginable trickof artisticcamerawork,in... cludingglass shotsand frontminiatures .28 was Multicolor the brainchild producer-diof rectorsRowlandV. Lee and WilliamWorthington who financialback(Lee'sfather-in-law), provided Theyset up shop ing for Crespinel'sexperiments. film lab on Occidental in Paramount'sReal-Art Blvd. in Los Angeles.29 Late in 1928, Lee and Worthington sought additionalfinancial backing from Howard Hughes. Hughes loaned them acquireda 51 per moneyand, as itschiefcreditor, cent interestinthe company.30 Hughesspent $1.5 million buildingand outfittinga state-of-the-art Avenue(thelab could colourlab at 7000 Romaine feet routinely process 1 million of filmperweekand The had a peak capacityof 3 million).31 Multicolor processwas used on a numberof shortsand cartoons and on colour sequences in a handfulof Fox blackand whitefeatures,including Movietone Follies of 1929 (Fox, 1929), The Great Gabbo (Sono-Art, 1929), and Good News (M-G-M, also liststhe followingMulti1930).32 Limbacher color films: Marriedin Hollywood (Fox, 1929), SunnySide Up (Fox 1929), and a short, Goofy Goat (Fox,1931 ).33Accordingto DavidL.Parker, on used Multicolor a seriesoften-minute Universal shorts called Strange as it Seems, which were 'based on John Hix's newspaperfeature docushorts Thirty-nine menting oddities of nature'.34 were released between August 1930 and May 1934.35 BrianCoe refersto Doloresthe Beautiful film'.36 (1932) as 'the last Multicolor lab In 1932, the Multicolor failed, unable to recoup the costs related to its construction.Acthat cordingto Crespinel,'Itwas rumored auditors found itwas costing 70 centsa foot to processfilm afterthe closing sellingfor 7 centsa foot'.37Shortly of the lab, Hughesputupforsale all the lab equip-

John Belton John Belton

mentand, moreimportantly, the patentsowned all Withhis new partner, finLouisville by Multicolor. ancierAlanMcCormick, mostof Crespinel bought the processingequipmentand the basic patents the underlying Multicolor system.38 The Cinecolor process was essentially the same as the Multicolorprocess. As described by AlanGundelfinger, Cinecolor'sTechnical Director, in 1938, the 'bi-packnegativeconsist[ed]of two separate negative films of distinctlydifferenttypes, namelyorthochromatic negative,sensitiveto the blue and green portionsof the spectrum and panchromaticnegative, sensitiveto the entire spectrum ... . [The] orthochromatic on negative... has impregnated the emulsion surfacean orange-reddye whichprevent[ed] all but the orange and red portionsof the spectrum from reaching the panchromatic negativeemulsion.Inthismanner,... the blue and green valued objects [were]recordedon the frontor orthochromatic negativeand the and red valued objects [were] reorange corded on the rear or panchromaticnegative.'39 A standardblackand whitecamerawas used, witha special gate to accommodate the outfitted bi-packnegative.Sincethe distancefromthe lens to the surfaceof the two emulsionsdifferedsomewhatfromthat of the blackand whitesystem,'the lens focus [hadto] be broughtback 0.0045" over thatof blackand whitefocus for maximum sharpness on each negative. To accomplish this, the groundglass used forfocussingbyeye [hadto] be of moved back by insertion a 0.0045" shim,or the lens [had to] be recalibratedto move the focus back 0.0045".'40 Additionaladjustmentsto the camera involved the removal of the '"stripper" shoe at [the]back of [the]main sprocketand reshoe', as well as plac[ing it] with [a] "cutaway" off' the clutch.41 'locking The orange-reddye on the surfaceof the orthochromatic negative was removed after the negativehad been developed, fixed,and washed by immersingit in a solutionof sodium hydrosulphite and sodium bisulphite.The panchromatic negativewas put throughthe same process- not to remove any dyes but to reduce 'differential

Cinecolor Cinecolor

349 349 beard cover must be used; otherwisethe beard comes throughas a blue shadow. No make-upis used on children.'45 Since Cinecolorwas only a two-colourprocess, its colour renditionwas somewhat limited. were advisedto seCameramenand artdirectors lect originalcolours on the basis of the final colours desired. Ina letterto Twentieth Century-Fox, Crespinelwrotethat the followingcolours reproduced withreasonablefidelity(a colour rendition chartfor Cinecolor can be found on the web at simplecom.net/widefilm/oldfilm/cinecolor2.htm): 'All shades of blue, except ultramarine blue and violet blue. Allshades of orange-redand warmyellow. Allshades of brown,gray,and black. To obtain green, the best color to use is a bottlegreen. Bronze, silver,and gold reproduce quitefaithfully. Pinksand magenta do not reproducewell. Neither do greens that have an excessive amountof yellowin them."46 Cameramenat Hal RoachStudiosreportedthat: -22 -22 -22 -Brown -Brown -Cinecolor-Light -Cinecolor 'the successful use of two-color bipack requiresthe most carefulselection of colors in bothsets and wardrobes.... Theuse of pastel colors producethe best results.Excessive use of brilliant colors is to be avoided ... Colors darkerthan the middle range of the scale shouldnotbe used .... Thisis because all dark colorstend to reproduce witha certainsameness, givinga monotoneeffect.... Ingeneral, grays reproducewitha greenishcast, yellow goes orange-brown, reds on the magenta side tend towardsbrown,orange-redsreproduce the brightest ...'47

betweenthe two negatives'(i.e. to shrink shrinkage it to matchthe shrinkageof the orthonegative).42 To achieve proper exposure duringfilming, the cameraman was instructedto use a device called an Illuminometer, which was essentiallya and lightmeterequippedwitha specialset of filters a photroniccell. Once the maximum illumination of the scene was determined, cameramanthen the consulteda 'curvesheet' which providedsettings forthe correctlens stop and shutter openingto use withthat illumination.43 Cinecolor also provided guidelines for the kind of make-up to be used on performers. The numbers refer to special make-up devised for Cinecolorby MaxFactor.
Blond-Female

Grease Paint Face Powder Colour Lining Masque Dermat.Pencil LipRouge DryRouge Brunette-Female GreasePaint Face Powder Colour Lining Masque Dermat.Pencil LipRouge DryRouge
Brunette-Male

-21 -21 -21 -Brown -Brown -Cinecolor-Light -Cinecolor

Grease Paint FacePowder Colour Lining Dermat.Pencil LipRouge DryRouge

Blond-Male

-25 -25 -21 -Brown -Cinecolor-Dark -Cinecolor

same as for Brunette44 Cameramenat studios using Cinecolor recommended that 'make-upshould be on the light side to avoid a red-orangeor sallowappearance. Lip-rougeshould be an orange-red, blue-reds photographingmuch too dark. We have found than pancake and grease to be more satisfactory no make-upis used above No. 25 .... Formen, a

Cinecolorfilms were released on Duplitized filmstock. Duplitized stockhad emulsionson both sides. As a result,the emulsionswere potentially on subjectto scratches.Scratches normalfilmtend to damage the base; scratcheson Duplitized stock damaged the emulsion- the image area. Partof the Cinecolorlab process involvedvarnishing the releaseprints ordertoprotect imagefromthe in the wearand tearof normalprojection. varnishing The was known by the trade name of 'Peerlessing'.

350

John Belton

terhead to Disney,testifying i~'^ ~ ~that'we find that Cinecolor printsstand up verywell under release conditions'.50 Cinecolor started off slowly, competing with three-colourTechnicolor for /4 animation business. Cinecolor was used for some of ,,JZO the Color Classic cartoons produced by the Fleischers ' at Paramountin 1934 and ^/0 f8 for PatPowers' N,"s of production Ub Iwerks'Comicolor Car2 CZa toons ca. 1935 (Disneyhad Technicolorlocked up for colour animation).5' The 'Merrie Melodie'cartoonsefilm ries at Warner Bros. also Fig. 3. Duplitized stock.Twoemulsions(#13-1 4) sandwicha common base (#15). used Cinecolorin 1934, includingtitlessuch as HoneyCinecolor promoted this treatment of release moon Hotel and Beauty and the Beast (both of 1934).52 prints.InDecember 1941, to accompanyprints With financing from G. Brashears& Co., a Cinecolorfilmcalled Evergreen for exPlayland, Cinecolorsent the followingmemo to the Cinecolor slowly expanded its operations in the ample, mid-1930s, thoughthe processwas stillused only managersof filmexchanges: for short films. On 31 August 1937, Cinecolor Film is 'Thisprint made on Eastman Duplitized a contractwithWarnerBros.for and has an emulsionon each side of the base. signed one-year 828,759 feet of film for shorts and processing Thisprinthas been Peerlessedand waxed .... travelogues;Warnersagreed to buy at least 75 of will Withpropercare Duplitized prints outlast prints 13 totaltitlesin Cinecolor.53 In 1939, Cinecolor opened a new colour blackand whiteprints.'48 in Funds forthe purchaseof a laboratory Burbank. were raisedby A few years later, worryingthat Cinecolor 4.5 acre lotfromactor Gene Autry The for and had a reputation scratching eager to a publicofferingof Cinecolorstock.54 lot was prints on behalf of the durability its only $10,000.55 Butthe buildinghousingthe lab, of get testimonials of which occupied 45,000 square feet, cost release prints, Crespinelwroteto JackDarrroch himfor a lettercom- $1 25,000, whilethe cost of laboratory FoxMovietoneNews to ask equipment faFox had was over $1 50,000. The new,air-conditioned menting on Cinecolor print durability. a whichincludeda patentresearchlibrary, been usingCinecoloron a seriesof shortsmade in cilities, darkrooms, a a 1942, includingL. C. Thaw'sIndiathe Goddess technicallibrary, researchroom, and Gateway to Asia, Valleyof Blossoms, Royal projectionroom, rooms for camera unloading, Araby,as wellas Turkey Opens the Door. Included negative polishing, printing,inspection, positive froma filmexchange cutting,waxing,optical printing, withthe requestwas a report shipping,and a noting that Cinecolor printsthat had been run 14,000 squarefoot processingroom,were capamore than 400 times were less scratched than ble of handling2 millionfeet of filmperweek and black and white printsthat had seen similarserv- processing500,000 feet of colour positivea day. ice.49A few monthslater,in responseto a request The basement, which was used for storing and from Cinecolor,Sponable sent a note on Foxlet- mixingchemicals, contained '50 vats, rangingin

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351

A. William Crespinel.] Fig.4. The new Cinecolorprocessingplant. [Photocourtesy capacityfrom 1000 to 20,000 gallons'. The plant had itsown waterand emergencypowersupply.56 Withthe opening of this new plant,Cinecolor launcheditsentryintofeaturefilmwork,as well as It its entryintothe 16mm colour market.57 began with Monogram's Gentleman from Arizona (1939/1940), the firstof many Cinecolor Westerns.58Duringthe war years, Cinecolor realised labs to thatthe Technicolor were working capacity forthe majorstudiosand saw an opening for itself in the area of 'B' picturesand filmsfor minorstudios.59(Duringthe war The FilmDaily often rehas portedthatthe demand for Technicolor 'once exceeded the company's abilityto supply again ducer.These includedBeckySharp(1935), Dancing Pirate(1936), A StarisBorn(1937), and Nothing Sacred (1937). These two-colour versions could not come close to the colour qualityof the became Technicolororiginals and unfortunately associated with the Cinecolor name for subsequent generationsof film buffs.In 1944, Cinecolour processed three Mexican films - Asi se Quiereen Jalisco,ChinaPoblana,and TheAdvenIn turesof Pinocchio.62 1945, Cinecolorprovided Forestand Song of the colour for The Enchanted Old Wyoming for Producers Releasing Corp., By doublingitscapacityto meet demand.63 1946, Cinecolorhad graduatedfrom povertyrowto the majors, providingthe colour for an M-G-M 'B' it'.)60Cinecolor's low-budget strategy soon paid off. In 1942, Cinecolor did some work for Fox Western,GallantBess (1946). Thatyear,William of was Movietone(see above) and a colour sequence in T.Crespinel elected president the company, In its Cine- supervising riseto financialprosperity. 1946, TheMoon and Sixpencefor UnitedArtists; re-issues Cinecolor signed a contractwith the Hal Roach coloralso did the colouron Paramount's of two PhilSpitalnyshorts, as well as a series of Studios,which,upon reopeningafterthe war,had commercialfilms made by Castle.6' In 1943, the begun to produceall of its picturesin colour,for a Cinecompanyworkedon two-colourreissuesof three- series of colourcomedies (shortsubjects).64 filmsthathad been sold to Film colorfeaturesreleasedin 1946 includedCaravan colourTechnicolor Death ValColoradoSerenede (PRC), theiroriginalpro- Trail Classics by John Hay Whitney, (PRC),

352 352
ley (ScreenGuild),God's Country (ScreenGuild), TheMichigan (Universal), Kid Romance the West of In and (PRC), WildWest(PRC).65 1947, Cinecolor was used for features by Paramount(Adventure Island)and UnitedArtists (Curley), among others. By 1947, Cinecolorwas also busystriking16mm colour prints 35mm colourfeaturesfordistribuof tion to membersof the armedforces by the Army and Navy,as wellas doing 35mm colourblow-ups of 16mmfilms;the numberofemployeesat the lab had also jumpedfrom 28 at the end of 1941 to 145 as of 15 April 1947.66 In December 1947, CinecolorCEOA. PamBlumenthal FilmDaily told thatthe companyexpectedto process45 features in 1948-fourfor Columbia,eight-ninefor Eaglethreefor PineThomas,and one-each forsevLion, eral other low budget companies.67 In fact, Cinecoloronly processed 19 features in 1948.68 Cinecolordid, however, develop a 'latensification' to process in 1948, enablingfilmmakers shoot in lowerlightlevels.69 the end of the decade, CineBy Cocolor had done colour workfor AlliedArtists, lumbia, Eagle-Lion, Film Classics, M-G-M, Monogram, Paramount, Producers Releasing Twentieth CenCorp., Screen Guild Productions, and UnitedArtists, Universal.70 tury-Fox, AdrianCornwell-Clyne lists, in addition,the followingCinecolortitlesof filmsreleased during this period:Who KilledDoc Robbin(Hal Roach), TwinSombreros (Columbia), Wild Fire (Screen Guild), NorthwestTrail(Screen Guild), Trailto Alaska (Monogram), Scared to Death (Screen Guild), Yosemite (Screen Guild), Here Comes Return Trouble Roach),and Vigilantes (Univer(Hal

John Belton John Belton

'reissue outfit', had earlierbroughtsome colour business to the lab through its 1944 reissue of Whitney's three-colour Technicolor films (see above). Cinecolor purchased Film Classics for 80,000 shares in its own stock and loaned the company$100,000 to help it buildits business.75 Cinecolorassumed FilmClassics would bring in additionalworkfor the lab, but its workas a producer-distributor provedto be low-budget,black At and whiteproduct.76 the same time, Cinecolor's witha productioncompanyviolated involvement one of the basic laws governingthe relation of Hollywoodlabs and their customers. If labs and studios went into business together,the alliance could alienaterivalstudios,whofearedprejudicial treatment.That's one of the chief reasons that neverwentintobusinesswithitsclients Technicolor itwas one of the reasonsthatstudios,such as (and balked at having to lease processes Paramount, like CinemaScope from one its rivals,Twentieth in Century-Fox 1953).77Crespinelobjectedto the of Classicsand, on 12 April1948, acquisition Film retired fromthe company.78 1949, when CineBy color and FilmClassics partedtheirways, Cinecolor had lost money on its investment. The to companycontinued lose moneyuntil1955.79 By thattime CinecolorInc.had changed its name to the ColorCorporation America.By1954, itwas of no longer involved in processing Cinecolor or Supercinecolor prints.80 The last majortechnologicaldevelopmentat of Cinecolorwas the introduction a three-colour in subtractive process, Supercinecolor, 1949/50. at the same time as the introAppearingroughly duction of Eastman'sthree-colournegative and sal).71 Thepost-warperiodprovedto be Cinecolor's positivefilm,Supercinecolor finallyenabled Cinemost successfulyears. From1945 to 1948, sales color to compete in the three-colourmarketplace, rose from$248,244 to $2,908,929, whileprofits but itcame too late to establisha solid footholdin climbedfrom a deficitof $25,607 to earningsof the three-colourmarketwhichwas justbeginning a to to explode. Within few years,everystudiowould paidno dividends $266,204.72 Thecorporation colour negativesand positives, itsstockholders untilSeptember1947, whenearn- be using Eastman were processing them in their own 'proprietary' labs, ings persharewere 12.5 cents; no dividends after that.73However,earningsfell from an and marketingthem as WarnerColor, DeLuxe, paid reliedon AnscoColor etc. all-timehighof $398,351 in 1947 to a net loss of Pathecolor, (Metrocolor in 1949 and its stock fell from $6 to negativesand positives). $373,144 to The term 'Supercinecolor'referred a new $2.50 per share duringthe same period, in large the negatives used as a resultof Cinecolor'sacquisitionof a low three-colourprinting process; part, budget distributor,Film Classics in October in original photographywere the new Eastman From negative,three this as to 1947.74 FilmClassics, referred by Variety a three-colournegatives.81

Cinecolor

353 353

..1 41

Iv
1,t

;T,f:

J I

... 00

.S

for printer professingrelease prints. Fig.5. Cinecolor's35mm two- and three-colour William Crespinel.] A. [Photocourtesy separationmasterpositiveswere produced,bearing the blue, green and red records.82 The green

and the red recordswere step-printed, along with the sound track, simultaneouslyon to opposite

sides of the same sort of Duplitizedpositivefilm Aftera cyan used for two-colourCinecolorprints. and magenta dye toning process similarto that the usedfortwo-colourCinecolor, blue recordwas

354 354

John Belton

fromMars(1953). Fig. 6. JimmyHuntand Helena Carterin WilliamCameronMenzies'sInvaders Frameenlargement. then printed onto the side of the Duplitized positive that carriedthe red recordand dye-tonedyellow, a This producing finishedthree-colour print.83 twomade Supercinecolor stage printing process prints only slightlymore expensive than regular Cinecolor prints thuscheaperthan mostthree-coland our prints.84 Supercinecolorwas one of the first used to printrelease prints fromthe new processes Eastmancolour negative.85 firstfilm released The in Supercinecolor was TheSwordof Monte Cristo which was independentlyproduced for (1951), Twentieth Century-Fox AlpersonProductions.86 by 1951, 65 per cent of the lab was devoted By to work in Supercinecolor, while 35 per cent remained devoted to the old Cinecolor process. Thoughthe lab hopedto process25 filmsinSupercinecolorand 15-20 inCinecolorin 1952, itprocessed fewer than 15 featuresthat year - most of whichwere in Cinecolor.87 Cinecolor,SuperLike cinecolorwas used primarily for'B' pictures,rangfrom Columbia's The RedskinParade, The ing TexasRangers,The BarefootMailman,Hurricane Island,SunnySide of the Streetand Magic Carpet (all 1951) to WarnerBros.'Abbottand Costello Meet Captain Kiddand Jack and the Beanstalk (both 1952). Theexpenseof converting Burbank its plantto three-colour significantlydepleted Cinecolor's workingcapital; its establishment,in conjunction withRadiant Films,of a Cinecolortwo- and threecolour lab in Londonin September1950 also cut into its post-warprofits; the same time, the corat continued to fall, recording poration'searnings losses of $373,144 in 1949, $604,642 in 1950, and $354,097 in 1951.88 In 1952, Cinecolorissued $425,350 of debenturesin part'to replenish its own workingcapital, whichhas been depleted by costs involvedin the conversionof the Burbank On 11 May plant to three-colouroperations'.89 Cinecolor changed its name to the Color 1953, Corporationof America - in part to 'give proown brandname ducer[s]a chance to use [their] for [their] Cinecolor and Supercinecolorproductions'.90Butthe name change - knowingly not or - markedthe end of Cinecoloras a viable force withinthe field of colour motion pictureprocess-

Cinecolor Cinecolor

355 355

ing. In 1954, the Color Corporationof America Notes purchased the Houston Fearless Corp. and, in The ed. 1. JackAlicoate, NewYork: Film Daily,1930. 1955, it bought the Houston Color FilmLab. In 2. Gorham Kindem, 'Hollywood'sConversionto Color: The Technological, Economic, and Aesthetic May 1957, the Color Corporationof America The Factors',TheAmericanMovie Industry: Business itsname to the HoustonFearlessCorp.91 changed of Motion Pictures, ed. Gorham Kindem. Carbonthe post-warera, as average weekly During dale: Southern IllinoisUniversityPress, 1982: 146. attendancefell from90 millionin 1948 to 60 milthe lion in 1950, Hollywood attemptedto re-think 3. Louis Pelegrine, 'Color Progress', The 1956 Film natureof the productit provided.Competingfor Daily Year Book of Motion Pictures, ed. Jack Alicoate. New York:The FilmDaily, 1956: 115. such as customerswithactive leisure-time pursuits 4. and gardening and with passive Ryan, RoderickT., A Historyof Motion PictureColor hunting,fishing Technology. New York: The Focal Press, 1977: entertainment formssuch as television,Hollywood 92-93. entertainredesigned itself as a 'participatory' 5. For a discussion of Kinemacolor, see Gorham Kinment,engaging itsaudienceswithCinerama,3-D, dem, 'The Demise of Kinemacolor',in TheAmerican Colour Movie Industry,ed. Kindem.Carbondale: Southern CinemaScope,stereosound and colour.92 IllinoisUniversityPress, 1982. became an important of thisre-design,differpart 6. Ryan,27-28. entiatingthe new productfromthe old and from blackand whitetelevisionprogramming. 7. Ryan, 92. See also William A. Crespinel, 'Pioneer Days in Color Motion Pictures with William T. Hollywoodsank its fortunesmore and more Crespinel', Film History12, No. 1 (2000): 63-64. intobig-budgetcolourspectacles.Though'B' pic8. See US Patent 1,927,887, 'Gate for MultipleFilms'. turescontinuedto be made - often made in CineAccording to Ryan, bi-pack motion picturefilm was color - they became increasinglymarginalised perfected by P. D. Brewster,ca. 1915-1917. slowly duringthe 1950s, as studio 'B' production to 9. Prior this time, three-colour reversalfilm had been of movedintothe production televisionseries,such developed, but it was difficultto generate multiple printsfrom this material.Technicolorand Cinecolor as the 'WarnerBros. Presents'series (Cheyenne, relied on black and white negative film and the use Sugarfoot, Bronco, ca. 1955-1958). Cinecolor of dyes and black and white positive film in the was slowto adapt itselfto thisnewera. Itcontinued printingprocess. to marketits two-colour process well into 1953 10. 'Colour Cinematography', The Focal Encyclopedia for Film and Television Techniques. Boston: Focal (Invadersfrom Mars, Kansas Pacific,Sabre Jet) Press, 1969: 176. when the restof the industry beginningto rely was more and more on the new Eastman colour proc- 11. Cornwell-Clyne, Adrian. Colour Cinematography. London: Chapman & Hall, 1951: 24. ess for three-colourproduction. Mostimportantly, 12. Cornwell-Clyne, Adrian. Colour Cinematography. in an era in whichany studiocould workcheaply London: Chapman & Hall, 1951: 23, 24. in and efficiently colour,it could not providepro13. Ryan, 148, 152. ducers with a unique product. TechnicolorsurLouis vived, in part, because it quicklyadapted itselfto 14. Film Pelegrine, 'Color Developments', The 1950 Daily Year Book of Motion Pictures, ed. Jack transferrelease printsfrom the new process dye Alicoate. New York:The FilmDaily, 1950: 95. Eastmancolour negativeand, in part,because its 15. Raymond Spottiswoode, Film and Its Techniques. name had been and continuedto be associated of Berkeley:University California Press, 1966: 217. withprestigeproduct.Itwas still'thegreatestname 16. Cinecolor was a subtractive process. It should not in color' and was identified the sortof product with be confused with a British two-colour additive process that was introduced ca. 1925; see Brian Coe, that Hollywoodwanted to make. Burdenedwith The History of Movie Photography, Westfield, NJ: debts and witha 'B' movie past, Cinecolortriedto EastviewEditions:120. Paul Nash writesof a British make itselfover in the early 1950s withthree-colprocess related to the film stock manufacturer,Ilford Ltd.,called Cinecolor and praises its sharpness; see our capabilitiesand a new name ('ColorCorp. of 'The Colour Film' in Footnotes to the Film, ed. America'),but failed. A two-colour process in a Charles Davy, London: Lovat Dickson Ltd.: 1938: three-colourworld, it could not find a place for 125-126. It is presumablythis process that is discussed in an internalFox memo from R. M. Evansto itselfin an industry had finallybecome interthat E. I. Sponable and located in the 'Cinecolor folder' ested in colour in a big way.6 of the Sponable papers. On 3/3/31 (a year before

356 356
Multicolor went out of businessand beforeCinecolor was named Cinecolor),Evanswrote:'They havea typical colour two additive process,usingtwo in film,withtheir pictures each frameof standard axes vertical instead of horizontal,and project with two filter. through lenses,eachcovered a colour Theirpresentapparatus quitecrude,butthe esis sential element, that of rotatingthe axes of the 90 and picture through degreesintaking projection, has been patented them. by of The difficulty course, is the same as with all additive processes,thatit is almostout of the question to get enough lighton the screen.' Box 44, Collection,CoSponable Collection,Manuscript Libraries. lumbiaUniversity Ron Haver,David0. Selznick's New Hollywood. York:AlfredKnopf,1980: 188. See also 'Profit Loss',Time(23 September 1946): 89. through 'Profit throughLoss',Time(23 September1946): 88-89. 'Profit Loss',88-89. through A. William Crespinelreportsthat his fatheroften visitedthe sets and locationsof Cinecolor filmsto with adviseon colourissues. Interview the author, 14 August 2000. in reducedscreenillumination Filters projection by A. as muchas 33 percent.See Robert Nowatny, The A of Wayof all FleshTones: History ColorMotion Picture Processes,1895-1929. NewYork: Garland, 1983: 319. Ryan,100-101. Pictures HalHulland William A.S.C.,'Motion Stull, in Natural Annual,1930, Color',Cinematographic American of Volume One. Hollywood: Society Cine1930; rep. New York: Arno,1972: matographers, of 279. Crespinelrecalled:'The combination an surfacedye a orthofrontnegativecarrying fugitive with 23A equal to a Wratten filterin conjunction a and Mitchell Bell& Howellcamera[to become]a Film colorcamera'.See Crespinel, History potential 12, No. 1 (2000): 68. US See Wm.T. Crespinel's Patent1,927,887 fora Films'. 'GateforMultiple and nos. 1,893,698 ('Method ApSee US Patents in SoundRecords ColorPhotogfor paratus Placing raphy'),1,922,725 ('FilmColoringMachineand of Methodof Coloring 2,009,689 ('Method Film'), in Films Natural Color'),and 2,016,666 Producing ('Colored Photographand Method of Making Same.') bias This discourse reflectsthe anti-Technicolor within Hollywood'scinematography community whichtendedto favourblackand white.Thisissue in morefully ScottHiggins' is discussed 'Technology and Technicolor and Aesthetics: Cinematography 11, Designin the late 1930s', FilmHistory No. 1 (1999): 56-57. Hulland Stull,279. Hulland Stull,280.
panchromatic rear negative ... [enabled] every

John Belton John Belton

29. 30. 68. Crespinel, Noah Dietrichand Bob Thomas, Howard:The Mr. PublicaFawcett Amazing Hughes.Greenwich: tions, 1972: 107. and Ryan,100. Dietrich Thomas,108. Martin Hart's American Widescreen Museum website (simplecom.net/widefilm/oldcolor/oldtest color.htm) postsa colourimagefrom footageof theMarx Bros.rehearsing sceneforAnimal a Crackers (Paramount, 1930). He credits the colour procuncertainas to the specific colour process used here. 33. 34. Limbacher,270. 'Blazing Technicolor', 'Stunning Trucolor', and 'Shocking Eastmancolor', The American Film Heritage Washington, DC: Acropolis Books, 1972: 23. Michael Fitzgerald, Universal Pictures. New York: ArlingtonHouse: 1977.

31. 32.

ess as Multicolor, though many scholarsremain

17.

18. 19. 20.

35.

36. 37. 38. 39.

Brian Westof Coe, TheHistory MoviePhotography. 1981: 128. field,NJ:Eastview Editions,

Crespinel, 69. Crespinel, 69-70. Gundelfinger, 'TechnicalBulletin,No. 9', Cinecolor Research Laboratories, Cinecolor Inc., September 1938. 'Cinecolor folder', Box 44, Sponable Collection, Manuscript Collection, Columbia University Libraries. Gundelfinger, 'Technical BulletinNo. 9'. John Boyle and Benjamin Berg, 'Studio Production withTwo-Color BipackMotion PictureFilm',Journal of the Society of Motion PictureEngineers 48, No.

21.

22. 23.

40. 41.

2 (February 1947): 112.

42.
43. 44. 45.

Gundelfinger, 'Technical ReportNo. 9'. Gundelfinger, 'Technical BulletinNo. 9'.

No. 'Technical Bulletin 9'. Gundelfinger, with and Berg,'Studio Production Two-Color Boyle
48, BipackMotion PictureFilm',JSMPE No. 2 (February1947): 114.

24. 25.

46.

dated2/9/42. 'Cinecolor folder',Box44, Sponable

Memo from WilliamT. Crespinel to E. I. Sponable,

26.

Collection, Columbia UniversityLibraries.In a subsequent letter to Sponable, Crespinel noted that 'green is a difficultcolor to reproduce in any process other than true three-colour. However, bottle and billiardcloth green, firtrees, cactus plants and trees having a dark green leaf, usually reproduce very well. Spring foliage and greens with an excessive amount of yellow do not produce at all well.' Letter dated 5/15/42. 'Cinecolor folder', Box 44, Sponable Collection, Columbia UniversityLibraries. (February1947): 114-115. Boyle and Berg, JSMPE Memo dated 12/22/41. 'Cinecolor folder', Box44, Sponable Collection. Letterdated 4/15/43. 'Cinecolor folder', Box 44, Libraries. Sponable Collection, Columbia University

47. 48.
49.

27. 28.

Cinecolor Cinecolor
50. Letter from Sponableto FredMaguireof Disney, 69. dated 12/13/43. 'Cinecolor folder',Box44, Sponable Collection, Columbia Libraries. University LeslieCabarga, The FleischerStory. New York: 70. NostalgiaPress, 1976: 182. Carbargalists Poor DutchMill (26 Cinderella August1934), Little (3 71. NeverForgets October1934), andAnElephant (28 December 1934). LeonardMaltin,Of Mice and 72. of Animated Cartoons. Magic:A History American NewYork: McGraw 1980: 189-190. Hill, Maltin,224-225. WarnerBros. used Cinecolor of in againfora handful cartoons 1949. See Maltin, 253. 1938. Industrials, Moody's The stock went publicin 1936. See unpublished WilliamT. Crespinelbio providedby William A. Crespinel. with WilliamA. Crespinel,14 Author'sinterview 2000. August 'Cinecolor American CinePlant', Opens Burbank matographer(March 1939): 114-115. Variety different statistics, (3/22/39) gave somewhat noting thatthe new plantcost $250,000 and thatit could a handle720,000 feetof filmpermonth versus prior of capacity 150,000 feet permonth. 330. Cornwell-Clyne, Scorseserecallsthe Cinecolor Martin Westerns he sawas a childwithgreatfondness,referring them to as iftheywerea kindof Western; AndyDougin, see Martin Scorsese(London: OrionMedia,1997: 42). PRC's Cinecolor Westerns Deanhave Eddie starring achieved a certaincult followingamong today's Western buffs. Author'sinterview with WilliamA. Crespinel,14 2000. August See 'SamuelD. Berns,'Colorin 1945,"The 1946 FilmDailyYearBookof MotionPictures, Jack ed. Alicoate.NewYork: FilmDaily,1946: 72. The The 1943 YearBookof MotionPictures, Jack ed. Alicoate.NewYork: FilmDaily. The SamuelD. Berns,'Colorin 1944', The 1945 Film ed. DailyYearBookof MotionPictures, JackAlicoate. NewYork: FilmDaily,1945: 69. The Bern,'Colorin 1945', FilmDailyYearBook.New York: FilmDaily,19445: 72. The 48 Boyleand Berg,JSMPE (February 1947): 111. See Limbacher, 275-276. 1947. London: Moody'sManualof Investments, Service Ltd.,1947. Moody'sInvestors The Wilk,'ColorDevelopments', 1948 Film Ralph ed. DailyYearBookof MotionPictures, JackAlicoate. NewYork: Film The Daily:111. The Wilk,'ColorDevelopments', 1949 Film Ralph ed. DailyYearBookof MotionPictures, JackAlicoate. NewYork: Film The Daily,1949: 91. 83. 73.

357 357
The Wilk,'ColorDevelopments', 1949 Film Ralph NewYork, Pictures. The DailyYearBookof Motion Film Daily,1949: 91. James Limbacher, Aspectsof the Film.New Four 1968: 48-49. York: Brussel Brussel, and 30. Cornwell-Clyne, 'Cinecolor Corp.',The 1951 FilmDailyYearBook ed. of Motion Alicoate. NewYork: Film Pictures, Jack Daily,1951: 930. 1952. London: Moody'sManualof Investments, ServiceLtd.See also 'Houston Moody'sInvestors Fearless DailyYearBookof Corp.',The 1967 Film ed. MotionPictures, CharlesAlicoate.New York, Film Daily:1967: 715. See the 1951 FilmDaily, 930. See also Variety (4/6/49). The Wilk,'ColorDevelopments', 1948 Film Ralph ed. DailyYearBookof MotionPictures, JackAlicoate. NewYork: Film The Daily,1948: 111. (6/15/49). Variety JohnBelton, Widescreen Cinema. HarCambridge: vardUniversity Press,1992: 124 A. interview the author,14 with William Crespinel, 2000. August The 1967 FilmDailyYearBookof Motion Pictures, FilmDaily:1967: ed. Charles Alicoate.New York: 715. Ryan,102. Ryan,104. notesthatat thistimeno panchromatic master Ryan positivefilmwas availableso that the separation material the camefrom original rather than negative froma master positive; Ryan,104. Ryan,104-105. See also Alan M. Gundelfinger, 'Cinecolor Three-Color Journal the Soof Process', Picture Television and 54, cietyof Motion Engineers No. 1 (January 1950): 79-84. Ryan,102. T. Roderick Ryan,conversation the author,2 with 2000. September Ryan,102. 282-284. Limbacher, Funds set upthe British apparently to lab camefrom overseasprofits hadbeenfrozen couldonly that and be spentthere.See also 'Houston Fearless Corp.', 1967 Film DailyYearBook,715. New York Times(3/1/52). 57. Limbacher, Manual Investments, of 1958. Moody's See 'TheLeisured in Masses' chapter myWidescreen Cinema. Cambridge:HarvardUniversity Press, 1992: 69-84.

51.

52.

53. 54.

74. 75.

55. 56.

76. 77. 78. 79.

57. 58.

80. 81. 82.

59. 60.

61. 62.

84. 85. 86. 87. 88.

63. 64. 65. 66. 67.

89. 90. 91. 92.

68.